GENDER AND

SEX
U N D E R S TA N D I N G T H E P S Y C H O L O G Y
R O B E RT S . F E L D M A N
OBJECTIVES:
• To determine the differences of sex and gender
• To learn the society’s expectations for men and women
• To know the sources of gender differences
• And to acknowledge the importance of gender
equality
Sex refers to sexual
anatomy and sexual
behavior. It refers to the
biological and
physiological
characteristics that
define men and women.
Gender is the perception of being
male or female, whereas gender
refers to the sense of maleness or
femaleness related to our
membership in a given society.

- It refers to the socially constructed

roles, behaviors, activities and
attributes that a given society
considers appropriate for men and
women.
Intersex is a variation in sex
characteristics including
chromosomes, gonads, or genitals
that do not allow an individual to
be distinctly identified as male or
female.
Gender identity is the extent to
which one identifies with their sex
assigned at birth. In many Western
cultures, individuals who identify with
a role that is different from their
biological sex are called transgender.
DIFFERENCES OF SEX AND
GENDER
Sex Gender
Biological and physiological Social and Cultural
Categories: Male and Female Masculine and Feminine
Fixed at birth Learned through socialization
Equally valued Unequal valued
GENDER ROLES: SOCIETY’S
EXPECTATIONS FOR WOMEN AND
MEN
Gender Roles - The set of expectations, defined by a
particular society, that indicate what is appropriate
behavior for men and women.

Sexism - Negative attitudes and behavior toward a

person based on that person’s gender.
Words Used to Describe Males Words Used to Describe Females
Aggressive Affected
Ambitious Affectionate
Arrogant Attractive
Assertive Charming
Autocratic Curious
Clear-thinking Dependent
Courageous Dreamy
Cruel Emotional
Daring Fearful
Dominant Feminine
Forceful Gentle
Hardheaded Mild
Independent Sensitive
Initiative Sentimental
Inventive Sexy
Lazy Softhearted
Logical Submissive
Loud Superstitious
Masculine Talkative
Realistic Weak
Self-confident
Serious
Strong
Unemotional
In Western society men are more apt to be viewed
as having traits involving competence, such as
independence, objectivity, and competitiveness. In
contrast, women tend to be seen as having traits
involving warmth and expressiveness, such as
gentleness and awareness of others’ feelings.
(Eagly, Beall, & Sternberg, 2005; Hyde, Mezulis, &
Abramson, 2008; Kiefer, 2006)
Stereotypes potentially keep inequalities between
the genders alive. Stereotypes put pressure on
people to fulfill the stereotypes, and they may lead
people to perform in accordance with the
stereotypes rather than in accordance with their
own abilities. Attaining gender equality remains a
significant challenge throughout the world (Lips,
2003)
SEXISM ON THE JOB
Differences still exist regarding which occupations are
deemed appropriate for men and for women. Women
continue to be viewed as best suited for traditionally
female jobs that often feature low pay and low status.
Furthermore, women hold lower expectations than men
about their entering and peak salaries.
(Crawford & Unger, 2004; MacPherson, 2002; Casad,
2007).
Glass ceiling is an invisible barrier
within an organization that may
prevent women from being
promoted beyond a certain level
because of gender discrimination.
SEXUAL HARASSMENT
Sexual Harassment is defined as unwanted
sexual attention, the creation of a hostile or
abusive environment, or explicit coercion to
engage in unwanted sexual activity.
One-fifth of women surveyed in polls say that
they have been sexually harassed at work. And
it is not just women who encounter harassment:
Some 10% of men report experiencing sexual
harassment on the job

(Willness, Steel, & Lee, 2007; O’Leary-Kelly et

al., 2009; Pina, Gannon, & Saunders, 2009).
People in these situations often suffer
emotional and physical consequences,
and the quality of their work may
decline. Furthermore, they are less
likely to believe they can attain higher
positions (Magley, 2002; Miner-Rubino
& Cortina, 2007; Chiodo et al., 2009).
GENDER DIFFERENCES: MORE
SIMILAR THAN DISSIMILAR
PERSONALITY FACTORS
One of the most pronounced differences between men and
women lies in their degree of aggressive behavior. By the time
they are 2 years old, boys tend to display more aggression than
girls do, and this higher level of aggression persists throughout the
life span.
(Feingold, 1994; Munroe et al., 2000; Hyde, Mezulis, &
Abramson, 2008).
COGNITIVE ABILITIES

Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin carried out a

pioneering study of sex differences in 1974, they
concluded that girls outperformed boys in verbal
abilities and that boys had superior quantitative and
spatial abilities. That conclusion was accepted
widely as one of the truisms of the psychological
literature.
Psychologist Janet Hyde and colleagues,
examined mathematical performance of male
and females.
•females slightly outperformed males in math in
elementary and middle school. The finding was
reversed in high school, where males scored
higher in mathematical problem solving.
Japanese boys and girls perform quite similarly on math
tests Japanese girls routinely outperform both boys and
girls in the United States on comparable tests of
mathematical ability.
In Iceland, for instance, female high school students score
significantly better on standardized math tests than boys.
Overall, the differences between males and females in
math are inconsistent. (Benbow, Lubinski, & Hyde, 1997;
Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald, 2002; Angier & Chang,
2005; Walt, 2005).
Differences such as these illustrate the fact
that we still do not have the full story on
gender differences in cognitive abilities
(Halpern, 2000; Lippa, 2005; Ripley,
2005).
BIOLOGICAL AND
EVOLUTIONARY FACTORS
Do differences between male and female brains underlie sex
and gender differences? This intriguing hypothesis has been
put forward by some psychologists studying brain structure
and functioning.
Similarly, some evidence suggests that women perform
better on tasks involving verbal skill and muscular
coordination during periods when their production of the
female sex hormone estrogen is relatively high, compared
with periods when it is low. In contrast, they perform better
on tasks involving spatial relationships when the estrogen
level is relatively low (Kimura, 1999; Rosenberg & Park,
2002).
Some psychologists argue that evolutionary
forces lead to certain differences between
men’s and women’s behavior. (Buss et al.,
1992; Buss, 2003c).
According to Buss’s controversial explanation,
the root cause for the differences in jealousy
lies in the evolutionary implications of sexual,
versus emotional, infidelity for men and
women.
Psychologists relying on the evolutionary
approach also argue that similarities in the
division of labor between men and women across
different cultures suggest that sex differences
are due to evolutionary factors. (Mealey, 2000;
Buss, 2003c).
The extent to which biological and evolutionary factors
may underlie gender differences is unanswered, and
highly controversial, question. One thing is clear,
however: Biological factors and evolutionary factors
alone do not explain the complete range of
differences between male and female behavior. To
fully understand the source of gender differences, we
also must consider the social environment.
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

Starting from the moment of birth, most parents

and other adults provide environments that differ
in important respects according to gender.

Parents interact with their children differently,

depending on their sex.
Socialization is the process by
which an individual learns the
rules and norms of appropriate
behavior.
According to the processes of social learning theory,
boys and girls are taught, and rewarded for
performing, the socially perceived appropriate
behaviors for men and for women, respectively
(Archer & Lloyd, 2002; Liben & Bigler, 2002).
Society as a whole communicates clear
messages to children as they are growing
up. Children’s reading books traditionally
have portrayed girls in stereotypically
nurturing roles, whereas boys have been
given more physical and action-oriented
roles.
Our educational system also treats boys and girls
differently. (AAUW, 1992; Sadker & Sadker, 1994;
Einarsson & Granstroem, 2002; Koch, 2003)
According to Sandra
Bem (1998),
Gender schema - a
mental framework that
organizes and guides a
child’s understanding of
information relevant to
gender.
Bem suggests that one way to decrease the
likelihood that children will develop gender
schemas is to encourage them to be
androgynous. Androgynous individuals
combine the psychological and behavioral
characteristics thought typical of both
sexes.
LGBTQIA+
A D D I T I O N A L I N F O R M AT I O N |
LESBIAN
Women who experience sexual,
romantic, physical, and/or
spiritual attraction to other
women.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
GAY
Used in some cultural settings to represent men
who are attracted to men in a romantic, erotic
and/or emotional sense. Not all men who
engage in same-gender sexual behavior identify
as gay, and as such this label should be used
with caution.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
BISEXUAL OR BI
A person who experiences sexual, romantic,
physical, and/or spiritual attraction to more
than one gender, not necessarily at the
same time, in the same way, or to the same
degree.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
TRANSGENDER
A person whose sense of personal identity or
gender does not correspond to the sex they
were assigned at birth, or does not conform
to gender stereotypes. Sexual orientation
varies and is not dependent on gender
identity.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
QUEER
A multi-faceted word that is used in different ways and
means different things to different people. 1) Attraction to
people of many genders. 2) Don’t conform to cultural norms
around gender and/or sexuality. 3) General term referring
to all non-heterosexual people. Some within the community,
however, may feel the word has been hatefully used
against them for too long and are reluctant to embrace it.

© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions

QUESTIONING
An individual who is unsure of
and/or exploring their gender
identity and/or sexual
orientation.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
INTERSEX
An umbrella term that describes people
born with any of 30 different variations
in sex characteristics including
chromosomes, gonads, sex hormones, or
genitals.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
ASEXUAL
A person who experiences little or no sexual attraction to
others and/or a lack of interest in sexual
relationships/behavior. They may or may not experience
emotional, physical, or romantic attraction. Asexuality
differs from celibacy in that it is a sexual orientation, not
a choice. People who are asexual may call themselves
ace.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
AROMANTIC
A person who experiences little or no sexual attraction to
others and/or a lack of interest in sexual
relationships/behavior. They may or may not experience
emotional, physical, or romantic attraction. Asexuality
differs from celibacy in that it is a sexual orientation, not
a choice. People who are asexual may call themselves
ace
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
PANSEXUAL
A person who experiences sexual,
romantic, physical, and/or spiritual
attraction for members of all
gender identities/expressions.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
NON-BINARY OR ENBY
A person whose gender identity
does not fall within the binary
genders of man or woman.

© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions

GENDERFLUID
A person who does not identify
with the gender binary and move
within genders and gender
stereotypes.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
GENDERQUEER
A person who does not identify or express their
gender within the gender binary. Those who identify
as genderqueer may identify as neither men nor
women, may see themselves as outside of or in
between the gender binary, or may simply feel
restricted by gender labels.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
AGENDER
A person with no (or very little) connection
to gender, no personal alignment with the
concepts of either man or woman, and/or
someone who sees themselves as existing
without gender.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
HETEROSEXISM
Prejudice against individuals and groups who display
non-heterosexual behaviors or identities, combined
with the majority power to impose such prejudice.
Usually used to the advantage of the group in power.
Any attitude, action, or practice backed by an
institutional power that subordinates people because
of their sexual orientation.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
CISGENDER
A person whose sense of personal
identity or gender does correspond
to the sex they were assigned at
birth.
© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions
LGBTQI ALLY
Someone who confronts heterosexism, anti-
LGBTQIA biases, heterosexual and cisgender
privilege in themselves and others; believes
that heterosexism, homophobia, biphobia,
and transphobia are social justice issues.

© 2019 Vanderbilt University https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/resources/definitions