IV.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Whereas basic researchers test theories about mind and behavior, applied

psychologists are motivated by a desire to solve practical human problems.
Four particularly active areas of application are health, education, business,
and law.

A. Health

Today, many psychologists work in the emerging area of health psychology, the

application of psychology to the promotion of physical health and the
prevention and treatment of illness. Researchers in this area have shown that
human health and well-being depends on both biological and psychological
factors.

Many psychologists in this area study psycho-physiological disorders (also called

psychosomatic disorders), conditions that are brought on or influenced by
psychological states, most often stress. These disorders include high blood
pressure, headaches, asthma, and ulcers. Researchers have discovered that
chronic stress is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease. In
addition, stress can compromise the body's immune system and increase
susceptibility to illness.

Health psychologists also study how people cope with stress. They have found
that people who have family, friends, and other forms of social support are
healthier and live longer than those who are more isolated. Other researchers
in this field examine the psychological factors that underlie smoking, drinking,
drug abuse, risky sexual practices, and other behaviors harmful to health.

B. Education

Psychologists in all branches of the discipline contribute to our understanding

of teaching, learning, and education. Some help develop standardized tests
used to measure academic aptitude and achievement. Others study the ages at
which children become capable of attaining various cognitive skills, the effects
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of rewards on their motivation to learn, computerized instruction, bilingual
education, learning disabilities, and other relevant topics. Perhaps the best-
known application of psychology to the field of education occurred in 1954
when, in the case of Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the
United States outlawed the segregation of public schools by race. In its ruling,
the Court cited psychological studies suggesting that segregation had a
damaging effect on black students and tended to encourage prejudice.

In addition to the contributions of psychology as a whole, two fields within

psychology focus exclusively on education: educational psychology and school
psychology. Educational psychologists seek to understand and improve the
teaching and learning process within the classroom and other educational
settings. Educational psychologists study topics such as intelligence and ability
testing, student motivation, discipline and classroom management, curriculum
plans, and grading. They also test general theories about how students learn
most effectively. School psychologists work in elementary and secondary school
systems administering tests, making placement recommendations, and
counseling children with academic or emotional problems.

C. Business

In the business world, psychology is applied in the workplace and in the

marketplace. Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology focuses on human
behavior in the workplace and other organizations. I-O psychologists conduct
research, teach in business schools or universities, and work in private
industry. Many I-O psychologists study the factors that influence worker
motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. Others study the personal traits and
situations that foster great leadership. Still others focus on the processes of
personnel selection, training, and evaluation. Studies have shown, for example,
that face-to-face interviews sometimes result in poor hiring decisions and may
be biased by the applicant’s gender, race, and physical attractiveness. Studies
have also shown that certain standardized tests can help to predict on-the-job
performance.

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Consumer psychology is the study of human decision making and behavior in
the marketplace. In this area, researchers analyze the effects of advertising on
consumers’ attitudes and buying habits. Consumer psychologists also study
various aspects of marketing, such as the effects of packaging, price, and other
factors that lead people to purchase one product rather than another.

D. Law

Many psychologists today work in the legal system. They consult with

attorneys, testify in court as expert witnesses, counsel prisoners, teach in law
schools, and research various justice-related issues. Sometimes referred to as
forensic psychologists, those who apply psychology to the law study a range of
issues, including jury selection, eyewitness testimony, and confessions to
police, lie-detector tests, the death penalty, criminal profiling, and the
insanity defense.

Studies in forensic psychology have helped to illuminate weaknesses in the

legal system. For example, based on trial-simulation experiments, researchers
have found that jurors are often biased by various facts not in evidence—that
is, facts the judge tells them to disregard. In studying eyewitness testimony,
researchers have staged mock crimes and asked witnesses to identify the
assailant or recall other details. These studies have revealed that under certain
conditions eyewitnesses are highly prone to error.

Psychologists in this area often testify in court as expert witnesses. In cases

involving the insanity defense, forensic clinical psychologists are often called to
court to give their opinion about whether individual defendants are sane or
insane. Used as a legal defense, insanity means that defendants, because of a
mental disorder, cannot appreciate the wrongfulness of their conduct or
control it. Defendants who are legally insane at the time of the offense may be
absolved of criminal responsibility for their conduct and judged not guilty.
Psychologists are often called to testify in court on other controversial matters
as well, including the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, the mental

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competence (fitness) of defendants to stand trial, and the reliability of early
childhood memories.

E. Other Domains of Application

Psychology has applications in many other domains of human life.

Environmental psychologists focus on the relationship between people and
their physical surroundings. They study how street noise, heat, architectural
design, population density, and crowding affect people’s behavior and mental
health. In a related field, human factors psychologists work on the design of
appliances, furniture, tools, and other manufactured items in order to
maximize their comfort, safety, and convenience. Sports psychologists advise
athletes and study the physiological, perceptual-motor, motivational,
developmental, and social aspects of athletic performance. Other psychologists
specialize in the study of political behavior, religion, sexuality, or behavior in
the military.