DU1 – THE OLD REGIME

1º BACHILLERATO – HISTORY OF THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

DU 1 - THE OLD REGIME

INDEX
1. POPULATION, AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY AND STATELY REGIME
2. THE PRIVILEGE COMPANY
3. ABSOLUTISM AND PARLIAMENTARY REGIMES
4. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE XVIII CENTURY
5. ILLUSTRATION AND CRITICISM OF THE OLD REGIME
1. POPULATION, AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY AND STATELY REGIME

1.1. The demographic transition

During the Old Regime, Europe presented an old demographic regime, characterized by high
birth and death rates (general and child). Therefore, the population grew very little.

During the Modern Age, the European population went through three phases:

• XVI century: population experienced moderate growth.

• 17th century: century of crisis (wars, epidemics and famines) and population stagnation.

• 18th century: remarkable growth given high birth rates and decreased mortality (from 40-50
‰ to 20-25 ‰) due to: less deadly wars, less epidemics, reduced harvests and improved diet.
Thus, during the second half of the 18th century, the demographic regime was modified, in some
countries of Western Europe, towards a new stage of continuous population expansion that
favored economic growth.

1.2. Pre-industrial economy of agrarian base.

During the Modern Age, Europe maintained a pre-industrial economy, the primary sector being
the most important (80% of the population was engaged in agriculture and livestock). However,
agriculture was unproductive (due to technological backwardness and dependence on natural
phenomena) so that farmers lived in shortages and misery.

To this, we must add the predominance of the stately property of the land (part remained
uncultivated). Much of the land was owned by the feudal lords (lay or ecclesiastical). Their
possessions were called manors, which could be:

• Territorial Territorial lordship: the lord owned the land and the peasants paid some income
to exploit their lands.

• Jurisdiction: the lord exercised justice, appointed positions or received taxes for the use of
stately monopolies (oven, mill, cellar, steps, etc.).

It was common for both domains to be given simultaneously.

The peasants paid many taxes during the Old Regime: to the king (direct taxes on income and
supplements of the price of the products), to the lords (described above) and to the clergy (the
tithe, 10% of the harvest).

During the Modern Age, taxes grew continuously given the needs of the monarchy (caused by
wars and the increase in bureaucracy). These taxes added to the low productivity, famines and
price increases caused continuous peasant protests, which ended with harsh repression and
return to order.

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1.3. A low tech industry

The manufacturing activity in the cities was directed by the unions, groups of artisans of
medieval origin who maintained the monopoly of the craft production of each trade: number of
artisans and workshops, areas of sale and price of the product. Thus, the craft had little
technological innovation and worked in small workshops.

Against this, in the seventeenth century, a system of home work was developed that escaped
the control of the guilds. An investor bought the raw materials and distributed them among the
peasant households in the months of agricultural rest. The product was made at home and the
investor picked it up and sold it at a free price. This allowed to increase production and reduce
prices.

Likewise, large factories sponsored by the State were developed in 18th-century Europe,
although their success was limited, except in cases of luxury products such as tapestries.

1.4. Trade

It was the economic sector that most developed in the Modern Age, especially the international
one.

Internal trade took place at annual fairs (covering national or international exchanges) and
markets (local or regional centers).

International trade underwent a great transformation in the Modern Age due to colonial
expansion and increased demand. Many European states conquered territories outside Europe
and created great empires, establishing trade monopolies with conquered areas. These
monopolies were controlled by large privileged companies, sponsored by governments. These
companies necessarily sold products from the country itself, very often from protected
industries, which exchanged for precious metals, necessary to defray state expenses. In the
seventeenth century, the Dutch East India Company (of the United Provinces) stood out, or in
the eighteenth century the British companies.

2. THE PRIVILEGE COMPANY

The European society of the Old Regime was divided into three levels or social groups, with little
mobility among them: nobility, clergy and third state or flat people. The first two estates
constituted a minority of the population with great privileges (they do not pay taxes, laws and
own courts), they owned land, they monopolized the positions of the Administration, etc. In
front of the flat people who were in charge of productive activities and only had their workforce
to survive.

It was a society based on inequality of origin, if you were born in a estate it was very difficult to
change your social position. This social division generated the opposition of certain groups
among which the reformist and revolutionary ideas penetrated.

2.1. Nobility and aristocracy in Europe

During the eighteenth century there was the rise of the bourgeoisie, although it was also the
peak of the European nobility. A noble person had birth privileges, although there were noble
rich and poor, with much or little influence on the State.

The highest level of the nobility was the aristocracy, the richest and most powerful families that
held the highest positions in Administration and Army. The aristocrats despised the lower

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groups, married each other and did not work, lived on their income from land, commerce or
monopolies. In this century the aristocratic power grew against the rest of the nobility that was
weakening.

2.2. The clergy

It was another privileged estate. Although within this estate we can differentiate the regular
clergy (monks and nuns, abbots and members of religious orders) and secular clergy (priests of
all kinds, canons and ecclesiastical hierarchy).

Just as the nobility did not pay taxes, they had their own courts and laws and lived on the income
of the many lands that were owned by the Church, as well as tithing.

However, there was great diversity between the high clergy (cardinals, archbishops, bishops,
etc.) with great economic and political power and the low clergy (priests, friars or nuns) who
lived modestly, or even in poverty. The ecclesiastical career was a way to access a privileged
estate from the plain state.

2.3. The plain town or third state

The majority of the population belonged to the plain people, a very heterogeneous group whose
common characteristic was the absence of legal and economic privileges. They paid taxes and
sustained the rest of society.

The bourgeoisie

Within the third state the bourgeoisie was the best positioned group. Composed of a very large
group (merchants, workshop and business owners, officials, liberal professionals ...). Despite its
economic importance, its social role was reduced given the monopoly of power in the hands of
the aristocracy and the Church. With the exception of England, Switzerland or United Provinces,
in the rest of Europe they only held municipal positions.

In the eighteenth century the bourgeoisie began to show its discontent since despite its
economic position there was no more socio-political influence. Many tried to ascend socially
through marriage with nobles.

Other urban groups

The majority of the urban population was not bourgeois, they were apprentices and workshop
officers, store employees, members of the domestic service ... They had scarce salaries and lived
modestly. In addition, in the last social ladder were the marginalized that abounded in the cities
(beggars, rogues, prostitutes or criminals).

The peasantry

The majority of the population was peasant. Only some were proprietary peasants, since much
of the land was in the hands of nobility and Church (tenant peasants). The peasants constituted
a closed world with few changes, generation after generation, They spent their lives without
moving from their birthplace. However, there were social conflicts over the unequal distribution
of land, taxes or bad harvests.

3. ABSOLUTISM AND PARLIAMENTARY REGIMES

During the Modern Age, the monarchy was increasing its power and, since the mid-seventeenth
century, the absolute monarchy was imposed.

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3.1. Absolute monarchy

Traditionally, it was defended that absolute monarchies were very powerful, where the king led
the government without limits. The truth is that the monarchies had ample power, only partially
restricted, by:

a) The resistance of local powers. The population obeyed the local government, closer to a
distant king (in the countryside, the feudal lords and, in the cities, the town halls).

b) The lack of effective control of the kings. The kings enacted many laws, but were unable to
impose them, due to inadequacy of the Administration.

c) The approval of representative assemblies (they had different names Cortes, Parliaments,
General States). They represented the powerful (nobility, clergy, high bourgeoisie ...).

To govern, the kings sought the alliance of the powerful in exchange for the maintenance of
power and autonomy of the feudal lords, guilds, Church or powerful officials (they bought their
positions and transmitted them by inheritance). Also, nobility and clergy did not pay taxes. Not
even justice was imparted exclusively by the king (within the manors, the Lord imparted justice).

Finally, during the 18th century a policy of reforms based on a new philosophical current (the
Enlightenment), enlightened despotism, was proposed. The despotism or absolutism illustrated
sought to strengthen the power of the State without changing any of its foundations. The
reforms were intended to: centralize the Administration, professionalize the army, reduce the
power of parliaments, improve economy, advance science and education. However, none of
these reforms altered the basis of the Old Regime. The attempt to reform society without
changing its structures, proved impossible in the medium term.

3.2. Parliamentary regimes

The United Provinces and England were not governed by absolute monarchies, but by
parliamentary regimes.

In England, the kings tried to consolidate absolutism, but the Parliament promoted two
revolutions in defense of their rights: the 1st, n 1649 that ended the execution of King Carlos I;
and the 2nd in 1688, where King James II had to go into exile. A year later, the new king, William
III, had to sign the Bill of Rights in which the king submitted his power to Parliament.

In the United Provinces, after the rebellion against Spanish domination a republic was
established (there was no king). The territory was made up of seven provinces, each with its own
Parliament, although they were united in General States for common decisions.

4. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE XVIII CENTURY

The eighteenth century began with the war of Spanish Succession and the signing of the Treaties
of Utrecht-Rastatt (1713-1714) with important consequences in Europe

• France lost its supremacy and Spain ceded possessions in Central Europe and Italy

• Establishment of a system of continental equilibrium so that no country attains hegemony

over others.

Despite this, it was a century of British preponderance (for its maritime supremacy), disputed
by other powers: France, Austria and Spain. In addition, new powers acquired prominence like
Russia or Prussia.

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The 18th century was a time of almost continuous wars and conflicts (despite the prominent
role that diplomacy took). The Italian peninsula was a cause for confrontation between Austria,
Spain, France and the United Kingdom (these last three were also disputed in Caribbean America
and North America).

Felipe V of Spain (the first King Bourbon), unhappy with the results of Utrecht, tried to recover
the lost Italian possessions (revisionism) although the result was negative due to pressure from
Austria, France and the United Kingdom. There were several wars that threatened the European
equilibrium (War of Succession in Poland and War of Succession in Austria).

However, the most important conflict was the Seven Years War (1756-1763). He faced France-
Spain (allied by family pacts), Austria and Russia against Prussia (ally of the United Kingdom).
The end of the war did not change the status quo in Europe and the only beneficiary was the
Russia of Catherine the Great. In the colonial ambit the British gained territory to French and
Spanish. One of the effects of the war was the distribution of Poland between Prussia, Austria
and Russia and fueled the struggle between France and the United Kingdom for the dominance
of North America (which favored Franco-Spanish intervention in favor of the insurgents against
the British crown during the process of independence of the United States).

The balance of this century of wars, peace and alliances was that the balance system was
maintained and no power was imposed on the others.

5. ILLUSTRATION AND CRITICISM OF THE OLD REGIME

5.1. Origin and basis of enlightened thinking

During the final stage of the 18th century a new way of thinking appeared, whose basic idea was
the use of reason and freedom as an instrument of personal and intellectual emancipation of
the human being.

The Enlightenment began in England and the United Provinces and became widespread
throughout Europe in the mid-eighteenth century, with France being the center of dissemination
of the enlightened ideology, first to the rest of Europe, then to colonial territories, especially
Hispanic and British America.

The enlightened thought affected almost all aspects of life. Its main characteristics were:

• Prevalence of reason versus tradition, the supernatural or superstition.

• Criticism as an instrument of censorship of those features of society, religion or culture that

opposed reason.

• Autonomy of the civil power that should surpass even the ecclesiastical.

• Religious tolerance.

• Interest in economic and material progress.

• Education as an instrument to spread the reason, so it was convenient that it be directed by

the State.

• Interest in experimental or useful sciences.

In short, the Enlightenment was a conception of life whose center was the human being, who
had to free himself from the limitations imposed by tradition and religion. Happiness appears as

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a great goal attainable for each human being, thanks to the “lights” of knowledge and reason,
he was able to master nature, study it and understand it through science.

Regarding religion, most of the enlightened were believers, although with doubts regarding
certain traditions and popular superstitions. However, a minority made an open criticism of
religion, considering it an enemy of reason.

The enlightened also defended the freedom of trade. Liberalism also developed an economic
thought that was the ideological basis of the Industrial Revolution.

The social bases of the Enlightenment were found in the "educated classes" (aristocrats, priests,
doctors, officials, lawyers, military and merchants). Although there was also participation of
women, it was a minority. The group that starred in this ideological change, in France, was
formed by the "philosophers."

5.2. The great enlightened thinkers

• John Locke (1632-1704), English thinker and philosopher, exerted a great influence on
enlightened thinking. His work was the foundation of political liberalism, criticized
absolutism and defended the right of rebellion against tyranny. I thought that power had to
be divided between legislative (make laws) and executive (government). He believed that
men are equal and free by nature, but a social pact was required to maintain those
principles.

• In France, a group of philosophers was formed whose great work was the Enlightened
Encyclopedia or Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, whose first volume saw the light in
1751. In this work they defended tolerance, economic modernization and interest in
science. Its directors were the mathematician Jean Le Rond d'Alembert and the philosopher
Denis Diderot. The Encyclopedia was concluded in 1772 with 28 volumes plus six
supplements. Very soon, it was translated into several languages.

Among the great political and social thinkers of the 18th century, three French philosophers
stand out:

• Montesquieu: admirer of British institutions. His fundamental work is The Spirit of the Laws
(1748). He defended the division of powers against abuse of power, following the English
model: legislative power (parliaments where all social groups should be), executive (in the
hands of the king) and judicial (which should be independent). The inheritance of the
division of powers has come to this day.
• Voltaire: enemy of fanaticism, intolerance and religious superstition. His most
representative works were The Treatise on Tolerance (1763) and the Philosophical
Dictionary (1764), where he defends reason against fanaticism and ignorance.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: defended social, political and educational theories. In his speeches
he considered the society in which he lived as corrupt, competitive and unfair. In the Social
Contract he defended that the human being is good by nature, but society corrupts him by
turning him into an unsupportive being; Therefore, people establish a mandatory law to
regulate social coexistence and cede sovereignty to a higher power, represented by a
government and institutions. They must legislate and govern for the common good,
otherwise, people can rebel and depose them.