Comparativos: objeto1 + comparativo + than + objeto 2

superlativos: objeto + verb to be+ superlativo

Usually if an adjective has only one syllable, we add 'er' to make the comparative
form. We add 'est' to make the superlative form.

clean → cleaner / cleanest

cold → colder / coldest
small → smaller / smallest
young → younger / youngest
tall → taller / tallest

There are some spelling changes. If there is one vowel followed by one consonant at
the end of the adjective, we often double the consonant.
wet → wetter / wettest
big → bigger / biggest
hot → hotter / hottest
thin → thinner / thinnest

If the adjective ends in 'y', this often changes to 'i'.

dry → drier / driest

If the adjective ends in 'e', we don't add another 'e', just 'r'.
nice → nicer / nicest
large → larger / largest

Even when the adjective has only one syllable, it's still not wrong to use 'more' or
'most'. It's possible to say 'more wet' or 'most tall'. This isn't incorrect.

There are a few adjectives that we have to use 'more' or 'most' with, even though
they only have one syllable. We CAN'T add 'er' or 'est'.
fun → more fun / most fun (NOT funner / funnest)
real → more real / most real (NOT realer / realest)
right → more right / most right (NOT righter / rightest)
wrong → more wrong / most wrong (NOT wronger / wrongest)

Adjectives with two syllables: For adjectives with two syllables we generally use
'more' or 'most'.
careful → more careful / most careful
bored → more bored / most bored

But some two syllable adjectives can take 'er' or 'est'. It's also fine to use 'more' (for
the comparative) or 'most' (for the superlative).
 clever → cleverer / cleverest
simple → simpler / simplest
narrow → narrower / narrowest
quiet → quieter / quietest

Adjectives with two syllables that end in 'y' usually can add 'er' or 'est' (y generally
changes to i). It's also fine to use 'more' or 'most'.
dirty → dirtier / dirtiest
pretty → prettier / prettiest
happy → happier / happiest
ugly → uglier / ugliest

Adjectives with more than two syllables:Adjectives with more than two syllables
can only make their comparative by using 'more' and their superlative by using
'most'.
beautiful → more beautiful / most beautiful
intelligent → more intelligent / most intelligent
interesting → more interesting / most interesting
expensive → more expensive / most expensive

Irregular adjectives: There are also some irregular adjectives. We just need to learn
these forms.
good → better → best
bad → worse → worst
far → further → furthest
little → less → least
much → more → most

Segundo y tercer condicional

Futuro continuo
Modales
Pasado continuo, perfecto y simple
Presente perfecto continuo

Pasiva
The passive voice is a type of grammatical voice in which the subject is acted upon
by the verb. In passive-voice sentences, the subject is the receiver of the action (i.e.,
what would be the direct object in an active-voice sentence). For example:
• “The concert was attended by many young people.” (The subject the concert
receives the action of attended.)
• “The necklace is being made by a child.” (The subject the necklace receives the
action of being made.)
Passive-voice verbs are always preceded by the auxiliary verb be and are in their
past participle forms. While the receiver of the action comes before the verb, the
person or thing performing the action (known as the agent) comes after the verb and
is preceded by the preposition by to form a prepositional phrase. For example:

• “The lights were turned off by the janitor.” (The lights is the subject, but the janitor
performs the action turned off.)
• “Final exams will be taken by students on Friday.” (Final exams is the subject, but
students performs the action taken.)
• “Letters to Santa are sent by children every year.” (Letters to Santa is the subject,
but children performs the action sent.)

You may only convert a sentence from the active voice into the passive voice if there
is a direct object. As we’ve seen, this direct object becomes the subject in the
passive voice. For example:

• “A high school track and field star won the race.” (active voice)
• “The race was won by a high school track and field star.” (passive voice)
• “Local businesses are handing out pamphlets near the mall.” (active voice)
• “Pamphlets are being handed out by local businesses near the mall.”
(passive voice)

If an active-voice sentences does not contain a direct object, it cannot be converted

into the passive voice, as the sentence will lack coherency without a subject. For
example:
• “The kids are playing outside.” (active voice)
• “Is being played by the kids outside.” (What is being played by the kids?)

Estilo indirecto(Reported Speech)

When we tell other people what someone else told us, it is called indirect speech or
reported speech. We use reporting verbs to introduce the information that was
spoken previously.

The most common so-called “reporting verbs” are say and tell. When we use Tell, we
need to use another person’s name, or a personal pronoun representing him or her,
as an indirect object.

For example:
✖ “She said me she was late for the appointment yesterday.” (incorrect)
✔ “She said she was late for the appointment yesterday. (correct)
✖ “She told she was late for the appointment yesterday.” (incorrect)
✔ “She told me she was late for the appointment yesterday. (correct).

Remember, the personal pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them. We can
also change the indirect object and use a person’s name, as in “She told Mark she
was late for the appointment yesterday.”

Other reporting verbs include ask, instruct, explain, mention, suggest, claim, and so
on

• “He asked if I could come in early tomorrow.”

• “She explained that she was only joking.”
• “I merely suggested that we should go home early.”

The conventional grammar rule is to go back a tense when you report to another
person what someone said to you. This is because we usually put the reporting
verb in the past tense (I asked, she said, they told us, he suggested, etc.), and so
the speech that is being reported must shift back as well.

In modern English, though, it is quite common to keep the verb tense the same. This
is especially true in cases where the reporting verb remains in the present tense
and/or that which is being reported is still currently true.

Present simple:
● Direct speech: “I live in Germany.”
○ Reported Speech: “He said he lived in Germany.”
But also we can leave it in present simple:
● “He told them he lives in Germany.”

Past simple:
● Direct speech: “She was a carpenter before she moved here.”
○ Reported speech: “She said she had been a carpenter before she
moved here.”
With the past tense, the general rule is to move it back a tense to the past perfect
tense.
● “She went to the supermarket this morning.”
○ “I told him she went to the supermarket this morning.” or:
○ “I said she had gone to the supermarket this morning.”

Present Continuous:
● Direct speech: “He is writing a letter to their friend.”
● Reported speech:
 ○ “She says he is writing a letter to their friend.” or:
○ “She said he is writing a letter to their friend.”
we can also shift the reported speech back one tense to the past continuous:
● “She told us he was writing a letter to their friend.”

Past continuous:
● Direct speech: “You were sleeping when I called.”
● Reported speech: “He said you were sleeping when I called.”
The conventional grammar rule is to change the reported tense to the past perfect
continuous tense, as in:
● “He told me you had been sleeping when I called.”

Present Perfect:
● Direct speech. “I have been to Paris four times.”
● Reported Speech: “She told me she has been / had been to Paris four times.”
In reported speech the past perfect must be used. For example:
● “She said she had been to Paris four times before she met Tom.”

Past Perfect
● Direct speech: “The film had ended when I switched on the TV.”
● Reported speech: “He said the film had ended when he’d switched on the
TV.”
Reported speech in the past perfect remains the same The other element of the
sentence (“when I switched on the TV”) conventionally goes into the past perfect
tense as well. However, it is also common for this to remain in the past simple in
reported speech, as in:
● “He told me the film had ended when he switched on the TV.”

Past perfect continuous:

● Direct speech: “When she finally arrived, I had been waiting for over two
hours.”
● Reported speech remains the same, as there is no tense beyond the past
perfect continuous:
“He said he had been waiting for over two hours when she finally arrived.”

Future Simple:
● Direct speech: “I will call you tomorrow.”
● In reported speech, will goes back a tense and becomes would: “He said he
would call me tomorrow.”
It is also common for the future simple to remain in the same tense in reported
speech, especially if what was reported happened very recently. For example:
● Person A: “What did Barry say just now?”
● Person B: “He said/says he will call me tomorrow.”
 ●
Can
● Direct speech: “I can swim.”
● In reported speech, as with will, can moves back a tense and becomes could:
“She told me she could swim.”
Must
● Direct speech: “I must go.”
● In reported speech, must can either remain in the simple present, or else take
the past tense of have to in reported speech, as in:
"She said she had to go.” or:
“She told me she must go.”

If we use the modal auxiliary verbs should, would, could, may, might, or ought to,
then direct speech and reported speech are always the same.

For example:
● Direct speech: “You should take an aspirin.”
○ Reported speech: “She said I should take an aspirin.”
● Direct speech: “I would phone him if I had his number.”
○ Reported speech: “She told me she would phone him if she had his
number.”
● Direct speech: “They could stay another day if you want.”
○ Reported speech: “They said they could stay another day if I wanted.”
● Direct speech: “I might/may be late.”
○ Reported speech: “I told them I might/may be late.”

Present Simple- Past Simple

Past Simple- Past Perfect
Present continuous-Past continuous
Past Continuous- Past perfect continuous
Present Perfect- Past Perfect
Past Perfect- Past Perfect
Past Perfect continuous-Past Perfect continuous.
Future Simple- Future Simple

"I am working in a hospital," she said.

She said she was working in a hospital.
"We made a great dinner last night," he said.
He said we made a great dinner last night
"They were living in Chicago when their son was born," she said.
She said she had been living in Chicago when their son was born
"I have been to India three times," Melissa said.
Melissa said she had been to India three times
"We have been waiting for the tickets for three hours," they said.
They said we had been waiting for the tikcets for three hours
"I am from Australia," Pam said.
Pam said she was from australia
"You must drive slowly here," the police officer told me.
station / please / me / take / the / to / train
Jessica: "Don't play football in the garden." Jessica told me
Jessica told me she didn’t like play football in the garden
She: "Don't sing that song." She told me
She told me she didn’t sing that song
Hanna: "Don't go to the cinema." Hanna told me
Hanna told me she didn’t go to the cinema
Tom: "Don't ring me on Sunday." Tom told me
Tom told me he didn’t ring me on Sunday
Teacher: "Do your homework." The teacher told me
The teacher told me did my homework
Andrew: "Wash the dishes." Andrew told me
Andrew told me washed the dishes
Jessica: "Write a letter." Jessica told me
Jessica told me wrote a letter
Sarah: "Help Peter's sister." Sarah told me
Sarah told me helped Peter’s sister
Anna: "Open the window." Anna told me
Anna told me opened the window
Helen: "I was writing a letter yesterday."Helen told me that
Helen told me that she was writing a letter yesterday
Robert: "My father flew to Dallas last year." Robert said that
Robert said that his father flew to Dallas last year
Michael: "I'm going to find a job soon." Michael told me that
Michael told me that he going to find a job soon
Jim: "I'll do my best in the exams next week." Jim told me that
Andrew: "We didn't go to work two days ago." Andrew said to me that
Alice: "I spent all my pocket money last weekend." Alice complained that
David: "John had already finished work at five.” David said that
Teacher: "Don't forget your homework."The teacher told me
My brother: "Don't shout at mum."My brother told me
Sam: "Don't make a mess of the kitchen."Sam told me
You: "Don't open this door." You told me
They: "Come home at 8." They told me
Tom: "Dance with me." Tom told me
Lewis: "Meet us at the station."Lewis told me
Emma: "My teacher is going to London tomorrow."Emma said that
Will y going to para hacer predicciones:

Preguntas indirectas:
The indirect questions use the reported speech to relay an interrogative sentence
from another person to the listener as a declarative sentence. For example:
● “Dan asked if you are coming to the study session this evening.”
● “She was wondering if you want to get some coffee later.”
● “They told me to ask where you’re going later.”

Uso de both, either y neither

Either …or…:
We can use either...or to emphasise a choice. (Either…or is used to refer to two
things or people.) In most cases 'either' can be omitted.

● You can either stay here or come with us.

● You can stay here or come with us.
● It was either John or Peter who received your message.
● Either John or Peter received your message.
● John or Peter received your message.

Neither …nor...
Neither…nor gives a negative meaning to verbs. (neither …nor is also used to refer
to two things or people)
● Neither Sarah nor Peter was to blame for the mistake.
● Sarah liked neither Rome nor Paris. She prefers the countryside.

If a verb is already in the negative then either …or is used and not neither …nor.
● Sarah didn't like either Rome or Paris.
● Sarah didn't like Rome or Paris.
● I don't like coffee or tea.
● The restaurant doesn't have fish or vegetarian meals on its menu.
Intensificadores (so, such, too, enough)
Conectores para expresar causa, efecto y contraste

Preposiciones
Prepositions are used to express the relationship of a noun or pronoun (or another
grammatical element functioning as a noun) to the rest of the sentence.
The noun or pronoun that is connected by the preposition is known as the object of
the preposition. Some common prepositions are in, on, for, to, of, with, and about,
though there are many others.

Prepositions can be broadly divided into eight categories: time, place, direction or
movement, agency, instrument or device, reason or purpose, connection, and origin.

Category Preposition Example sentences:

Time: at, in, on, for, during, since, by, until, before, after, to, past

● “There is a film at noon we could see.” (adjectival)

● “We’re meeting him in an hour.” (adverbial)

Place: at, in, on, by/near/close to, next to/beside, between, behind, in front of,
above/over, below/under
● “The cat on the roof was hissing at us.”
● “Try looking behind the shed.”
Direction or Movement: to, from, over, under, along, around, across, through, into,
out of, toward(s), away from, onto, off, up, down “The house down the road is being
sold.”
● “They drove across the country.”
Agency: by, with
● “The book by the famous author is a big hit.”
● “Her heart is filled with emotion.”
Instrument or Device: by, with, on
● “The journey by boat is long and arduous.”
● “He hit the nail with a hammer.”
Reason or Purpose:for, through, because of, onaccount of, from
● “I have a separate computer for work.”
● “They left early because of the storm.”
Connection of, to, with
● “A well-written cover letter to employers helps your chances of being hired.”
● “I think she decided to go with Victor.”
Origin from, of
● “Tom is of German descent.”
● “We started our trip from Italy.”
Notice that many prepositions fall under two or more categories. To determine
what type of preposition is being used in a sentence, you must look closely at the
context and what the prepositional phrase is modifying. Remember that
prepositional phrases can be used with verbs, with nouns, and with adjectives.
Continue on to the rest of the sections in this chapter to learn more about how
and when prepositions are (and are not) used.
Adjetivos con -Ed i ING
Adjetivos y Adverbios
The
Before y After
BE Used to, Get Used to y Used to

‘Used to + infinitive’
We use ‘used to’ to talk about things that happened in the past – actions or states –
that no longer happen now.
● She used to be a long distance runner when she was younger.
● I used to eat meat but I became a vegetarian 5 years ago.

The negative is ‘didn’t use to’ and questions are formed with ‘Did you use to …?’
There is no present tense equivalent of ‘used to’. To talk about present habits we
use the present simple and an adverb of frequency (usually, always, often, never,
etc.)
e.g. I often eat at the Japanese restaurant in the city centre.

‘be/get used to’

If you are used to something, you are accustomed to it – you don’t find it unusual. If
you get used to something or you are getting used to something you are becoming
accustomed to it – it was strange, now it’s not so strange.

● I found Slovak food very strange at first but I’m used to it now.
● I’m getting used to driving on the right.

Both ‘be used to’ and ‘get used to’ are followed by a noun (or pronoun) or the gerund
– the ‘ing’ form of a verb.

● I can’t get used to getting up so early. I’m tired all the time.
● He’s not used to the weather here yet. He’s finding it very cold.

‘Be/get used to’ can be used with past, present and future tenses.
● You might find it strange at first but you’ll soon get used to it.
● He wasn’t used to the heat and he caught sunstroke.

I _____ to play tennis.

● used to
● am used to
● am getting used to
She _____ to the new city.
● used to
● is used to
● is getting used to

I ____ like vegetables when I was younger, but I love them now.
● used to
● didn't used to
● didn’t use to

He ____ his new job.

● used to
● is geting used to
● is getting used to

Tom ____ having lunch at 4pm.

● is getting used to
● is used
● is used to

I'm getting used to ____ to sleep earlier.

● go
● going
● be going

I used to ____.
● ran
● run
● running

How can I get used to ____?.

● have this weather
● the weather
● this weather

He used to ____ a lot when he was 20.

● smoke
● smoking
● smokes

You have to ____ it.

● be used to
● get used to
 ● been used to
As well as, Whereas, While, As a consequence, Despite ad in Spite of
Another y Other
As y Like
Do y Make
For y Since
Go y Come
If y Whether
Likely Y Probably
Say y Tell
What y Which
Genitivo Sajón
How Long?
In Order To y So As To
Objeto Directo e Indirecto
Oraciones de Relativo
Preposiciones (IN, ON, AT)
PronombreS
Quantifiers
Question Tags
Verb Partterns
How Much/ How Many
Countable nouns:(also known as count nouns) are nouns that can be considered
as individual, separable items, which means that we are able to count them with
numbers—we can have one, two, five, 15, 100, and so on. We can also use them
with the indefinite articles a and an (which signify a single person or thing) or in their
plural forms.

Uncountable Nouns:Nouns that cannot be divided or counted as individual

elements or separate parts are called uncountable nouns (also known as mass
nouns or non-count nouns). These can be tangible objects (such as substances or
collective categories of things), or intangible or abstract things, such as concepts or
ideas. Nouns that can be divided are called countable nouns, or simply count nouns.
The words much and many mean a lot of.
If a uncountable noun, we use much
Much money
If a countable noun, we use many
Many friend
Too much, on the other hand, is used to modify uncountable nouns, while too many
is used with countable nouns—they are not used with adjectives. For example, the
following sentences would both be incorrect:
✖ “It is too much big.”
✖ “It is too many big.”
We also must be sure not to use too much with a countable noun, nor too many with
an uncountable noun.
✖ “I have too much pieces of furniture.” (incorrect)
✔ “I have too many pieces of furniture.” (correct)