UNIT V - Refrigeration

DR.R.ANANTHARAJ
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
SSN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,CHENNAI-603110
 Content

Principles of Refrigeration

Methods of Producing Refrigeration

Evaluation of the Performance of ;

Vapour compression cycles

Gas refrigeration cycles

Liquefaction Process
 Principles of Refrigeration
Refrigeration is the process of producing and maintaining a
temperature below that of the surrounding atmosphere.
 Uses of Refrigeration

Used in manufacturing synthetic rubber, textiles, chlorine,
plastics, hydrogen fluoride, etc.

Used to remove heat of chemical reactions

Used to liquefy process gases for gas separation by

distillation and condensation

Separation of volatile hydrocarbons in petroleum industries.

Separation of gasoline from natural gas.

Solvent recovery.

Crystallization of salts from solutions.

Manufacture of ice.

Treatment & transport and preservation of food and beverages


Air-conditioning of houses & buildings and domestic
refrigerators.

Used in the air – conditioning of plant areas as in the

manufacture of rayon, photographic film, gelatine, etc.
 Refrigerant

A refrigerant is a compounds that can readily absorb heat
at one temperature, then compressed by a heat pump to a
higher temperature and pressure where it changes phase
and discharges the absorbed heat.

Example : Fluorocarbons , Chlorofluorocarbons, Freon,

methyl chloride, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, propane,
and ammonia, etc.
 Choice of Refrigerant
Boiling temperature : it is necessary that the operating
pressure be maintained above atmospheric to avoid air and
moisture leaks into the system. The normal boiling point of
the refrigerant should be lower than the desired
temperature levels in the refrigerator.

Freezing point : the freezing point of the refrigerant should

be well below the minimum temperature at which the
system is operated.
Table : Freezing temperature, etc. for common refrigerants

Refrigerant Freezing Evaporator Condenser COP

Temperature in pressure at -15 pressure at 290
degree C degree degree C
Ammonia -77.8 2.34 11.5 5.09
Carbon dioxide -56.7 23.7 71.2 4.92
Refrigerant 11 -111 0.2055 1.2855 4.76
Refrigerant 12 -157.8 1.8 7.32 4.70
Refrigerant 22 -160 3.03 12.26 4.66
Refrigerant 113 -35 0.0704 0.5527 2.56
Water 0 - - -
Critical temperature and pressure : the critical temperature and pressure o
the refrigerant should be above the operating system temperature and
pressure. If the operating temperature is above the critical temperature, it i
impossible to condense the gas by compressing it to high pressure.

Condenser & evaporator pressures : the condenser pressure should not be

very high. If pressure is very high, the cost of equipment and the cost o
operation would be excessive. If the evaporator pressure is excessively low
the compression ratio would be abnormally.

Specific volume : Specific volume of vapour determines the size of the

compressor.

Latent heat : A high latent heat of vaporization of the refrigerant is desired

because it results in high refrigerating effect per unit weight of the
refrigerant and low rate of circulation of the refrigerant.

Specific heat of liquid : If the specific heat of the refrigerant liquid is
usually high.

Molecular weight: molecular weight of the refrigerant affect the

compressor size because the specific volume of the vapour is related to it.

Safety aspects: Refrigerants are grouped accordingly toxicity and

flammability.

Halogenated hydrocarbons are relatively non flammable, non toxic, and

non explosive
the highly flammable and explosive refrigerants like propane, propylene,
ethane, ethylene, methane, etc
 Refrigerant Types and Characteristics

obal Warming Potential (GWP) is a simplified index that estimates the potential future influence on glob
rming associated with different gases when released to the atmosphere.
 Refrigerant Types and Characteristics

►Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are early

ynthetic refrigerants each containing chlorine. Because of the adverse effect of chlorine
on Earth’s stratospheric ozone layer, use of these refrigerants is regulated by internation
agreement.
►Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and HFC blends are chlorine-free refrigerants. Blends
ombine two or more HFCs. While these chlorine-free refrigerants do not contribute to
ozone depletion, with the exception of R-1234yf, they have high GWP levels.
►Natural refrigerants are nonsynthetic, naturally occurring substances which serve as
efrigerants. These include carbon dioxide, ammonia, and hydrocarbons. These
efrigerants feature low GWP values; still, concerns have been raised over the toxicity of
NH3 and the safety of the hydrocarbons.
Methods of Producing Refrigeration

Dry ice refrigeration

Evaporative refrigeration

Thermo-electric refrigeration

Steam jet refrigeration

Liquid gas refrigeration

Vortex tube system of refrigeration

 Dry ice refrigeration

Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice refrigeration

It has a peculiar characteristics that it changes from solid state to vapour state
without getting converted into intermediate liquid state (sublimation). Due to
the change of state, it absorbs heat equivalent to enthalpy of vaporization.

The sublimation temperature of dry ice at atmospheric pressure is -78 degree

C.

Dry ice refrigeration is used to preserve foodstuff during transportation

 Evaporative refrigeration

Evaporative refrigeration make use of the principle that when a liquid

evaporates, it absorbs heat equivalent to its latent heat of vaporization
from the surroundings, thereby cooling it.

Example : Cooling tower, evaporative type of condenser and room

coolers
 Thermo-electric refrigeration

Thermo-electric refrigeration type employs PELTIERS EFFECT. When
two dissimilar metals are joined on either ends and a direct gets
cooled while the other gets heated

Example : antimony and bismuth

 Steam jet refrigeration

The principle of steam jet refrigeration is that the boiling point of
water can be reduced by reducing the pressure. At standard
atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is 100 degree C. If the
atmospheric pressure is lowered, the boiling point is considerably
reduced.

Example : at pressure 6.5 cm of water, the boiling point of water is

considerably reduced to 5 cm of water, its boiling point reduce to 6
degree C.
 Liquid gas refrigeration

Liquid gases which can be utilized for producing refrigeration should
be non-toxic. Due to this limitation only nitrogen and liquid carbon
dioxide can be utilized for the purpose.

Liquid gas is filled in a well insulated cylinder and its quantity

regulated by means of a valve.
 REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS
The transfer of heat from a low-temperature region to a high
temperature one requires special devices called refrigerators

Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the same device

they differ in their objectives only.

for fixed values of QL and QH

he objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat (QL) from the cold medium; the
bjective of a heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm medium.
 Co – efficient of Performance
The co-efficient of performance of a refrigerator is defined as
the quantity of heat absorbed at the low temperature per
unit of work.
HTR
Q1
Q2 Q2
COP = = Re Wnet
W Q1 − Q2
Q2
LTR
 Refrigerator Capacity
The refrigerator capacity determines the rate of circulation of the
refrigerant, the common and standard unit generally used is ton of
refrigeration.

In FPS units, one ton of refrigeration is defined as a capacity to freeze

one ton of water from 0 degree in 24 hours. It is withdrawal of heat at
a rate of 200BTU /min. the latent heat of ice is 144 BTU/ lb.
2000lb*144BTU/ lb
1TR = = 200BTU/min
24*60
In MKS units, one ton of refrigeration is equal to 3.517 KW.
72000
1TR = = 3.517 kW
24 * 60
 Refrigeration Cycles

Air or Gas refrigeration cycle

Vapour - Compression cycle

Carnot refrigeration cycle

Absorption refrigeration cycle

 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

►Most common refrigeration cycle in use today

►There are four principal control

volumes involving these components:
►Evaporator
►Compressor
►Condenser
►Expansion valve Two-phase
liquid-vapor mixture

energy transfers by work and heat are taken as positive in the directions of the
rows on the schematic and energy balances are written accordingly.
he processes of this cycle are
rocess 4-1: two-phase liquid-vapor mixture of
efrigerant is evaporated through heat transfer
om the refrigerated space.
rocess 1-2: vapor refrigerant is compressed to
relatively high temperature and pressure
equiring work input.
rocess 2-3: vapor refrigerant condenses to
quid through heat transfer to the cooler Two-phase
urroundings. liquid-vapor mixture

rocess 3-4: liquid refrigerant expands to the

vaporator pressure.
►Applying mass and energy rate balances

Evaporator Qɺ in
= h1 − h 4
mɺ

►The term Qɺ is referred to as the refrigeration capacity,

in
expressed in kW in the SI unit system or Btu/h in the English unit
system.
►A common alternate unit is the ton of refrigeration which equals
200 Btu/min or about 211 kJ/min.
►Applying mass and energy rate balances

Compressor
Wɺ c
Assuming adiabatic compression = h 2 − h1
mɺ
Condenser

Qɺ out
= h2 − h3
mɺ
Expansion valve h4 = h3
Assuming a throttling process
►Performance parameters

Coefficient of Performance (COP)

Carnot Coefficient of Performance

This equation represents the maximum theoretical coefficient

performance of any refrigeration cycle operating between cold and h
regions at TC and TH, respectively.
 Features of Actual Vapor-Compression Cycle
Heat transfers between refrigerant and cold and warm regions are not reversible.

Refrigerant temperature in evaporator is less than TC.

Refrigerant temperature in condenser is greater than TH.
Irreversible heat transfers have negative effect on performance.
►The COP decreases – primarily due to increasing compressor work input – as the

►temperature of the refrigerant passing through

the evaporator is reduced relative to the
temperature of the cold region, TC. Trefrigerant ↑

►temperature of the refrigerant passing through

the condenser is increased relative to the temperature
of the warm region, TH.

Trefrigerant ↓
►Irreversibilities during the compression process are suggested by dashed line from state 1
state 2.

►An increase in specific entropy accompanies an

adiabatic irreversible compression process. The
work input for compression process 1-2 is greater
than for the counterpart isentropic compression
process 1-2s.

►Since process 4-1, and thus the refrigeration capacity, is the same for cycles 1-2-3-4-1
and 1-2s-3-4-1, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 has the lower COP.
 sentropic Compressor Efficiency

►The isentropic compressor efficiency is the ratio of the minimum theoretical work input to the actual work input, e
per unit of mass flowing:

work required in an isentropic compression from

compressor inlet state to the exit pressure

work required in an actual compression

from compressor inlet state to exit pressure
ctual Vapor-Compression Cycle
ample: The table provides steady-state operating data for a vapor-
mpression refrigeration cycle using R-134a as the working fluid. For
efrigerant mass flow rate of 0.08 kg/s, determine the

compressor power, in kW,

refrigeration capacity, in tons,
coefficient of performance,
isentropic compressor efficiency.
State 1 2s 2 3 4
(kJ/kg) 241.35 272.39 280.15 91.49 91.49
ctual Vapor-Compression Cycle
State 1 2s 2 3 4
h (kJ/kg) 241.35 272.39 280.15 91.49 91.49

(a) The compressor power is

Wɺ c = mɺ ( h 2 − h1 )

 kg  kJ 1 kW
Wɺ c =  0 . 08  ( 280 . 15 − 241 . 35 ) = 3.1 kW
 s  kg 1 kJ/s
(b) The refrigeration capacity is

Qɺ in = mɺ ( h1 − h 4 )

 kg  kJ 1 ton 60 s
Q in =  0 . 08
ɺ  ( 241 . 35 − 91 . 49 ) = 3.41 tons
 s  kg 211 kJ/min min
ctual Vapor-Compression Cycle
State 1 2s 2 3 4
h (kJ/kg) 241.35 272.39 280.15 91.49 91.49

(c) The coefficient of performance is

( h1 − h 4 )
β =
( h 2 − h1 )

( 241 . 35 − 91 . 49 ) kJ/kg
β = = 3.86
( 280 . 15 − 241 . 35 ) kJ/kg
ctual Vapor-Compression Cycle
State 1 2s 2 3 4
h (kJ/kg) 241.35 272.39 280.15 91.49 91.49

(d) The isentropic compressor

efficiency is

ηc =
(Wɺ c / mɺ )s =
( h 2 s − h1 )
Wɺ c / mɺ ( h 2 − h1 )

( 272 . 39 − 241 . 35 ) kJ/kg

ηc = = 0.8 = 80%
( 280 . 15 − 241 . 35 ) kJ/kg
 p-h Diagram

The pressure-enthalpy (p-h) diagram is a thermodynamic property diagram

ommonly used in the refrigeration field.
 Air or Gas Refrigeration Cycle

Air refrigeration cycle is one of the earliest methods of cooling developed.

The refrigeration cycle in which air is used as a refrigerant without applying

any conventional refrigerant like CFC-12 is known as air refrigeration cycle.

The major examples are; Stirling refrigeration and Bell – Coleman

refrigeration system.

Air absorbs the heat from a low temperature system and discharges the
same to high – temperature system.
 Air or Gas Refrigeration Cycle

As air does not change its phase throughout the cycle, the heat
carrying capacity per kg of air is very small compared with that of the
vapour absorbing machine.

It can be dived into two cycles

Open cycle

Closed cycle
 Open - Air or Gas Refrigeration Cycle

In this cycle, the working fluid, i.e., air comes directly to
contact with the products which it is desired to refrigerate in
the cold chamber.
Closed- Air or Gas Refrigeration Cycle

In this cycle the air passes through the refrigerating coils placed in
the chamber (SINK), and there extracts the heat energy from the cold
region without coming in direct contact with things kept inside.
 Bell – Coleman Refrigeration Cycle

Isobaric Heat rejection

3 Cooler
2

entropic Expansion Isentropic Compression

Turbine Compressor

4 Evaporator 1

Isobaric Heat addition

Performance of Bell-Coleman Cycle
Heat Extracted
COPBCR =
Work done

mcp (T1 − T4 )
=
mcp (T2 − T3 ) − mcp (T1 − T4 )
Advantages of closed system over open
system

In an open system, the working medium absorbs moisture from the freezer
box or the space which is to be cooled. During expansion, the moisture may
freeze.

In an open system, the expansion can be carried only up to the atmospheric
pressure, but for a closed system there is no such restriction.

In a closed system the suction to the compressor may be at high pressure. The
sizes of the expander and the compressor can be kept within reasonable limits
by using dense air.
 Advantages of vapor refrigeration cycle over air
refrigeration cycle

The COP of the vapor cycle lies between 3 and 4, whereas for the air cycle it is always less than 1.

The running cost of the vapor refrigeration cycle is only one-fifth of the air refrigeration cycle when
used at the ground level.

As heat is carried away by the latent heat of vapor, the amount of liquid circulated is less per ton of
refrigeration; therefore, the size of the evaporator is similar for the same refrigerating effect.

Just by adjusting the throttle valve of the same unit, the required temperature of the evaporator can be
attained.
Dis-advantages of vapor refrigeration cycle
over air refrigeration cycle

The first investment cost is high

There is a risk of leakage of the refrigerant, leading to ozone layer depletion in

the stratosphere.
Liquefaction
The refinery process of converting natural gas or other gaseous
hydrocarbons into longer chain hydrocarbons such as gasoline or
diesel fuel.
 Methods

Compress the gas at temperatures less than its critical temperature

Make the gas do work against an external force, causing the gas to lose energy and change to a liquid
state

Make gas do work against its own internal forces, causing it to lose energy and liquefy.

Cascade process - use one liquefied gas to liquefy another

Joule-Thomson effect - compress and then rapidly expand the gas

Liquefaction Temperatures
 Liquid Natural Gas (LNG)

Cooled until it Liquefies @ -160°C

Reduces volume 600 times

Colorless, Odorless and Non-Toxic

Safe to transport and store

Shipped and Stored at Atmospheric Pressure

 LNG Chain
Transmission
as Well Pipeline Shipping

Market

Field Liquefaction
Processing Receiving
Terminal
 Natural Gas Liquefaction Process -161ºC
GAS GAS
Treatment
and
Purification

Storage

Removes condensate, CO2,

Mercury, and H2S
Causes dehydration Refrigerant
Loop

LNG

Compression
Environmental Advantages

Virtually no ash, sludge or hazardous waste is produced

Particulate emissions are approximately 95% less than burning coal

Over Coal, Distillate and Naphtha LNG has lower:

Sulfur dioxide emissions (by 100%),

Nitrogen Oxide emissions (by 75%)

Carbon Dioxide emissions (by 50%)