Electrical Impedance

Tomography

By
Waleed A. AlWalaie

Supervised By
Dr. Saleh AlShebeili

January, 2003
 Abstract

In electrical impedance tomography (EIT) images of the object are formed

based on passive electrical properties of the interior structures. In EIT an
array of electrodes is attached around the object and small alternating
currents are injected via these electrodes and the resulting voltages are
measured. Using different current injections and voltage measurements,
an approximation for the spatial distribution of impedance (or resistivity)
within the object can be reconstructed.
EIT is a relatively new technique with most of the development
having occurred over the past ten years. Technical developments are still
taking place but people have begun to explore areas of possible
applications. The spatial resolution of EIT images so far obtained is only
about 10% of the diameter of the image field. However, the sensitivity of
the images to changes in impedance is good with changes of 1% seen
relatively easily. It is also possible to collect images at 25 frames per
second using relatively low cost equipment and with no hazard to the
object.
In the first part of this project, we will give an overview of the EIT
including its applications, advantages over other imaging techniques,
data collection strategies, and the mathematical model. Then, in the
second part of the project, we’ll give an overview to the reconstruction
algorithms currently available and we will implement one of them and
evaluate its performance using actual measured data.
Contents

1 Introduction to Electrical Tomography 1

1.0 Introduction …………………………………………. 1
1.1 Electrical Capacitance Tomography (ECT) ………………… 2
1.2 Electromagnetic Tomography (EMT) ……………………... 3
1.2 Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT) …………………... 4

2 Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT) 6

2.1 Introduction …………………………………………. 6
2.2 Applications of EIT …………………………………… 7
2.3 Advantages of EIT ……………………………………. 8
2.4 Data Collection in EIT …………………………………. 9
2.4.1 Electric Measurement of Impedance ………………… 9
Neighboring Method …………………………….. 9
Cross Method ………………………………….. 11
Opposite Method ……………………………….. 12
Adaptive Method ……………………………….. 13

3 The Mathematical Model 15

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………. 15
3.2 Mathematical Model …………………………………... 15
 3.2.1 The Equation Inside The Body …………………….. 16
3.2.2 Boundary Conditions ……………………………. 18
Continuum Model ………………………………. 19
Gap Model …………………………………….. 19
Shunt Model …………………………………… 20
Complete Electrode Model ………………………... 20

Future Work …………………………………………... 22

References …………………………………………………… 24
CHAPTER1
Introduction to Electrical Tomography

Contents:
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Electrical Capacitance Tomography (ECT)
1.2 Electromagnetic Tomography (EMT)
1.3 Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT)

1.0 Introduction
The term tomography derives from the Greek tomos (cutting) and grapho
(to write). Originally the term was applied to sectional radiography
achieved by a synchronous motion of the x-ray source and detector in
order to blur undesired data while creating a sharp image of the selected
plane [1].

Electrical Tomography (ET) is an imaging method which tries to

reconstruct different electrical properties of materials within a volume
given only “boundary measurements” resulting from an injected current.
These measurements are taken using circular arrays of electrodes
‘sensors’, spot electrodes or coils. It is a non-invasive and cost-effective
imaging technique based on iterative computational algorithms.

There are three main Electrical Tomography (ET) types:

• Electrical Capacitance Tomography (ECT),
• Electromagnetic Tomography (EMT) , and
• Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT)

In the following sections we will briefly discuss each type, its

applications, and methods of measuring.

1
1.1 Electrical Capacitance Tomography (ECT)
Electrical Capacitance Tomography (ECT) is a technique for obtaining
information about the distribution of the contents of closed pipes or
vessels by measuring variations in the permittivity or dielectric properties
of the material inside the vessel. Typical information obtainable includes
cross-sectional images of the vessel contents and the measurement of the
volume fraction and velocities of the contents of pipes for two-phase
flows.

A typical ECT sensor comprises a circular array of 8 or 12 plate

electrodes, mounted on the outside of a non-conducting pipe,
surrounded by an electrical shield (see Fig 1.1). For metal walled vessels,
the sensor must be mounted internally, using the metal wall as the
electrical shield. Additional components include radial and axial guard
electrodes, of which many configurations have been tried, to improve the
quality of the measurements and hence images.

Radial Guard
Electrode

Outer Screen
Fig 1.1 ECT Sensor arrangement

2
 It is not necessary for the electrodes to make physical contact with
the specimen, so they can be used on conveyer-lines, or externally
mounted to plastic piping to reduce the risk of contamination. This kind
of imager has been used to study pneumatic and belt-conveyed transport
of granular materials, such as rape seeds and powders, foam interfaces
and stability, flow regimes within gas fluidized beds, and reactor vessel
depressurization [2].

The standard ECT measurement protocol involves measuring the

capacitance between all combinations of electrode pairs. A single image
'frame' therefore requires a total of L(L-1)/2 measurements for an L-plate
sensor. Dual-plane 8 electrode ECT sensors have been developed to give
velocity information (from samples undergoing movement or flow) using
cross-correlation, operating at 100 frames/sec (2 x 28 x 100 = 5,600
measurements/sec). The velocity and void-fraction data can then be
combined to estimate mass transfer.

Although ECT measures the sample's permittivity, measurement of

internal details is adversely effected by the sample's conductivity. This
limits suitable samples to those that have a low-conductivity or are non-
conducting.

1.2 Electromagnetic Tomography (EMT)

EMT is the least established electrical tomography method, but
potentially has very useful applications. EMT sensors operate by using
coils to generate time-varying magnetic fields that induce eddy currents
within conducting samples. The eddy currents cause changes in the
magnetic field detected by a circular array of pick-up coils. As EMT
induces, it has the advantage of not requiring electrical contact to be
made with the sample.

3
 EMT is an emerging technique, technically more demanding than
ECT and EIT in terms of the design of the transducers and measurement
electronics. EMT's ability to penetrate through non-conducting materials
makes it an attractive measurement modality, although like ECT is
unable to image through metal walls (metal wall prevents the EM wave
from going inside the pipe).

1.3 Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT)

Electrical impedance tomography, EIT, (also called applied potential
tomography) is a novel imaging technique with applications in medicine
and process control. Compared with techniques like computerized x-ray
tomography and positron emission tomography, EIT is about a thousand
times cheaper, a thousand times smaller and requires no ionizing
radiation. Further, EIT can in principle produce thousands of images per
second. Its major limitations are its low spatial resolution.

Recordings are typically made by applying current to the body or

system under test using a set of electrodes, and measuring the voltage
developed between other electrodes. Electrical current usually flows
through the sample by ionic conduction, and therefore measurements
can give information on changes in ionic mobility such as viscosity and
temperature. The impedance of ice for example, is much greater than
water so that EIT measurements can give information on freezing and
thawing.

In the medical field, the most studied applications for EIT are
measurement of gastric emptying, lung function, monitoring tissue
electroporation for molecular medicine [3], and brain imaging. In the
industrial field typical applications are imaging the distribution of oil and
water in a pipeline, imaging the flow of substances in a mixing vessel,
and angular velocity detection [4].

4
 In the first part, we will discuss the Electrical Impedance
Tomography in more details; including EIT applications, data collection
methods, and mathematical model. In the second part of this project, we
will give an overview to the reconstruction algorithms, and then we will
implement one of these algorithms and evaluate its performance using
actual measured data.

5
CHAPTER 2
Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT)

Contents:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Applications of EIT
2.3 Advantages of EIT
2.4 Data Collection Methods

2.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, electrical tomography was introduced.
Impedance is one of the best electrical properties that can be used to
distinguish between different bodies that have different impedivity.

Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) uses low frequency

electrical current to probe conducting domain. The method is sensitive to
changes in electrical conductivity. By injecting known amounts of
current and measuring the resulting electrical potential field at points on
the boundary of the domain (Fig 2.1), it is possible to construct a map of
the conductivity or resistivity of the region of the domain probed by the
currents. This method can also be used in principle to image changes in
the dielectric constant at higher frequencies, which is why the method is
often called "impedance" tomography rather than "conductivity" or
"resistivity" tomography.

6
 Figure 2.1: 16 electrodes attached on the boundary of an object for current injection and voltage
measurement.

2.2 Applications of EIT

Among the wide variety applications of EIT, the most applications are for
medical purposes, industry process, and non-destructive testing.
The applicability of EIT for medical purposes can be motivated by
the large variation in the tissue resistivties, Table 1. Due to the large
variation, high contrast between different tissues could be expected.
However, in order to utilize this fact, absolute EIT images should be
reconstructed. This would mean that the nonlinear EIT reconstruction
problem should be solved which would usually mean iterative, lengthy
computations.
More important for medical purposes are perhaps the significant
changes in the resistivities caused e. g. by the inspired air or heating of
the tissue. This makes it possible to obtain difference images which on
the other hand make the reconstruction easier because difference images
are obtained as the solution of the linearized EIT reconstruction problem.
Medical applications that are mainly based on the difference imaging are
for example gastric imaging [5], estimation of cardiac and pulmonary
parameters [6,7], detection of intrathoracic fluid volumes [8], detection of

7
haemorrhage [9], and monitoring tissue electroporation for molecular
medicine [3].

Table 2.1:
Resistivities of different tissues at 10kHz [10].
Tissue ρ(Ωm)
CSF 0.65
Blood 1.5
Liver 3.5
Skeletal muscle (longitudinal) 1.25
Skeletal muscle (transverse) 18.00
Myocardium (longitudinal) 1.6
Myocardium (transverse) 4.24
Neural tissue 5.8
Gray matter 2.84
White matter 6.82
Lungs (out-in) 7.27-23.63
Fat 27.2
Bone 166

In the industrial field typical applications are imaging the

distribution of oil and water in a pipeline and imaging the flow of
substances in a mixing vessel, and angular velocity detection [4]. In some
ways industrial applications are more favorable for EIT because it is
usually possible to use a rigid, fixed array of electrodes. The fixing of
electrodes on the human body is one of the residual problems facing
medical EIT.

2.3 Advantages of EIT

EIT has many advantages over other medical imaging techniques.
It is non-invasive, and it does not expose the patient to harmful x-rays or
any other radioactive materials. It is safe for long term monitoring; cost-
effective, and portable. In addition, EIT combined with other medical
imaging techniques can provide increased diagnostic accuracy. For
example, x-rays can only detect breast tumors that have a density that

8
differs significantly from that of the normal breast tissue. EIT is based on
the contrast in electrical properties of the tissue and can thus be used to
find tumors that are undetectable by mammography. The identification
of lung edema provides another example of the diagnostic benefits of EIT.
Edema is an excessive accumulation of fluid in the cells, tissue spaces,
or body cavities due to a disturbance in the fluid exchange mechanism.
Because EIT is non-invasive, it can be used to identify edema without
causing any change in the volume of the thoracic liquid. Other
identification techniques may require invasive procedures; which result
in changes of lung impedance and inaccurate results, or x-rays, which
can be harmful in other ways and cannot be used long term.

2.4 Data Collection Methods

The electric impedance may be measured either traditionally by pure
electric methods or by electromagnetic methods. Only the electric
methods are discussed here.

2.4.1 Electric Measurement of the Impedance

In impedance tomography the current is fed and the voltage is measured
through different pairs of electrodes to avoid the error due to the contact
impedance. In the following, some data collection methods are discussed
[11].
Neighboring Method
This method was suggested in [12] by Brown and Segar, where the
current is applied through neighboring electrodes and the voltage is
measured successively from all other adjacent electrode pairs. Fig. 2.1
illustrates the application of this method for a cylindrical volume
conductor with 16 equally spaced electrodes.
The current is first applied through electrodes 1 and 2 (Fig. 2.1A).
The current density is, of course, highest between these electrodes,

9
decreasing rapidly as a function of distance. The voltage is measured
successively with electrode pairs 3-4, 4-5, . . . 15-16. From these 13
voltage measurements the first four measurements are illustrated in Fig.
2.1A. All these 13 measurements are independent. Each of them is
assumed to represent the impedance between the equipotential lines
intersecting the measurement electrodes. This is indicated with shading
for the voltage measurement between electrodes 6 and 7.
The next set of 13 voltage measurements is obtained by feeding the
current through electrodes 2 and 3, as shown in Fig. 2.1B. For a 16-
electrode system, 16×13 = 208 voltage measurements are obtained.
Because of reciprocity, those measurements in which the current
electrodes and voltage electrodes are interchanged yield identical
measurement results. Therefore, only 104 measurements are
independent. In the neighboring method, the measured voltage is at a
maximum with adjacent electrode pairs. With opposite electrode pairs,
the voltage is only about 2.5% of that.

10
Fig. 2.1 Neighboring method of impedance data collection illustrated for a cylindrical volume conductor and 16 equally
spaced electrodes. (A) The first four voltage measurements for the set of 13 measurements are shown. (B) Another
set of 13 measurements is obtained by changing the current feeding electrodes.

Cross Method
A more uniform current distribution is obtained when the current is
injected between a pair of more distant electrodes. Hua, Webster, and
Tompkins [13] suggested such a method called the cross method (see Fig.
2.2).
In the cross method, adjacent electrodes - for instance 16 and 1,
as shown in Fig. 2.2A - are first selected for current and voltage reference
electrodes, respectively. The other current electrode, electrode number 2
is first used. The voltage is measured successively for all other 13
electrodes with the aforementioned electrode 1 as a reference. (The first
four voltage measurements are again shown in Fig. 2.2A.) The current is
then applied through electrode 4 and the voltage is again measured
successively for all other 13 electrodes with electrode 1 as a reference, as
shown in Fig. 2.2B. One repeats this procedure using electrodes 6, 8 . . .
14; the entire procedure thus includes 7×13 = 91 measurements.
The measurement sequence is then repeated using electrodes 3
and 2 as current and voltage reference electrodes, respectively (see Fig.
2.2C). Applying current first to electrode 5, one then measures the
voltage successively for all other 13 electrodes with electrode 2 as a
reference. One repeats this procedure again by applying current to
electrode 7 (see Fig. 2.2D). Applying current successively to electrodes 9,
11. . . 1 and measuring the voltage for all other 13 electrodes with the
aforementioned electrode 2 as a reference, one makes 91 measurements.
From these 182 measurements only 104 are independent. The cross
method does not have as good a sensitivity in the periphery as does the
neighboring method, but has better sensitivity over the entire region.

11
 Fig. 2.2 Cross method of impedance data collection. The four different steps of this procedure are
illustrated in A through D.

Opposite Method
Another alternative for the impedance measurement is the opposite
method, illustrated in Fig. 2.3 (Hua, Webster, and Tompkins [13]). In this
method current is injected through two diametrically opposed electrodes
(electrodes 16 and 8 in Fig. 2.3A). The electrode adjacent to the current-
injecting electrode is used as the voltage reference. Voltage is measured
from all other electrodes except from the current electrodes, yielding 13

12
voltage measurements (the first four of these measurements are again
shown).
The next set of 13 voltage measurements is obtained by selecting
electrodes 1 and 9 for current electrodes (Fig. 2.3B). When 16 electrodes
are used, the opposite method yields 8×13 = 104 data points. The
current distribution in this method is more uniform and, therefore, has a
good sensitivity.

Fig. 2.3 Opposite method of impedance data collection.

Adaptive Method
In the aforementioned methods, current has been injected with a pair of
electrodes and voltage has been measured similarly. In the adaptive
method, proposed by Gisser, Isaacson, and Newell [14], current is
injected through all electrodes (see Fig. 2.4A). Because current flows
through all electrodes simultaneously, as many independent current
generators are needed as are electrodes used. The electrodes can feed a
current from -5 to +5 mA, allowing different current distributions.
Homogeneous current distribution may be obtained only in a
homogeneous volume conductor.

13
 The voltages are measured with respect to a single grounded
electrode. When one is using 16 electrodes, the number of voltage
measurements for a certain current distribution is 15.

Fig. 2.4 Adaptive method of impedance data collection.

14
CHAPTER 3
The Mathematical Model

Contents:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Mathematical Model
3.2.1 The Equation inside the Body
3.2.2 Boundary Conditions

3.1 Introduction
In the EIT reconstruction problem the first step is to construct a
physical model for observations. This means that equations have to be
derived which connects measured voltages, injected currents and a
resistivity distribution. Starting from basic Maxwell's equations of
electromagnetism, the equations for this physical model can be derived.
In all the models used in EIT the equation that covers the interior
of the body is the same but the boundary conditions differ. In this
chapter these different physical models that are widely used in EIT are
presented.

3.2 Mathematical Model

Consider a following experiment that is carried out in EIT. An array
of electrodes, usually 16 or 32, are attached around the body and small
alternating currents, usually few mA with frequency between 10 kHz-100

15
kHz, are applied to the electrodes and the resulting voltages are
measured. The current is applied between two of the electrodes or to all
electrodes and the voltages are measured between adjacent electrodes or
from all electrodes with respect to one reference. In the following, the
physical models for EIT with certain boundary conditions are derived.

3.2.1 The equation inside the body

Maxwell's equations in inhomogeneous medium can be written in
the form
∂B (3.1)
∇× E = −
∂t
∂D (3.2)
∇× H = J +
∂t
where E is electric field, H magnetic field, B magnetic induction, D
electric displacement and J electric current density.
If the injected currents are time-harmonic with frequency ω the
electric and magnetic fields are of the form
~ ~
E = E e i ωt , B = B e i ωt (3.3)

Moreover, in linear isotropic medium the following relations are valid

D = εE (3.4)
B = µH (3.5)
J = σE (3.6)
where ε is the permittivity, µ is the permeability and σ is the conductivity
of the medium. In EIT the bodies are usually approximated as isotropic.
Anisotropic considerations in the connection with EIT can be found e.g.
in [15, 16].
Using the relations (3.4-3.6) and assuming that the injected
currents are time harmonic, the equations (3.1, 3.2) can be written in the
form
∇ × E = −iωµH (3.7)
∇ × H = J + iωεE (3.8)

16
 In EIT, there are current sources that are here denoted with Js.
Therefore the current density is divided into two components J = Jo + Js
where Jo = σE is the so-called ohmic current. Now the equations (3.7, 3.8)
can be written in the form
∇ × E = −iωµH (3.9)
∇ × H = J s + (σ + iωε ) E (3.10)

These are the full Maxwell equations. In EIT some simplifications

for these full equations are made. The first one is the assumption of
static conditions. This means that from the exact derivation of E
∂A
E = −∇u − (3.11)
∂t
where u is the electric potential and A the magnetic vector potential, the
latter is neglected. This means that the effect of magnetic induction that
causes the induced electric field is neglected. This approximation is
justified [17] if

 ωε 
ωµσLc 1 +  << 1 (3.12)
 σ 
where Lc is a characteristic distance over which E varies significantly,
then the effect of magnetic induction can be neglected.
Another approximation that is quite often made in EIT is that the
capacitive effects (iωεE, in 3.8) are neglected. This approximation is valid
[17] if
ωε
<< 1 (3.13)
σ
With the above approximations the modified Maxwell's equations
in linear, isotropic medium under quasi-static conditions are
E = −∇u (3.14)
∇ × H = J s + σE (3.15)
Taking the divergence on both sides of equation (3.15) and substituting
(3.14) into (3.15) the equation

17
 ∇ ⋅ (σ∇u ) = 0 , (3.16)
for EIT inside the body. This is true since there is no source inside the
body Js = 0.

In the following sections the boundary conditions, i.e., the

electrode models that arise from the current injection and voltage
measurement through the electrodes, are briefly considered. More
detailed derivation can be found in [18].

3.2.2 Boundary conditions

Consider a situation that is shown in Fig. 3.1. A small cylindrical

volume element is placed on the surface of an object such that the top
and the bottom of the cylinder are almost parallel with the boundary.
Integrating the equation ∇⋅σE=-∇⋅Js over the volume τ ,

∫τ ∇ ⋅ σE dτ = − ∫τ ∇ ⋅ J dτ ,
s
(3.17)

and using the divergence theorem, we obtain

∫ σE ⋅ν dS = − ∫ J ⋅ν dS ,
s
(3.18)
S S

where S is the boundary of τ and ν is the unit normal. When the volume
τ → 0 the top and the bottom of the cylinder coincide. Since Js = 0 inside
the object and on the other hand E = 0 outside the object, the relation

− σE ⋅ν |inside = − J s ⋅ν |outside , (3.19)

is valid. Using the relation E = -∇u, the boundary condition

∂u
σ = −J s ⋅ v ≡ j , (3.20)
∂ν
is obtained, where j is the negative normal component of the injected
current density Js.

18
 Fig. 3.1: Derivation of boundary conditions. Js1 and Js2 are the current source densities
outside and inside the object, respectively. E1 and E2 are the corresponding electric
fields.

CONTINUUM MODEL
This model assumes that there are no electrodes and injected current j is
a continuous function, that is
j (t ) = C cos(kt ) , (3.21)
where C is constant . With experimental data it has been shown that this
model overestimates the resistivities as much as 25% [18]. This is
because the effects of the electrodes are totally ignored.

GAP MODEL
The gap model assumes that the injected current j is

 Il
 x ∈ el , l = 1,2,K, L
j = | el | , (3.22)
0 L
x ∉ Ul =1 el

where el is the area of the electrode, Il is injected current into the l’th
electrode and L is the number of electrodes. This model gives only a
slight improvement over the continuum model but still overestimates the
resistivities. Both the continuum and the gap models ignore the shunting
effect of the electrodes and also the contact impedances that arise due to
the electrochemical effect at the contact surface.

19
SHUNT MODEL
The shunt model takes into account the shunting effect of the electrode,
that is, the potential on the electrode is constant. Also the boundary
condition (3.21) is replaced with a more reliable condition
∂u
∫σ
el
∂ν
dS = I l , x ∈ el , l = 1,2,K, L (3.23)

and shunting effect is taken into account by considering the following

condition
u (center of e l ) = U l , x ∈ el , l = 1,2,K, L (3.24)

where Ul is the measured voltage on the l’th electrode. This model,

however, underestimates the resistivities since the contact impedances
are ignored [19].

COMPLETE ELECTRODE MODEL

The complete electrode model takes into account both the shunting effect
of the electrodes and the contact impedances between the electrodes and
body. The complete electrode model consists of the equation (3.16) and
the boundary conditions
∂u (3.25)
u + zl = Ul , x ∈ el , l = 1,2,K , L
∂ν
∂u (3.26)
∫e σ ∂ν dS = I l , x ∈ el , l = 1,2, K, L
l

∂u L (3.27)
σ = 0, x ∉ Ul =1 el
∂ν

where zl is effective contact impedance between the l’th electrode and

body [20]. In addition the following two conditions for the injected
current and measured voltages are needed to ensure existence and
uniqueness of the result

20
 L (3.28)
∑I
l =1
l =0
L (3.29)
∑U
l =1
l =0

This model has been shown to predict the measured voltages at the
precision of the measurement system [19].

21
 Future Work

Up to this point, we have formulated the mathematical model for

the EIT problem, which is an early stage toward finding the conductivity
distribution inside the body. Our mission now is the following: Given all
possible current patterns I = ( I 1 ,K, I L ) and their corresponding voltage

patterns V = (V1 ,K ,VL ) , find the conductivity σ inside the body.

Unfortunately, this is impossible, for the following reason: There
are only L-1 linearly independent current patterns due to the constraint
(3.28). Any other current pattern must be a linear combination of L-1
patterns. The same thing applies to the voltage measurements. Thus, we
have only a finite number of linearly independent measurements. From a
finite number of measurements, we cannot hope to obtain σ at every
point in the interior of the body. We can only hope for an approximation
to σ that depends on a finite number of parameters.
Finding the interior conductivity distribution given the boundary
measurements is an inverse problem. Inverse problems are interpreted
as finding the cause of a given effect or finding the physical law given the
cause and effect. These inverse problems do not necessarily have unique
and stable solutions and small changes in the data can cause large
changes in the solution. For this reason inverse problems are often ill-
posed. The classical forward problem is to find a unique effect of a given
cause by using appropriate physical model. These problems are usually
well-posed which means that they have a unique solution and the
solution is insensitive to the small changes in the data. In reconstructing
the conductivity distribution, we usually solve both the forward and
inverse problems.
Many approaches have been proposed for solving the inverse
nonlinear problem that arises in EIT. These methods fall into two broad

22
categories. The first are noniterative (single-step) techniques, based on
linear approximations. The basic assumption of these methods is that
the conductivity distribution is approximately homogeneous. Example of
these linear approximation methods includes the Barber-Brown
backprojection [21]. Single-step methods can generally be divided into
two broad categories: backprojection [21] and sensitivity matrix methods
[22]
The second broad category is iterative techniques. Iterative
techniques are nearly always used to try to solve the 'static'
reconstruction problem, i.e., find the actual resistivity in the body rather
than a change in resistivity. These include NOSER algorithm [23] and
others [24, 25].
Most of the literatures available are published to give a general
mathematical basis to these algorithms because most of them are used
mainly for commercial purposes, so in the second part of the project, we
will give an overview to the reconstruction algorithms currently available,
and then we will implement one of these algorithms and evaluate its
performance using actual measured data.

23
 References

[1] M. D. Fox, Leon A. Frizzel, Medical Imaging. CRC Press LLC, 2000.

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“Application of Capacitance Electrical Tomography for On–Line and
Off-line Analysis of Flow Patterns in a Horizontal Pipeline of a
Pneumatic Conveyer,” 1st World Congress on Industrial Process
Tomography, April 14-7, 1999.

[3] Rafael V. Davalous, Boris Rubinsky, and David M. Otten, “A

Feasibility Study for Electrical Impedance Tomography as a Means
to Monitor Tissue Electroporation for Molecular Medicine,” IEEE
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[4] Emmanuel O. Etuke, Roger T. Bonnecaze, “Measurement of

angular velocities using electrical impedance tomography,” Flow
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[5] R.H. Smallwood, S. Nour, Y. Mangnall, A. Smythe, and B.H.

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[6] B. H. Brown, A. M. Sinton, D. C. Barber, A. D. Leathard, and F. J.

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[7] B.M. Eyüboglu, B.H. Brown, and D.C. Barber, “In vivo imaging of
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[8] J.C. Newell, P.M. Edic, J.L. Larson-Wiseman X. Ren, and M.D.
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