What is science? Why IR is a science? In its broadest sense science is any systematic knowledge that is capable of resulting in a correct prediction or reliable outcome. IR science focuses on a certain field of social relationship — relationship between nations and states Ascientific method seeks to explain the events of nature ina reproducible way, and to use these findings to make useful predictions Scientific thinking is one of the ways to find answers (besides practical thinking, professional thinking, religious thinking, ideological thinking. ..). Scientific thinking involves creation of a grand concept to explain general patterns of social activities - atheory. a International Relations Science focuses on a certain field of social relationships, we iWhat is IR theory? Inascientific sense theory means a set of propositions allowing us to generalize - thoughts providing explanation (establishing a causal relationship between variables), serving as a ,source of explanatory concepts” or a_,source of ways of evaluating the point or use or meaning of such concepts” (Austin Harrington, Modern Social Theory: An Introduction) IR theory aims to find patterns and explain the highest level of social interaction: relationships between states jeory means general set of propositions. |What is the field of international relations? Some theorists: + define IR narrowly as simply relations between units (states) in the international system * are more inclusive in terms of both actors & relations, focus on inter-state, inter-society & state-society relations + include inter-region relations, relations between states and international organizations or economic relations Mice IThe two traditions... There is no any general or jointed IR theory which is divided into two traditions: Ancient or classic tradition — assumes that the logic of international politics is driven by the human nature, what makes conflict a normal state of international relations. There is no way to advance the nature of international politics in any fundamental way, nor to bring “eternal peace” Aso-called “Christian tradition” - based on a Christian idea of a ‘dynamic history, which develops toa certain catharsis — Kingdom of Heavens” In IR theory it means “eternal peace” - ye end of interstate wars The two traditions are finding}..-and three paradigms Paradigm — distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates, and standards for what constitutes legitimate contributions to a field. The IR theory includes three paradigms: Realism belongs to the Classical Tradition, and is based on a concept of eternal and unchangeable nature of international politics Liberalism and Marxism belong to the "Christian Tradition” and assume that development of IR should unavoidably come toa certain "end of history”Origins of classical tradition Thucydides (471-400 B.C) - ancient historian, philosopher and general, author, of History of Peloponnesian War Unlike Herodotus and many other historians of that time Thucydides aimed to study fundamental laws of history and politics, rather than just describe the past. Essential task of his work - to understand origins of war oSiaastir dthwaicy i. “History is Philosophy teaching by examples” nytt fey eee ad fatten is both very young and very old ise)Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) The war occurred between two major powers of the Ancient Greece - Athens and Sparta, both leading broad b coalitions of city-states The international system of Peloponnesian peninsula before and during the war represented a model of bipolar order. Thucydides was the first to describe the patterns, driven such international structurePeloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) The outcome of the conflict reshaped the Ancient Greek world. Athens, the strongest city-state in Greece prior to the war's beginning lost its power, while Sparta became the leading power of Greece. Therefore, a bipolar system was transformed into a unipolar one The most grand-scale and devastating conflict between Greek city-states of that time emphasized necessity of understanding the nature of war and peace Peloponnesian war was a very very big conflict.Explanation of war: Thucydides’s trap "The real cause | consider to be the one which was formally most kept out of sight. The growth of the power of Athens, and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon, made war inevitable.” Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, Vol, 1,23 According to Thucydides, beginning of the war was driven by fear associated with a shift in the balance of power. Sparta was afraid of losing its pre-eminent role in the Hellenic world thus took counter measures to build up its military strengthExplanation of war: Thucydides’s trap Thucydides emphasizes the limited room for maneuvre available to statesmen, When leaders perceive that balance of power is shifting to their disfavour, they have to counter it. Therefore 5 international politics is driven not by individuals, but by 4 laws of history Fear makes states suspect others of betrayal and power for self-defence. That is the driving pattern of international politics, which also explains emergence of alliance-based bipolar system before the war is driven not by individuals but by laws of history,Morals and international politics Athens invaded Melos in 416 BC and demanded that the Melians surrender and pay tribute to Athens, or face annihilation. The proud Melians refused, and after a siege the Athenians captured their city and slaughtered the population. The Melian Dialogue - negotiations between the two sides before the battle - represents one of the most ancient accounts of the morals and power in international itics yaa we see that Thucydides has been one who found the reasons for war BMorals and international politics Athenian perspective of the issue: “Right as the world goes is only in question between equals in power, while the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must” “The standard of justice depends on the equality of power”. a a = Melian dialogue is a discussion between the delegations of Athens and Melos.Morals and international po! Athenian perspective of the issue: “Right as the world goes is only in question between equals in power, while the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must” eo -2 y Te = "The standard of justice depends on the equality of power’. ts . exist only between equals and power.|Morals and international politics Athenian perspective of the issue: “Right as the world goes is only in question between equals in power, while the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must” “The standard of justice depends on the equality of power’. According to rThueydicess Lcd statisti of justice depends on the equality 0 of et en oeDecline of classical tradition Rise of the Roman Empire brought the idea of universal state- civilization - Pax Romana, leaving no place for the balance of power concept ~ as there were no any other states to challenge the Rome Relationship with Barbarians were never considered by the Romans as an interaction of equals. It was an eternal war between "Civilized world” and uncivilized periphery - what made the Romans view this relationship as “moral conflict” of the two societies, where one had a more advanced domestic order, while the second put a threat toward it the classical tradition experienced its decline.Decline of classical tradition After the Roman Empire collapsed, a new idea of Christian universalism emerged and dominated in Europe till the XVI- XVII centuries Christianity suggested a new - idealistic - interpretation of history, which hardly correlated with the classic tradition. While Thucydides considered international system as a static system, Christian doctrine viewed history as a permanent transformation from one condition to another. Final destination of the mankind is the end of history - “Kingdom of Heavens” was the emergence of Christian Universalism.Renaissance and return of classical tradition Renaissance returned the classic tradition of IR in the center of intellectual life. It was partly driven by by emerging interest in the Ancient legacy in literature and philosophy However, more importantly - the Renaissance became a birth time for the first centralized states, which form the first post-feudal balance of power during the Italian Wars (1494-1559) Cesare Borgia 1475-150 Peo tuk eoee er en appeared only in the end of the fiftee:m Italian Wars (1494-1559)Classical tradition during Italian Wars “The Prince” — an influential political ecce, written by Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 - 1527) for Lorenzo de Medici in 1513 (first published in 1532) apie eatinnf & “War should be the only study of a prince” “The promise given was a necessity of the past: the word broken is a necessity of the present’, “Politics have no relation to morals”. or every compromise is only the preparation of another conflict, of another edMachiavellian understanding of politics + “War should be the only study of a prince” The main responsibility of the rulers is always to defend the interests of the state and ensure its survival i + “The promise given was a necessity of the past: the word >) brokenis a necessity of the present”. Ifnecessary, a ruler must be ruthless and deceptive while defending self-interest * “Politics have no relation to morals”. Aresponsible ruler should not follow Christian ethics, if states follow these values, they will disappear in the end nding of politics was based on the three maior ide:Thomas Hobbes and the concept of Leviathan Tomas Hobbes (1588-1679) offered a justification of states by envisaging a state-less state of nature - in this state human beings lived in a condition of ‘war everyone against everyone” iF People seek to escape the state of nature to achieve personal security (Fens ARE, Renae [hey eRe el A AoM OU UTM Coa =S- SLL USO OCS SELL 7 fn) philosopher,Thomas Hobbes and the concept of Leviathan In order to escape from this situation, Hobbes suggested placing all power toa sovereign state or Leviathan (a state authority or supreme ruler) that would maintain order and end anarchy. Without order, no economic development, art, knowledge is possible It leads to establishment of a social contract. However unlike a liberal tradition, Hobbes supposes that such Te Gee hema adhe contract was conducted not between \ individuals, but between individuals and (ieecimc) Cea ice URSLO re eaeLeviathan and international politics Inall times kings, and persons of sovereign authority, because of their independence, are in continual jealousies, and in the state and posture of gladiators; having their weapons pointing, and their eyes fixed on one another; that, their forts, garrisons, and guns upon the frontiers of their kingdoms; and continual spies upon their neighbors; which is a posture of war" Leviathan, chapter 13 | SESE een anes international anarchy.Leviathan and international politics Achievement of personal security and domestic security through the creation of a state leads to international insecurity that is rooted in the anarchy of the state system Leviathans are doomed to fight a “war everyone against everyone”, cause of feel of insecurity and eager for power, wealth and glory Itis impossible to establish a “Leviathan over Leviathans” — states will never give up their sovereignty . Therefore anarchy is a normal and “eternal” state of the international systemThe Thirty-year War (1618-1648) The House of Habsburg was one of the most important royal houses of Europe and is best known for being an origin of all the formally elected Holly Roman Emperors between 1438 and 1740, as well as rulers of the Austrian and Spanish domains and several other countries. The Habsburg family represented the idea of universalism — unification of the whole world (at that time - Europe) under one Christian ruler. But: The Thirty-year war was a war against the Habsburg hegemony rather than just a conflict caused by religious ~Nneans. The most illustrative example - participation of Catholic France in the Anti-Habsburg coalitionSides of the conflict: ‘The Habsburgs and their allies: Anti-Habsburg Coalition: Holly Roman Empire France (since 1635) Catholic League United Provinces Spain Sweden (since 1630) Hungary Spain Kingdom of Croatia Denmark-Norway (1625-1629) Denmark-Norway (1643-1645) Saxony Poland England (1625-1630) The Palatinate (until 1623) Prussia (until 1635) Brunswick-Luneburg Some other minor states ‘The Habsburgs and their allies were|Universalism vs. Sovereignty: The Thirty-year War (1618-1648) especially in Germany, hich suffered most.Peace of Westphalia as a realist triumph cd Signed in 1648, Peace of Westphalia formed the first well- structured international order, based on realist understanding of politics “Paradoxically, this general exhaustion and cynicism allowed the participants to transform the practical means of ending a particular war into general concepts of world order’. lone of the most import ‘acteristics o'Peace of Westphalia as a realist triumph Signed in 1648, Peace of Westphalia formed the first well- structured international order, based on realist understanding of politics “Paradoxically, this general exhaustion and cynicism allowed the participants to transform the practical means of ending a particular war into general concepts of world order’. Henry KissingerPeace of Westphalia as a realist triumph Signed in 1648, Peace of Westphalia formed the first well- structured international order, based on realist understanding of politics t __ ‘Paradoxically, this general exhaustion and cynicism allowed he participants to transform the practical means of ending a particular war into general concepts of world order’. nowadays, @ >) ® "World Politic: eal Mol a a Mee aero)Three principles of Westphalian sovereignty The treaty gave a birth three essential principles, which became a foundation of Westphalian sovereignty: + “Whose realm, his religion” - a sovereign defines religion in a certain area + “Every king is the emperor in his kingdom” -all states are independent and equal to each other + No one can be stronger than others - balance of power as the key principle of international politics But let us look at the three principle of Westphalian sovereignty.|Three principles of Westphalian sovereignty The treaty gave a birth three essential principles, which became a foundation of Westphalian sovereignty: + “Whose realm, his religion” - a sovereign defines religion in a certain area + "Every king is the emperor in his kingdom’ -all states are independent and equal to each other + No one can be stronger than others - balance of power as the key principle of international politics uThree principles of Westphalian sovereignty The treaty gave a birth three essential principles, which became a foundation of Westphalian sovereignty: + “Whose realm, his religion” - a sovereign defines religion in a certain area + “Every king is the emperor in his kingdom” -all states are independent and equal to each other + No one can be stronger than others - balance of power as the key principle of international politics ing for values, not interest:Three principles of Westphalian sovereignty The treaty gave a birth three essential principles, which became a foundation of Westphalian sovereignty: + “Whose realm, his religion” - a sovereign defines religion in a certain area + "Every king is the emperor in his kingdom” -all states are independent and equal to each other + No one can be stronger than others - balance of power as the key principle of international politicsThree principles of Westphalian sovereignty The treaty gave a birth three essential principles, which became a foundation of Westphalian sovereignty: + "Whose realm, his religion” - a sovereign defines religion ina certain area * “Every king is the emperor in his kingdom’ - all states are independent and equal to each other » No one can be stronger than others - balance of power as the 2y principle of international politics ithe sovereign equality of the states was introduced ||Three principles of Westphalian sovereignty The treaty gave a birth three essential principles, which became a foundation of Westphalian sovereignty: + "Whose realm, his religion” - a sovereign defines religion ina certain area + "Every king is the emperor in his kingdom’ -all states are independent and equal to each other * No one can be stronger than others - balance of power as the ~ey principle of international politics |The United Nations Charter says that every nation.Three principles of Westphalian sovereignty The treaty gave a birth three essential principles, which became a foundation of Westphalian sovereignty: + "Whose realm, his religion” - a sovereign defines religion in a certain area + "Every king is the emperor in his kingdom” -all states are independent and equal to each other + No one can be stronger than others - balance of power as the key principle of international politics t principles of the European politics for several centuries ccd SIThe new international order emerges “The genius of this system, and the reason it spread across the world, was that its provisions were procedural, not substantive. Ifa state would accept these basic requirements, it could be recognized as an international citizen able to maintain its own culture, politics, religion, and internal policies, shielded by the international system from outside intervention’: aa) a L_- Henry Kissinger ithe new international way of doing things, }The new international order emerges “The genius of this system, and the reason it spread across the world, was that its provisions were procedural, not substantive. Ifa state would accept these basic requirements, it could be recognized as an international citizen able to maintain its own culture, politics, religion, and internal policies, shielded by the international system from outside intervention’: aie Henry rs = So, first of all, it points out that the difference between Westphalian system and SIThe new international order emerges “The genius of this system, and the reason it spread across the world, was that its provisions were procedural, not substantive. Ifa state would accept these basic requirements, it could be recognized as an international citizen able to maintain its own culture, politics, religion, and internal policies, shielded by the international system from outside intervention’: (ete, Henry ReEoneece er enien territory belongs to each state.Readings: + Thucydides. Meloss Dialogue (any edition) + Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince (any edition) + Hobbes, Tomas. Leviathan (any edition) * Walt, Stephen. International relations: One world, many theories // Foreign Policy, Spring 1998, * Carl von Clausewitz (2008). On War. Princeton UP. * Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Thompson, Politics Among Nations, 6th edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985), p. 165. * Carr, E. H. (2001) [1939]. The Twenty Years’ Crisis: 1919-1939. New York: Perennial. * International Theory: Positivism and Beyond, co-edited with Ken Booth and Marysia Zalewski, (Cambridge University Press, 1996). we end our section about the classic realist theory.