CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
'Shorebirds' or 'waders' are words used to describe a collection of small (length l2 cm) to
medium sized (length 66 cm) wading birds, which have a wide variety of bill structures
(Hawkins and Howes 1986). Some species are highly migratory, breeding in high
northern latitudes and migrating to the tropics and south of the equator, others are
resident in temperate or tropical regions (Howe 1980).

In more scientific terms, all shorebirds belong to the order Charadriiformes (Jehl
1968; Strauch 1978). The order is sub-divided into 12 families which are distributed
globally (Strauch 1978). There are 214 described species of shorebird, the majority of
these being found in two families; the Charadriidae (Lapwings and Plovers) with 65
species and Scolopacidae (Sandpipers, Snipes and allies) with 88 species (Howes &
Bakewell 1989). The remaining families mostly contain less that ten species and some
(e.g. Dromadidae, Ibidorhynchidae and Pluvianellidae) have a single highly distinctive
representative (A.O.U. 1983). Several classifications of the major shorebird taxa have
been advanced (Jehl 1968; Morony et al. 1975; Cracraft 1981; Johnsgard 1981 & A.O.U.
1983) but few treat the entire group, and none takes all recent information into account.
 4

2.2 Conservation Status

The Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) has established the Kuala Gula
Bird Sanctuary in Matang. The Matang mangrove is the most important staging site for
coastal migratory waterbirds and to a certain extent migrant forest birds (Thompson,
1995; Mundkur et al 1996). In 1985 to 1986, the peak count total of waders numbered
about 14,300 birds in Matang (Wells 1972). An estimated total of 43,000 to 85,000 birds
may make use of the area during migration (DWNP 1987). Forming together a chain with
the Kiang estuary islands and north coast of Selangor, they are estimated to support more
than 50 percent of all shorebirds in the country counted in the 1980s (Munidkur et al,
1996).

Two mangrove islands within the reserves, Pulau Kelumpang (also known as
Storklake-I, 255.0ha) and Pulau Terong (Storklake-II, 129.4ha), support a viable breeding
population of the globally endangered Milky Stork and and approximately 50% of the
Malaysian population of Lesser Adjutant (AWB 1989; DWNP 1987; Parish 1985). Large
breeding colonies of the Black-crowned Night-heron can also be found within the
reserves (Siti and Ismail 1989). No less than five species of egrets and over 100 species
of birds are recorded in the Matang mangroves (DWNP 1987).

The Matang mangroves are made up of 19 independently gazetted Forest

Reserves, which remain as State Government Reserves (Jasmi et al. 1991). Matang
Mangroves represents the largest intact tract of mangrove forest with several semi-
permanent lakes in Peninsular Malaysia and one of the last mangrove areas with all major
habitats and forest types (Silvius et al 1986). The area is also reputed to be the best
managed mangroves in the world and flooded daily during the highest spring tides
 5

The Matang mangroves are classified under the A4i Congregations category for
migratory waterbirds and A1 Globally Threatened Species for the significant presence of
the resident Lesser Adjutant and Milky Stork populations in Malaysia (Yeap et al 2001.)
(Appendixes 2 and 3). The mangroves are one of the largest remaining in the peninsula.
Seventy-eight species of birds have been recorded in Matang (DWNP 1995). It was
created by Gazette Notification under the Forest Laws and managed by the State Forest
Office, Perak, under the general supervision of the Director General of Forestry,
Peninsular Malaysia (Gan 1995). Reserves that mean it are under responsibility of the
State Government on the ‘land matter’.

It was created by Gazette Notification under the Forest Laws and managed by the
State Forest Office, Perak, under the general supervision of the Director General of
Forestry, Peninsular Malaysia (Gan 1995). These reserves include 34,769ha of productive
forest (for harvesting mangrove timber) and 5,942 ha of unproductive forest (which are
classified under Virgin Jungle Reserve, Research Forest, Archeological Reserve, Bird
Sanctuary (e.g. Kuala Gula), Ecotourism Forest, Educational Forest and Seed Stands)
(DWNP 1995).

2.3 Present and Past Status of the Subject

Every year the DWNP made their own ringing and counting data of bird in Kuala Gula
since 1970. The data actually is not for publish but for their own collection and for the
student and researcher only. Wetland International also used Kuala Gula as their places
for counting the waterbird for Asian Waterbird Census 1999-2001 (Li and Mundkur
2004)
 6

2.4 The Importance of Kuala Gula for Bird Conservation

Kuala Gula, on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, lies on the East Asia-Australasian
Flyway (Jasmi 2002) along which migratory shorebirds fly between northern breeding
grounds and wintering areas in the south. During migration, shorebirds face many threats
such as habitat destruction, pollution and hunting. They need suitable habitats and sites
for feeding and to rest during migration. Sites such as Kula Gula where extensive
mudflats and mangrove forest provide food and shelter for shorebirds are therefore vital
for the survival of shorebirds and their long-term conservation. Kuala Gula is a known
site for the globally threatened Spoon-billed Sandpiper, Asian Dowitcher and
Nordmann’s Greenshank (Jasmi 2002).

Kuala Gula is also important for the conservation of other migratory and resident
waterbirds. In the mangroves near Kuala Kurau is a large breeding colony of Black-
crowned Night-Heron (Siti and Ismail 1989). Two mangrove islands, Pulau Kelumpang
and Pulau Terong, have permanently inundated lakes that are important feeding and
roosting sites for many storks, herons and egrets (Samsudin 1989). Two stork species
occur here, the Lesser Adjutant and Milky Stork, both of which are globally threatened
(BirdLife International 2001). The main population of the Milky Stork in Malaysia is
now restricted to the mangroves of Kuala Gula. Other threatened waterbirds found here in
small numbers are Black-headed Ibis, Masked Finfoot and Chinese Egret (Thompson,
1995; Mundkur et al 1996). The mangrove forests of Kuala Gula also provide sanctuary
for the globally threatened Mangrove Pitta, Black-bellied Malkoha, Chestnut-bellied
Malkoha, Jambu Fruit Dove and Cinnamon-headed Green Pigeon (Bird Life International
2001).
 7

Due to the occurrence of large numbers of waterbirds in Kuala Gula and the
presence of several threatened birds in its forests, a ranger station has been set up here by
the Department of Wildlife and National Parks to carry out enforcement as well as
research. In view of its importance for many species of globally threatened birds, Kuala
Gula has been designated an IBA (Important Bird Area) site by the Malaysian Nature
Society (Yeap et al. 2002), in accordance with internationally accepted criteria proposed
for such sites (Appendixes 2 and 3).

2.5 Status of South Asian Wetlands

An estimated one million shorebirds are thought to migrate through the Straits of
Malacca during the annual cycle of migration (Hawkins & Howes 1986). These
migratory bird populations are highly vulnerable to habitat loss along their migration
routes and on their wintering grounds and are dependent on suitable habitats and sites
along the flyway to feed and rest.

Unfortunately, these coastal wetlands are declining rapidly throughout Asia

including Peninsular Malaysia, principally due to coastal reclamation and development
projects. During migration through Asia, shorebird passed through some of the thickest
populated areas, they face many threats. The shorebird population of the flyways in the
Asian region has been estimated as 3 - 5 million birds (Howes and Bakewell 1989).
Sometimes a significant amount of the population of one species may use one site, e.g.,
about 90% of the world population of Asian Dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus is
believed to spend the non-breeding period in south-east Sumatra (Howes and Bakewell
1989). Species like these could hardly threatened by factors such as habitat destruction
that would result in the loss of these vital sites.
 8

The Directory of Asian Wetlands (Anonymous 1992) describes 216 wetlands of

international importance in South Asia. Of the 191 sites for which detailed information is
available, no less than 93% are reported in the directory to be under some threat, and over
50% are considered to be under serious threat, often from several sources.

By the end of 1988, 122 (56.5%) of the sites described in the Directory of Asian
Wetlands (Anonymous 1992) were afforded some form of legal protection, and 70 of
these (32.4%) were wholly protected within a national park, nature reserve or equivalent
reserve. However, the area under strict legal protection amounted to only 13.5% of the
total area described in the Directory. The principal threats are:

Table 2.1 The principle threats to wetlands and its percentages of sites

The principal threats Percentage of

sites
degradation caused by human settlement and encroachment 23%
drainage for agriculture 20%
diversion of water supply for irrigation, domestic or industrial purposes 14%
degradation of catchment areas, soil erosion and increased siltation 25%
pollution form domestic sewage, industfial waste, pesticides & 26%
fertilizers
wood-cutting for domestic use 16%
commercial logging 13%
over-grazing by domestic livestock 27%
over-fishing and associated disturbance 32%
hunting and associated disturbance 39%

Source: Scott and Hussain 1993

 9

Furthermore, the enforcement of protection measures was reported to be poor

almost throughout region (Scott & Hussain 1993), some of the most seriously threatened
wetlands being amongst those supposedly under complete protection (Anonymous 1996).

2.6 Threats to Shorebird Population

Habitat loss is the major threat to biodiversity and habitat protection is the most important
means of conserving biodiversity. Bird's habitats are increasingly affected as human
population expands. This is particularly true for wetlands. Wetlands are in retreat nearly
everywhere they are found (UNEP 1992). Up to 50% of the wetlands which once existed
may have been destroyed or degraded, and many local communities that depend upon
wetlands have been forced to overuse them in face of rapid population growth and
extreme poverty ( Munro and Holdgate 1991). They are often filled in or drained for
development, or altered by channelization of watercourses, dams, and chemical pollution
( Primack 1995).

The major threat to shorebirds in Malaysia is habitat destruction (Lane and Parish
1991, Siti and Ismail 1988). Habitat destruction is caused by the reclamation of wetlands
for agricultural, industrial and urban development, and by the destruction of mangroves
for aquaculture ponds. Pollution and pesticides are also identified as threats in Malaysian
wetlands, as are losses of coastal high-tide roost sites and hunting at some sites. Scott and
Poole (1989) found that 32 of the 37 wetland sites they considered to be of significance
were threatened.

The threats to the shorebird populations are habitat loss, habitat degradation,
pollution, pesticides and hunting (Arifah 2003). A few species that are on the Red List of
Threatened Animals (IUCN 1990) are known to migrate and spend all or part of the non-
breeding period in Malaysia; including the Asian Dowitcher, Spotted Greenshank and
Spoon-billed Sandpiper.
 10

Department of Wildlife and National Parks (1987) has also listed the threats of
wetland area in Kuala Gula. These threats are including overexploitation of mangrove
resources, decrease in the availability of nesting sites for large waterbirds, disturbance of
Stork lake by crab catchers, reclamation of mangrove forests, depletion of pristine
mangrove habitats, oil pollution from the Straits of Malacca, disturbance of breeding
Milky Storks, the use of motorboats in place of sampans and disturbance from the
infrastructure associated with timber extraction.

2.6.1 Habitat Loss

The losses of habitats through agriculture, urban expansion, disturbance, and degradation
have been described as major threats to shorebirds. Habitat loss is the most severe threat
that occurs in this region and is especially caused by urbanization. This problem creates
more roads that may impact conservation lands and destroys wetlands. Degradation, such
as an oil spill, is always a potential threat. It could impact large numbers of a population,
especially if timed with the peak of migration stop over usage.

Human pressures and demands, aided by rapidly expanding technological

capacity, have greatly altered the habitat base on which shorebirds depend. The rate of
loss of coastal wetlands has been related directly to human population density (Gosselink
and Baumann, 1980). The loss of habitat through changes in land utilization practices is
the most severe threat to the long-term conservation of shorebirds in the region.

Habitat losses affecting shorebirds not limited to wetlands, but all shorelines and
rivers. In general, a given type of development activity results in a characteristic impact
on wetland ecosystems, although the specifics will vary with individual projects and
wetlands. Darnell (1976) presents a detailed review of such impacts and rates outright
habitat loss as the most important impact of construction activity upon aquatic
 11

environments. He rates the addition of suspended solids to aquatic systems and

modification of flow regimes and water levels as the second and third most significant
impacts, respectively. Other major impacts include altered water temperature and
pollution by heavy metals and pesticides.

The distribution pattern of the waterbirds was influenced by human disturbance

and not habitat quality (Derek 1989). All development projects at shoreline or near
mudflat will destroy or fragment habitat and be followed by human disturbance. The
reclamation of shallow water areas will exacerbate the conflict between migratory
waterbirds and local people also.

2.6.2 Habitat degradation

In addition to direct loss of habitat, degradation of the environmental quality of habitats
occurs because of over-exploitation of wetland resources (inland shell fisheries,
mangroves, reeds, etc) and changes in the watersheds resulting from logging and mining,
urban, rural and industrial developments (DWNP 1987). Degradation usually reduces the
ability of the habitat to support a high density and diversity of birds.

2.6.3 Harvesting of waterbirds

The collection of migratory waterbirds and their eggs for food and feathers is practised in
several countries. Whilst in some countries hunting is strictly regulated by legislation,
uncontrolled and illegal activities are still a major problem in many important migratory
staging and nonbreeding areas.
 12

2.6.4 Hunting
Hunting is another factor which severely threatens shorebird populations. In many of the
countries in the region shorebirds are trapped, netted, snared or shot for food or sale.
Increase in population pressure and shortage of land for agricultural crops has led to
increased pressure on the waterbird resource. Parish (1985) made some preliminary
estimates of capture rates of shorebirds of 250,000 to 1,500,000 per annum in the East
Asia Australasia flyway for one year. This represents 30% to 50% of the total population
using the flyway (Parish and. Howes 1989).

Table 2.2 Estimates of hunting pressure on shorebirds population in East Asia

Country Estimated numbers killed per year Comments
China 100,000 - 1,000,000 Recent enforcement campaign
HongKong Low Hunting law enforced
Vietnam 100,000 -200,000 Laws against firearms but not
trapping.
Philippines 50,000-100,000
Thailand 50,000-100,000
Malaysia Low Some sport hunting
Singapore Low Little remaining habitats
Indonesia 150,000 – 300,000 Mainly in Java
Total 450,000 - 1,700,000
Source: Adapted from Parish 1985 and Parish & Howes 1989

This kind of pressure makes it very difficult for shorebird populations to recover,
as breeding success can rarely be high enough to compensate for such high decreases. If
this hunting pressure is maintained throughout Asia it must eventually lead to the
extinction of some shorebird species. A wide variety of waterbird hunting techniques
have evolved in the region that including shooting using shotguns, snares and mist nets
(Parish and. Howes 1989). They are all designed to produce maximum catches with
minimum cost/effort.

2.7 Planning Public Awareness for Conservation of Wetland

Of all the causes of shorebirds species extinction and habitat loss, though, the one that
seems to be at the heart of the matter is the size of the population of just one species—
 13

Homo sapiens. With a larger population come increased demands for food, clothing,
housing, and energy, all of which will likely lead to greater habitat destruction, more
pollution, and less conservation on wetlands (Thomas 1996).

The preparation of the wetland is not new for the federal and state, but for the
public is still questionable. The wetland is no meaning for them. As a result, they take it
for granted all of the wetland conservation and preservation that have been done. The
work that we talk about is not just lone ranger effort. So the government must combine
with non government organization to give awareness about wetland to the public. This
will give them a new vision, knowledge and culture to take part for the conservation
wetland.

Research, training and information management all help expand the human
capacity to conserve genes, species, and ecosystems (Bolen and Robinson 1995). But
even more important is expanding people’s awareness of wetland and appreciation of its
significance. There are three planning to tackle public awareness that including formal
education, local communities and government task.

2.7.1 Formal Education

i) Use the Formal Education System to Increase Awareness.
Schools can become powerful vehicles for increasing public awareness about wetland.
Primary and secondary schools are particularly important since they shape young
people’s perceptions and attributes and reach far more people than universities,
particularly in developing countries. Of course, nothing will happen in the classroom if
educators themselves are not enthusiastic and informed about the topic, so classroom
instructors as much as students themselves must be viewed as the in school for the
wetland message.At the national level, ecological literacy belongs alongside other basic
skills. National curricula on wetland should be developed by teachers’ associations, other
 14

non-governmental organization, and national education, and environment ministries

(Swaminathan 1992).

ii) Building Wetland Awareness in Primary and Secondary School

The awareness and commitment of teachers is the key in building wetland awareness
among primary and secondary school students. Goods teachers know best how to get the
message across to their students, but some suggestions follow:
 Explain that all things that live are encompassed by “wetland”, including those
small to see with the naked eye. Points out that people and their cultures are part
of the diversity of life. As an out of class assignment, ask students to describe the
wetland of an area near their home.
 Point out the importance of wetland’s components mentioning medicines,
industrial products, foods, and the contribution of breeding programs to
agriculture. Stress the role that wetland and biological resources play in shaping
human cultures, for examples, citing the relationships between nomads and
migratory species. Ask students to describe life without one aspect of wetland use,
or to asses how using various biological resources influences local economies and
local environments
 Emphasize wetland conservation effort close to home, acquainting students with
any nearby protected areas, off-site conservation centers, and local management
techniques that foster wetland conservation. Point out the importance of using
resources sustainable. Arrange for the students to visit and tour a local
conservation facility. Discuss respect for nature, self-preservation, and other
components of a conservation ethic. Stage a wetland management meeting,
assigning each student a different group interest to represent.
 Ask students to design posters or write essays about the historic contributions of
wetland, to recommend management plans for resources areas, to list ways that
individuals can contribute to conservation, and to develop a board game
demonstrating the obstacles to and rewards of sound wetland management.
 15

 Get the children out of the classroom and into the fields and forests, and let them
experience and study the diversity of life directly.
Source: Wilson 1992.

2.7.2 Local Communities

i) Recognize the ancestral domains of tribal and indigenous peoples
Some indigenous peoples live in and have special claims to territories that, in many cases,
harbor exceptionally high levels of wetland. Their claim rests on their long occupation of
a particular place, their cultural, spiritual, and economic lies to the area and their ability
to manage it sustainable. At the same time, the cultural diversity inherent in the world's
indigenous groups is imperiled by the encroachment of dominant societies and economies
(Swaminathan 1992). Preserving indigenous territorial rights thus protects wetland and
the local culture, including knowledge and resource management skills with potentially
wide applications, as well as spiritual ties to the environment that could provide direction
for the development of a wetland (Jordan 1995).

Governments should legally recognize tribal and indigenous territories under

national law help indigenous communities defend their land against incursions, and
permit indigenous peoples to develop organizations to directly represent them in national
and international fare (Akawaio 1992). For example, Jawatankuasa Orang Asli that was
in charge the welfare of the indigenous people in Malaysia. Ultimately, the indigenous
peoples themselves should determine their own future.

ii) Semelai people of Tasek Bera

Mohala (2002) reports that the Semelai are indigenous people living along the banks and
surrounding forests of Tasek Bera. As we know Tasek Bera is our first Ramsar Sites. He
also report that not much is known of their origins but, archeological findings reveal that
 16

they have lived here for more than 600 years. He also described these tribe was gentle
and soft-spoken with a great sense of burnout, the Semelai are an attractive race that
continues to hold on to their old way of life even as they adapt to modern living.

As a summary, Mohala was conclude that the Semelai are a true wetland people
in that they use the natural resources of the lake such as sanitarium and tube sedge for
thatching or to weave mats and baskets for household use. They also eat the leaves, buds,
fruits and seeds of some wetland plants as well as wetland fauna such as fish, freshwater
turtles or shellfish.

iii) Compensate individuals and local communities

Compensation (whether cash, alternative tracts of land, or services) directly supports
wetland conservation (Jordan 1995). Where the creation or expansion of a protected area
or restrictions on the use of particular species constrains ownership or use of land,
compensation helps garner local support for conservation objectives. Where land is
needed for other development purposes (such as a road or dam), compensation can reduce
the need for displaced people to invade fragile forest or upland areas (Miller et al. 1995)..
In all cases, however, compensation must be perceived as fair, and must reach the hands
of affected communities.

2.7.3 Government Task

i) Build awareness of the importance and values of wetland into popular culture
Our country need for trained wetland professionals must not overshadow the need to
ensure that skilled workers end up in the places and positions where they can do the most
 17

good. All too often, those best trained for hands-on wetland conservation work end up in
capital cities as administrators and bureaucrats; as long as financial, promotion, and other
incentives point in this direction, this brain drain from the field is likely to continue
(Berger 1990).

Governments need to provide irresistible incentives for wetland professionals to

spend years working in the field as protected area managers, taxonomists, or resource
managers (Cox 1997). They must provide a career ladder that will attract highly qualified
individuals into resource management fields and other incentives-training, equipment,
health care, education allowances, salaries, performance bonuses that will bring out the
best in the field staff. Along with financial incentives and benefits, the decentralization of
decision-making power would help tremendously since people tend to gravitate to the
center of power in their professions.

ii) Strengthen research on ethical, cultural and religious concerns related to

conserve Wetland
The world's many cultures, faiths, and ethical traditions give people their basic
orientation toward the natural world, and guide their actions. Often these values are so
deeply ingrained that their importance is overlooked. For this reason, national research
programs, as well as international donors, should fund systematic research on how ethical
norms, culture, and religion condition human behavior toward nature (Nelson 1990). For
this reason, work on environmental ethics should take place primarily at the bioregional
level, led by inter-disciplinary teams and community representatives from the region.
This initiative should be incorporated within the wider campaign to develop, promote,
and apply the world ethic for living sustainable called for in Caring for the Earth.

iii) Revise career incentives provided by governments to increase the attractiveness

of work in the field
The worldwide need for trained wetland professionals must not overshadow the need to
ensure that skilled workers end up in the places and positions where they can do the most
 18

good. All too often, those best trained for hands-on wetland conservation work end up in
capital cities as administrators and bureaucrats; as long as financial, promotion, and other
incentives point in this direction, this brain drain from the field is likely to continue
(Owen & Chiras 1990).

Governments need to provide irresistible incentives for wetland professionals to

spend years working in the field as protected area managers, taxonomists, or resource
managers. They must provide a career ladder that will attract highly qualified individuals
into resource management fields and other incentives-training, equipment, health care,
education allowances, salaries, performance bonuses-that will bring out the best in the
field staff (Barbier 1989).

2.8 Conservation of Shorebirds

Relatively few members of the public are specifically conscious of issues and awareness
of the need for the conservation of shorebirds and their habitats and is still limited largely
to NGOs and staff of government conservation agencies. Only a few of the agencies that
are directly involved in control or use of sites of importance to shorebirds are aware of
the relevance of their sites for shorebird conservation. The most active organizations
involved in conservation include; BirdLife International, International Crane Foundation
(ICF), International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB), South Pacific
Regional Environment Program, Asian Wetland Bureau (AWB), World Conservation
Union (IUCN) and World Fund for Nature (WWF).

The official governmental organizations responsible for shorebird conservation in

Malaysia are: the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) in the Peninsula;
the National Parks and Wildlife Office of the Forestry Department (NPWO) in Sarawak;
and the Wildlife Department in Sabah. The brief of the Forest Research Institute of
 19

Malaysia (FRIM) includes study of mangroves and the mangrove forest management
policies. The practices of the Federal and State Forest Department also have a direct
bearing on shorebird habitat. The Federal and State Departments of Agriculture directly
affect non-coastal shorebird habitat through centralized policy control and subsidizing of
the rice industry. In Malaysia the threaten species under protection wildlife enactment
enforcement No. 76 years 1972 near the coastal area (Azman and Idris 1992)

The Asian Wetland Bureau (AWB), WWF-Malaysia and Malaysian Nature

Society (MNS) interact closely on wetland issues including on issues relating to
mangrove coastlines. The Malaysian Nature Society plans and manages the conservation
of the Kuala Selangor Nature Park in the Kuala Selangor mangrove forest. These NGOs
have been instrumental in creating awareness in public and government circles, and
providing technical data and land use planning assistance. Collaboration with relevant
government authorities should be pursued further and strengthened.

Asian Wetland Bureau has in the past offered training in the conservation of
shorebirds and other waterbirds and their habitats. The biological divisions of at least
three universities (Universiti Sains Malaysia, University Malaya, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia) and the Institute of Advanced Studies at the Universiti Malaya all have the
capacity to offer trainig in some aspects of wetland habitat conservation and
management.

Shorebird management in conservation must have good strategies to protect

shorebirds and their habitat from destruction by man. Fundamental to these tasks is the
implementation of systematic programs for population estimation and monitoring The
Protection of shorebirds and their habitats consists of the application of various legal
Political tools that exist at national and international levels.
 20

2.9 International wetland and waterbird conventions

One of the first steps towards increasing awareness amongst government planners and
decision makers is to promote international wetland and waterbird conservation
conventions. By ratifying these conventions governments can pledge their support to
wetland conservation and their sustainable use. In the Asian region ratification of these
conventions is highly relevant to international conservation and cooperation due to the
large number of countries in a single flyway (Well 1990).

There are two modern global conventions on nature conservation which have a
direct bearing on conservation of shorebird populations and the wetlands which support
them. These are the Bonn Convention (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory
species of Wild Animals adopted in Bonn, West Germany in 1979) and the Ramsar
Convention (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat - adopted in Ramsar, Iran in 1971).

The Bonn Convention provides a forum for member states to draw-up regional
agreements between one another on all aspects of the conservation of migratory species
common to both countries (Arifah 2003). Presently there are two member countries in the
Asian region (India and Hong Kong and two signatories (Sri Lanka and The Philippines).

However, other independent agreements, called Migratory Bird Agreements

(MBA's) have been implemented by governments of flyway countries in the Asian
region. Examples of these are:
i. Japan - Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (commonly known as JAMBA)
ii. China - Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (commonly known as CAMBA)
iii. China - Japan Migratory Bird Agreement
 21

These agreements are aimed at promoting conservation of migratory species between the
two countries, endangered species within each country and critical habitats used by the
birds mentioned in the agreements (Howes and Bakewell 1989). They commit the
signatories to study migratory birds and conservation needs in each country and in the
flyway, and to provide support and equipment for training and education.

The Ramsar Convention is probably more relevant than the Bonn Convention in
ensuring the long term conservation of shorebirds and wetlands in the Asian region, since
its major concern is habitats rather than species (van Vessem 1997). Contracting parties
to the Ramsar Convention designate at least one wetland of international importance for
the convention list and promote the 'wise-use' of wetlands within their country
(Convention on Wetland 1971). A number of criteria for designating Ramsar wetland
sites have been outlined; these include waterbird numbers, percentage of the world
population of a species using a site, and floral and ecological characteristics of a site
(Appendixes 4).