Sab PROCEEDINGS OF THE 3" INTERNATIONAL GONFERENDE POWER TRANSMISSIONS '09 12 GoToseR 2003, CHALKIpIK, GREECE ou. A. MinaIBIS LEAF SPRING SUSPENSION DESIGN OF COMMERCIAL VEHICLES BASED ON ‘THEORETICAL METHODS Georgios SAVAIDIS, Alexandros SAVAIDIS, Michail MALIKOUTSAKIS, Nikolaos VAXEVANIDIS Abstract: A finite element (FE) based procedure is proposed to evaluate, assess and, if necessary, optimise the kinemat ies and stress-strain behaviour of spring suspension systems for commercial vehicles, It gives assistance to the design engineerin refer t0 (a) important issues and details thas have to be taken into account during FE modelling of the sus- pension system, (6) load configurations that have to be calculated and (c) standardized design loads that have to be applied. Standardized wheel foad spectra (SPRILOS) are suggested to be used for the derivation of appropriate design Toads for the theoretical analyses. The advantage of the proposed methodology is that it can be applied in a very early stage of development, when prototypes are not available, since it uses only standardlized leaf material and geometric configuration data, Furthermore, the recommended design load spectra according to SPRILOS seta reliable basis to derive adequate test spectra for the series release durability approval of leaf spring suspension systems. Keywords: Fatigue, automotive, leaf springs, suspension systems, finite elements 1, INTRODUCTION Leaf springs are a very efficient solution fr the guide of rigid axles from both a technical point of view and with rogard to costs. The basic advantage of leaf suspension is that axle guiding and suspension are incorporated in one component (Figure Fig, 1. Leaf spring based suspension and guiding system of a non-driven front axle Owing to its highly integrated functions leaf suspension poses a variety of challenging technical problems. The two basic problems are the guarantee of perfect position- ing (optimized kinematics behaviou) and of an adequate service life. The present paper focuses on these {Wo is- sues, It shows @ finite element based methodology to evaluate, assess and optimize both the kinematics and the stress-strain behaviour of leaf spring suspension systems of commercial vehicles. The corresponding design loads are derived from standardized wheel load spectra reported in literature, In addition, the wheel load data used setle a reliable base for the derivation of appropriate fatigue test Programmes applied for the experimental durability ap- broval of the most promising design solution, 2. THEORETICAL ASSESSMENT BASED ON FE ANALYSES Following initial discussions among the responsible ena neers, during which requirements and wishes are defined and their economic realisation is cousidered, the design engineering department brings its wide experience to bear and designs «suitable springypile. Besides the desired spring rate and camber, minimisation of maintenance ‘Work is also taken into account. In new generation springs plain bearings in both leaf spring eyes have been dis- pensed with. They are replaced by maintenance-free mo- lecular bearings ‘Considering these topics and on the basis of simple ana lytical calculations (1, 2] the design enginecring depart ‘ent proposes first Solutions for the spring and axle kcinematics. In a second step, the axle kinematics and the stress-strain behaviour of the spring must be calculated and, if necessary, optimized, Since the springs are sub- jected toa large amount of deformation, iterative, geomet- Tically nonclinear finite element caleuations must be ‘made which consider changes in the geometry and any contacts that may arise, The modelling procedure has been initially reported in (3, 4} Finite element mesh Figure 2 shows a typical finite element mesh for a non- driven front mle suspension system. It consists of the springs with suspension, the axle beam, the steering knuckles with wheels, the wheel steering arm, the steering drag Tink and the drop arm. Whilst the springs and the axle beams are illustrated in detail with volume elements, the other components are modelled using bar elements. 309Fig. 2. Finite element modelling of the axle suspension ‘and guiding system Axle kinematies ‘The objective of the calculation analysis of the axle kine- ‘matics is to minimise the influence of the leaf spring de- formation on the roll-steer behaviour. Emphasis is given (0 vertical loading and braking events, An optimum situation is achieved if elastokinematics ‘movements of the front axle do not cause any reaction at the stecring system. In the case of vertical deflections of the springs this condition can be relatively easily achieved by (1) modifications in the design of the wheel steering arm or 2) a change in the postion of the steering gear Therewith, optimised kinematic behaviour that is free of Selfinduced roll-steer effects during vertical deffection can be obtained, The situation is considerably more difficu braking, The acting brake force yields an "S*-shaped de- ection of the spring (Figure 3), This "S”-shaped deflec. tion ofthe spring causes a change in the kinematics ofthe front axle system which can result in unwelcome sworn. ing of the vehicle. In addition, the brake bending moment causes the axle system to rotate about the Y-axis, The resulting subsequent displacement of the wheel steering arm, which is not situated at the instant centre of this ‘movement, in both dircctions, x and z, can lead to a roll, steer effect, Further, as a result of braking, longitudinal forees are acting inthe negative z direction causing tongi- tudinal displacements. if the kinematics influences are cotimised this effect can, however, be completely sup- pressed [5] in the case of tvs arecton Fee 74 i Fre sont fe Ay Pig. 3. S-shape deformation and sres distribution curing braking 310 Stress calculation A sro of ving tet in th past in which stain gage ‘ete applied fo he sping lees, hve shone nae arate loa sess ahd stain aie ia voice ee Wiley (6,7) Figute 3 shows the stereo along the lea lengt scoring fo the FE eae th event of violet braking, Very nigh beseech seu of th sings on be ober. Tis ype of ea therefore considerably in uenes the sie eas spring sytem, The magnitude of the loa st Strain canbe restioted by usage of additonal canta sing clement, the so-called idle and "5" see Fig Hed tothe vohicle ame, whieh eee the prevalng fres from he spring Ine thee Owing to their frequency, pute verted! dfectons are ao of grat import, inthis case eo ne stesies due to vertical loading can be kept exec wie ranges ofthe leaves its geomet dese timed A fiter ital oe stustion is onesded compression tn ane to eloulate the leaf tehovour at ie tae Touding, the FE model nmst be extended to ako go vehicle fame. As ares of the asymmettal dee ton that isto be expected the load on the sping fn, influenced bythe rgiiy of the fame The oe has not yt been cared oul and is therefor ot dey tere Inde ate ofthe designed sping lent opin the iity af the wo sping eyes, which are neceaaey fos ap Kinematics, the thikess ofthe ea has been cle leet te sulicient ( Keep the acting lel sense belo he alewabe (rea) vale A ajor task forthe optimisation oF kinematisand expe Gilly the suesstrain behaviour by means of Ts og Knowledge of maximum design load, load values te ray aise daring the various driving ianocuvren Desi lead en be aceatly derived fo conespondny eked load measurements, if availble for the aie seen confgiation under cotsieration. Noweveh ip hens early stuge of development such menses nesmell, do not exis. In this sage the standardised deter eed specs SPRILOS (SPRIng LOed Seuenes) [ye sek gesied 10 be used to detive appromite aoe lok Thereby, maximum vues for all oad compensa (oat ca, longitudinal, transversal acting atthe wheel estat Point ae proposed dependent on the pajead far sb silty of occurence of P%, Le. only 1% of pose ‘operational loads may oveteed ihe proposed vluce 3. TECHNOLOGICAL INFLUENCING FAC- ‘TORS ‘Besides the mechanical stress-strain behaviour that can be accurately calculated by means of FE analyses, techno- logical factors resulting from the thermo-mechanical sur- face treatment, e.g. residual stresses, and the surface al- ‘erations, ie., surface integrity states, strongly influence the fatigue life of leaf springs and have to be taken into consideration. These influences are briefly presented be- low. Surface integrity of fabricated parts is a comprehensive oneept which describes the change of chemical and me- (ee caw cae et RRu i ee ‘chanical propertios of material in surface layer, induced ‘during different manufacturing processes. It is usually divided info 4 main categories [8]: (a) sucface geometry factors: such a8 surface roughness, sretch, ele; (b) sur- face structure factors: microstructure, dislocation density and configuration, non-metallic inclusions, ete; (c) me- chanical factors: micro-hardness in the surface layer, sur- face strength, surface fatigue limit of material, as well as residual stress distribution long surface layer and (4) chemicaVelectrochemical factors: surface free energy, electric poteney entropy, ete. Aer machining, the ma- chine paris often undergo different manufacturing proc- ‘esses: heat-ieatment (quenching and tempering), grinding (or even electro-polishing) and, in some cases, electro- plating, The last two are, however, only exceptional used in leaf spring constructions. All these processes cause different surface integrity changes on the machine parts, ‘whieh have important influence on their mechanical prop- ceties, especially on their resistance to failures initiated from the surface, such as fatigue and sttess corrosion cracking, Despite considerable advances in understanding fatigue ver the last 30 years, the role of surface roughness is not fully understood. While changes in roughness affect the fatigue life, the effect is difficult to separate from the changes in surface chemistry and structure. The Lipson curves [9], which provide a load (stress) factor depending on the surface conditions, have been published for some time, but they should only be used to capture qualitative trends. The Lipson approach uses the fatigue notch factor, ,, which depends on the theoretical stress concentration factor, material hardness (or strength), and notch size, Although this approach is useful as @ first approximetion, ‘better model that encompasses the deteiled characteris- ties of the surfaces and the fatigue crack grovrth behav- ‘our is needed to capture the lifetimes over a broad range of conditions; see Ref. [10} In conventional fatigue life prediction, surface quality is accounted by using empirical correction factors that alter the endurance life. Surface factors are defined according to the machining process such as grinding, forging and polishing. Within each category, surface measurements yield geometric averages such as average roughness R,, Taximum peak-to valley height Ray, and 10-point rough- ness R, A surface factor is found by regression wi or several such parameters, providing an empiri the observed recinetion in endurance life. This can yield accurate predictions when used with appropriate reduction factors, Finding the appropriate ones, however, is not straightforward due to the many alloys and machining processes available as it s indicated in (11). Jn general, any deviation from a polished surface reduces endurance strength because the rougher surface provides sites where locally increased stresses or inegularities in the material structure promote the initiation of micro- scopic cracks that can progress to fatigue failures. Menue facturing processes, corrosion, and careless handling pro- duce detrimental surface roughening Fig 4 adapted from data in [12], shows estimates for the ‘endurance strength compared with the ultimate tensile strength of stels for several practical surface conditions. ‘The data first estimate the endurance strength for the pol- ished specimen to be approximately 0.5 times the ultimate strength and then apply a factor related to the surface condition, tng 8h Perrier ‘ie EEE #E ‘wt ae Fig. 4. Endurance strength versus tensile strength for ‘wrought steel of various surface conditions [12] From the curves plotted in Fig, 4 itis evident that special attention should be given to surface finish of critical eom- ponents exposed to fatigue loading in order to benefit, from the steel’s basic strength, Besides surface finish, residual stress field developed during the manufacturing process and the subsequent thermo-chemical treatment of leaf springs is the main surface integrity parameter which affects considerably the fatigue lite Fatigue failures typically initiate at locations of relatively high tensile stress. Any manufacturing process that tends {o produce residual tensile stress will decrease the endur- tc strength of the component. Welding typically is known as a process that produces residual tensile stress. Grinding and machining, especially with high material removal raies, also cause undesirable residual tensile stresses, Critical areas of cyclically loaded components should be machined or ground in a gentle fashion with a possible subsequent thermal treatment Processes that produce residual compressive stresses have been proved to be beneficial. Amongst these processes shot peening and stress peening is extensively used t Improve the fatigue life of leaf springs [13] ‘The positive influence of shot peening on the fatigue properties of metallic parts is attributed mainly to two reasons: (a the formation of residual compressive stresses at the surface or at layers near to the surface and (b) the col working effect of the surface area yielding to a higher strength, For a variety of applications not only in the automotive but also in the aeronautical indusiry and for biomaterials shot peening has grown up to an indis- pensable treatment for cyclic loaded parts A discussion on the development of residual stresses due to shot peening in beyond the scope of present paper and the relative literature is quite extensive; see for example [14], However it should be emphasized that two different patterns of residual stresses due to shot peening are en- countered: Shot pening can produce compressive resid ual stress distributions with a maximum magnitude atthe surface, often observed in soft materials, as well as with a au‘maximum magnitude below the surface, mostly observed jn materials of medium harness and exclusively ob- served in hard materials, ‘Two different deformation processes accounts for these patterns, One of these processes is the direct plastic elongation of layers very close to the surfuce as a consequence of tan- ential forces due to numerous shot indentations, This ‘Brocess is comparable ti hammering of the surface and is indicated by an increase of surface roughness or surface ‘hardness. The elastic-plastic elongation of the surface layer results in compressive residual stresses with a ‘maximum magnitude at the very surface, as illustrated in Fig 5(b), if this effect isthe only or predominant one The second residual stress generating process can be Hertzian pressure which arises as a consequence of the vertical force connected with the impact of each shot bal. The theory of Hertz describes the course of normal stresses below a surface on which for instance a ball is Dressed statically; see also {14, 15], This type of residaal stress pattern is illustrated in Fig 5(8), ‘Typical residual stress distributions in hardened steel (J6MnCr5, 385 HV) after peening with shots of different diameter and with different shot velocities are presented in Fig. 6. Such distributions are quite favourable as far as the fatigue resistance of ieaf springs is concermed; see also (13), Sesaerge ALLL ey Fig. 5. Schematic illustration of the formation of vesiduat stresses as a consequence of two competitive deformation ‘mechanisms in shot peening [14] Fig. 6. Residual stress distributions in hardened steet ‘fter peening with shots of different diameter and with different shot velocities 312 Whilst residual stresses due to shot peening favours fa. tigue resistance, the morphology of the peened surface exerts an opposite effect; the inerease of sutfie rough, ness introduces microscopic stress raisers that reduce the crack initiation life compared to perfectly smooth spect ‘mens. This roughening ofthe surface by shot peening and its influence on fatigue or corrosion fatigue properties ia rarely described in literature, The commonly used rough. hess parameters Ror R, ae not sufficient for examining of the influence of surface conditions of shot peened parts. In order to estimate their notching effect, it fs nec ssary to have statistically based information ‘about the real shape and depth of the different types of surface flaws; see also [11]. 4, DURABILITY APPROVAL Though the technological influences are qualitatively ex- plained, their quantitative calculation still lacks om acon. roy. Therefore, the durabitity approval required for the series release of a spring is nowadays performed exper. mentally. The complexity of the test rig depends om the future operational load types, the failure risk of the devel, ‘oped spring system and the causes that may arise to hus mans and the environment due to its failure. Front axle teal springs experience the most complex and damaging loud configurations compared to rear axle springs. They ‘ppear during braking and comering manoeuvres a5 wel 4 from vertical loads during straight-ahead driving ‘The major task forthe durability approval isthe definition of adequate fatigue test programmes. The standardised ‘design loud spectra SPRILOS [7] give valuable assistance to derive appropriate test programmes Besides the maximum (design) values for all load compo- nents (vertical, longitudinal, transversal) acting ‘et the Whoo! contact for Po=1%, SPRILOS contains proposals ‘ezarding the shapes of the load spectra for certain sums of frequency of occurrence. It should be mentioned, that design spectra according to SPRILOS are based on huge hnumber of load and strain measurements during feld op. «ration (especially focusing on west Eutopean road cond: tions) and on test tracks, Thus, they set a comprehensive land experimentally verified data base for the derivation of appropriate test programmes, A ‘ypical design spectrum shape for pure vertical loading according to SPRILOS is illustrated with dotted line in Figure 7. The dashed horizontal fine indicates the payload of the axle erica! ding stl sheed ering learn Fig. 7. SPRILOS- design spectrum and derived {est spectrum at straight-ahead driving (Re meer scztsrremmecmonmmie tee enea the case of vertical loading special attention must be jven to design details concerning the position ofthe axle ‘eam relatively tothe frame and the leaf springs. This is ‘one with the aid of the force-deflection curve for the ite suspension system. igure 8 shows an example of a measured force- leflection path for a front axle suspension system. It can ve recognised that a vertical load causes a proportional nerease in the spring deflection end, hence, deformation ip tothe time of full impect ofthe parabolic spring on the niddle and S-stoppers (buffers). These buffers restrict the pring deflection so that a further increase of the vertical ‘ree value yields only a small increase in the spring de- lection, The force is transmitted via the buffers, which ‘xhibit a considerably steeper progressive characteristic, liectly into the frame of the vehicle. In view of this and iv order to prevent the premature failure of parts of the est rg (frame, axle substitution, et.) itis suggested to mit the maximum load to the maximum values shown in he force-deflection curve of Figure 8, since further in- rease would not significant affect the deformation and hhorewith the strength behaviour of the leaf spr Moreover, small load eycles, which are calculated by Iheoretical analysis using Miner's rule [16] in one of its rarious modifications [17] to cause nogligible or insig- rificant damage, can be omitted in order to reduce the ready long period of testing Fig. 8 Typical force-deflection curve of an axle ‘suspension system The determination of appropriate test spectra to cover the most damaging event of braking during straight-ahead driving (vertical suspension combined with braking force) 's based on the maximum braking force appearing during instant braking of the fully laden vehicle and the geomet- tie configuration of the system spring-axle-wheel. Ac- sording 10 SPRILOS, Gaussian spectrum shapes can be assumed for vertical and longitudinal forces acting on the wheel contact point [7], Figures 9 and 10 show design (dotted ines) and testing (full lines) spectra regarding the event of braking. For the derivation of the testing spectre, the small load cycles with negligible calculated damage, Were omitted inorder to reduce the testing time, The less critical situation of backwards braking may also be covered exemplary by means of the two load steps shown in Figure 10, ‘Additionally, in order to take account of life-reducing load sequence effets resulting from the stochastic nature of the loading in service, following measures are pro- ‘posed: (1) the steps of the test spectra should be distib- uted in a psendo-random manner over the time, and (2) the number of cycles indicated in each step should be reduced by a certain division factor to achieve muttiple repeats of the load histories until the sum of the frequency ‘of occurrence of the test spectrum is reached. ett ce Fig, 9. SPRILOS spectra and derived test spectra for the vertical load component at braking Fig. 10. SPRILOS spectra and derived test spectra for ‘te longitudinal load component at braking aint It should be noted here that all above mentioned load as- sumptions should be checked by measuring local defor- ‘mations in highly stressed regions of a prototype leaf spring during one testing block. The same spring should bbe installed in a protatype vehicle to determine the acting local stresses and strains resulting from driving on “hard” test tracks or fields. 5, CONCLUSION A finite element based procedure dealing with the evalua- tion and assessment of leaf spring suspension systems of ‘commercial vehicles has been presented. Modelling de- tails for accurate calculation of the spring and vehicle kinematics are discussed. Desiga loads for simulation of the most critical and damaging driving manoeuvres are obtained from standardized load spectra according 10 SPRILOS, Besides the mechanical stress-strain behaviour that can be accurately calculated by means of FE analyses, techno- logical factors resulting from surface integrity states strongly influence the fatigue life of leaf springs and have to be taken into consideration. Surface finish and residual stress field imparted by the manufacturing processes and the subsequent thermo-chemical treatment of leaf springs is the main surface integrity parameter which affects con- siderably the fatigue life, 313.‘The proposed methodology of leaf design assessment uses geometry, lond configuration and standardized leaf mate- Fial data. Thus, it ean be applied in a very early stage of evelopment to determine and assess the optimized sus- pension design accurately. Development and, especially, testing time and costs can be reduced to a minimum. Furthermore, the SPRILOS spectra are proposed to set the basis for the final experimental durability approval of the suspension system, REFERENCES [1] Niemann G,, Maschinenelemente Band 1, Springer ‘Verlag, 1981 [2] Fischer F., Vondracek H., Warmgeformte Redern ~ Konstruktion und Fertigung, Hoesch Hohenlimbarg AG, Druckerei und Verlag W. Stumpf KG, 1987. [3] Savaidis C., Schmitt J,, Ricbeck L., Schwaiger F., Feivelmayer K., Betriebsfestigkeitsgerechte Fnt- Wieklung von Parabelfedem im Nutafahezeugbau im SE-Prozeb, DYM-Bericht 125, pp. 183-192, Darm- stadt 1998 [4] Savaidis G., Riebeck L., Feitzelmayer K., Fatigue Life Improvement of Parabolic Leaf Springs in the Process of Simultaneous Engineering, Materials Testing 41 (1999), 234.240, [5] Riebeck L., Figentenkverhalten, Vergleich Versuct- Berechnung, MAN-technical report, 1997. [6] Grubisic V,, Fischer G., Automotive Wheels, Method and Procedure for Optimal Design and Test- ing, SAB Technical Paper Series 830135, Michigan 1983. [7] Grubisic V., Determination of Load Spectra for De- sign and Testing, International Journal of Vehicle Design 15 (1994), 8-26. [8] Field M, Kahles'J, Review of Surface Integrity of Machined Components, Annals of the CIRP 20 (1971) 153-462 {9] Lipson C, Juvinall R.C., Handbook of stress and strength, New York, Macmillan, 1963 [10] Andrews S, Sehitoghu 1, A computer model for fatigue crack growth from rough surfaces Intema- tional Journal of Fatigue, 22, 2000) 619-630. [11] As SK, Skallerud B,, Tveiten B.W., Holme B., Fa- tigue life prediction of machined components using Finite clement analysis of surface topography, Inter national Journal of Fatigue, 27 (2005) 1590-1596, [12] Mott R., Machine Elements in Mechanical Design, Pearson-Prentice Hall, 4 ed, 2004 [13] Savaidis G., Feitzelmayer K., Ostermann M., Light- ‘weight Construction and Improvement of Fatigue Lifetime of Leaf Spring Suspension Systems. by Means of Innovating Surface Treatment Technolo- sies, Buropetn Automotive Congress, SAITS 01129, Bratislava 2001. [14] Wobifahrt H,, The influence of Peening Conditions fon the Resulting Distribution of Residual Stresses, Proc. 2" Int. Conf, on Shot Peening, 1984, 316-331, [15] Vaxevanidis NM, Petropoulos GP, Pantazams CN,, Surface properties of steel plates impacted by spherical shots, Proc, 9" Int. Conference on Metrol~ ogy & Properties of Engineering Surfaces, (eds. B.- au G, Rosen and TR, Thomas), Halmstad University Sweden, 10-11 September 2003, 2004, 232-239, [16] Miner M.A., Cumulative Damage in'Fatigue, Jour nal of Applied Mechanics 12 (1945), 159-164. [17] Radaj_D., Vormwald M., Ermfdungsfestigkei Grundlagen ftir Ingenieure. 3, Auflage, Springe Verlag, 2007. CORRESPONDENCE ‘Georgios SAVAIDIS, Assist, Prof, ‘Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Faculty of Engineering Lab. of Machine Elements & Machine Design 54124 Thessaloniki, Greoce gsavaidis@meng.outh.gr_ ‘Alexandros SAVAIDIS, Di. Ing, National Technical University of Athens Department of Mechanics Zogratou Campus 15773 Athens, Greece asavaidis@tellas.gr Michail MALIKOUTSAKIS, Dipl. Ing., Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Faculty of Enginooring Lab, of Machine Elements & Machine Design 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece mmalikou@auth,gr Nikolaos VAXEVANIDIS, ‘Assoc. Prof, ‘School of Pedagogical & Techno- logical Education (ASPETE) Department of Mechanical Engineer- , ing Educators \ | 141 21 N, Heraklion, Athens, Greoce vaxev@aspete.gr