Review

Device and circuit

analysis basics
S.L. Dr. Ing. Gheorghe PRISTAVU
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Foreword
 This section aims to refresh the knowledge regarding
essential circuit analysis techniques (KTI, KTII, etc.), as
well as the operation of basic passive components
(resistors, capacitors, inductors).
 Don’t be afraid to revisit these slides as often as you
like, as the information contained herein are used
throughout the entire course!
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Voltage, current and devices

 With any given device, you can define voltages across it
and currents flowing through.
A VA A two-terminal device:
IA • Naming the terminals is important!
• Each terminal has an associated
VBA
AB = VB
A – VA
B electric potential.
• A voltage drop is defined as the
IB = – I A difference in potential.
B VB • You can choose the drop direction
anyway you like, but must respect the
calculation protocol!

• Current flow can be defined through any of the terminals.

• The flow direction can once again be chosen in either way, but calculating the
value must always take it into account!
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Voltage, current and devices

 Withany given device, you can define voltages across it
and currents flowing through.
A
For multi-terminal devices:
VDA VAB
IA • All device voltage drops respect KTII!
ID
D B –VCD
VAB+VBC+V DC+VDA = 0
IB
IC VBC
VDC
CD
• All current flows respect KTI!
C
–ICC+ID = 0
IA+IB+I
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Voltage, current and devices

 Calculating unknown quantities in a circuit:
VDD  
Consider that VDD, VAC and VB are known.
Determine VCD and VBC.
A
1. VDD – VAC – VCD = 0 VCD
VB
VAC
B
2. VB – VBC – VCD = 0 VBC
VBC
C

What about currents?

VCD

D
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Passive components: Resistor

  The resistor may have one of the following symbols:

 Itsvoltage drop and current flow are given by Ohm’s

law:

 Current flow and voltage drop must be taken in the

same direction in order for the above equation to hold
true! VR

IR
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Passive components: Voltage divider

 Consider the following circuit:
VDD  Determine the voltage drop on resistor Ri!

R1 The resistors are connected in series, therefore have the same

current!
IR

R2
The voltage drop on resistor Ri is:
…
It is essential to know how this divider works for 2 resistors:
Rn
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Passive components: Current divider

 Consider the following circuit:
 Determine the current flow through resistor Ri!
IIN
The resistors are connected in parallel, therefore have
VR R1 R2 … Rn the same voltage!

The current flow through resistor Ri is:

It is essential to know how this divider works for 2

resistors:
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Passive components: Inductor


 
Inductor symbol:

 Its voltage drop and current flow are given by the following equation:

 Basically, current through the inductor increases with time if the applied
voltage is in the same direction, or decreases with time if the applied
voltage has opposite direction!
 The AC impedance of the inductor is:

 As frequency increases, |ZL| increases, meaning that inductors become

open loop at very high operation frequencies.
 At zero frequency (DC), the inductor impedance is also null, meaning it is
a short circuit.
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Passive components: Capacitor


 
Common capacitor symbol:

 Its voltage drop and current flow are given by the following equation:

 Basically, voltage across the capacitor increases with time if current flows
in the same direction, or decreases with time if current flows in the
opposite direction!
 The AC impedance of the capacitor is:

 As frequency increases, |ZC| decreases, meaning that capacitors become

short circuit at very high operation frequencies.
 At zero frequency (DC), the capacitor impedance is infinite, meaning it is
an open loop.
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Circuit impedance example: Filter

 Consider the following circuit:
R
 Determine the transfer function of the circuit!

C
Vin Vout H() is a complex number, whose real and
imaginary parts are dependent on frequency
(=2πf ).
Its absolute value gives the amplitude ratio
between output and input voltages, while
gives the phase shift.

 
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Circuit impedance example: Filter

 Consider the following circuit:
R
 

C
Vin Vout As frequency increases, Vout decreases.
This means inputting high frequency signals
outputs nothing! We have a low-pass filter!

 
 Review
Semiconductor
Physics
S.L. Dr. Ing. Gheorghe PRISTAVU
 14

Current Conduction and Materials

 Solid-state materials can be classified into three groups:
insulators, semiconductors and conductors.
 Insulators are materials having an electrical resistivity over
100MΩ·cm (like diamond: 10TΩ·cm). It is regarded as if
these materials do not allow current to flow through them.
 Conductors are materials with very low resistivity, under
1mΩ·cm (like silver: 1µΩ·cm). It is considered that they
always allow current to flow through them.
 Semiconductors have a resistivity in the range of 100MΩ·cm
to 1mΩ·cm (Silicon: 100kΩ·cm to 1mΩ·cm). Being able to
condition their resistivity is the reason why all active
components are semiconductor-based.
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Doping Semiconductors
 In order to actually control a semiconductor material’s
resistivity, it needs to be doped.
 This essentially means to introduce foreign atoms in the
semiconductor crystal’s lattice.
 These foreign atoms lead to the generation of free
carriers, which are then able to contribute to current flow.
 Wut?

Fo
re
ig
n
ato
m
s
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Doping Semiconductors
 Silicon is a tetravalent semiconductor, meaning it has
four electrons on its last layer.
 In order to be more stable, it would need eight electrons on
that layer!
 Thus, a silicon atom groups up with four more atoms and
shares the four electrons.
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Doping Semiconductors
 In order to create free carriers inside silicon, either
pentavalent (such as Sb or P) or trivalent atoms (such as
B) are implanted inside the semiconductor, displacing
Si and forming new covalent bonds.
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Doping Semiconductors
 The free electrons and holes are not intimately bound to
an atom, therefore being susceptible to electric fields
(created by voltage drops, for example).

+ -
P P
V
– – –
–
– – –
N-Si
Si
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Energy bands
 There are two main
energy bands where a E
charge carrier can be: EC
 The valence band –
(electrons are attached to
their respective atoms).
 The conduction band
(electrons are free).
 Electrons cannot attain
energy levels in between
EG
conduction and valence
(cannot be inside the
band-gap).
 In order to change energy EV
bands, electrons must –
either absorb or release
energy. X
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Energy bands – The Fermi Level

 The

  probability that an electron
will occupy the E energy level E
is given by: EC

 EF , known as the Fermi level is

an energy level that has 50%
chance to be occupied by an
electron. EF
 It is a hypothetical level, as it
may lie inside the band-gap. EG
 For an undoped semiconductor,
the Fermi level is given by:
EV

X
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Energy bands – The Fermi Level

 For

  n-doped semiconductors,
an additional donor-level is E
created. EC
 The Fermi level is pulled closer ED
to the conduction band.
 Because of this, electrons
become much more likely to
occupy the conduction band, EF
becoming free carriers.
EG

EV

X
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Energy bands – The Fermi Level

 For

  p-doped semiconductors,
an additional acceptor-level is E
created. EC
 The Fermi level is pulled closer
to the valence band.
 Because of this, holes become
much more likely to occupy the
valence band, meaning that EF
they have freed up an electron
to contribute to current flow. EG
EA
EV

X
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Energy bands – The Fermi Level

 For

  compensated semiconductors,
both acceptor and donor levels E
are created. EC
 The Fermi level stays in the same ED
spot.
 This type of semiconductor
behaves much like an undoped
one (the dopants cancel each- EF
other out).
EG
EA
EV

X
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See you next

time!