7 Leaving the Family

In previous chapters we have explored family issues such as divorce and family
environment that affect outcomes for adolescents. In this chapter we discuss some of
the many contexts and reasons that adolescents may leave the family home.
An important goal of parenting is to raise independent adults who can cope in
society and live fruitful lives even after they leave home. Although only a minority
of adolescents leave home in their teens, striving for independence and autonomy
is central to this stage of life. Leaving home has been considered a  developmental
indicator, as young people leave their families to live independently and establish
their sense of independence and separateness from the family (Seiffge-Krenke,
2006). Late adolescence is particularly the time when many young people and their
parents are thinking about adolescents’ future adult lives. The  circumstances and
reasons that lead to adolescents leaving the home have multiple implications for the
individual adjustment and development of the child, for the parents’ adjustment to
the transition and for parent-child relationships (Hussong & Chassin, 2002).

7.1 Emerging Adulthood, Delayed Transitions and Leaving Home

Pathways to independence have changed dramatically over the past several decades.
Due to the changing workforce and government policy, adolescents’ expectations of
leaving the parental home are often delayed until their mid twenties or longer. In
Australia in 2001, 59% of all youth were living with parents, which is due in part
to the trend toward longer education and the delay in first marriage and financial
independence (Australian Bureau of Statistics website). Many adolescents are
financially dependent on their parents, and often children do not become fully
financially independent until their mid to late twenties (Schneider, 2000). As
mentioned in Chapter 2, there is more ambiguity around the transition between
adolescence and adulthood than was true for previous generations (Arnett, 2000).
Arnett (2000) indicates that emerging adults are unique in that their current
life stage is the least able to be categorised. For most age groups there is a  lot of
variability and therefore few generalisations can be made about what is happening
in individuals’ lives, in terms of whether they are at school, married or have children.
Living arrangements are a  key component of the diversity for emerging adults. For
example, living arrangements for this age group can be, living as a married couple,
cohabiting, living in shared households or college dormitories, or living at home, or
a mixture of several arrangements and, of course, moving in and out of the family
home (Arnett, 2000; 2004).
Given the changes that have occurred, many families live in this transition period
with their late adolescent/emerging adult for an  unspecified time. The  timing of
adolescents’ independent living arrangements is also affected by family functioning,

© 2014 Patricia Noller, Sharon Atkin

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family stability, social class and ethnicity (Seiffge-Krenke, 2006). It appears that the
patterns of children moving out of the family home become more predictable once
they reach their mid twenties (Arnett, 2000).
Whereas some young people stay in the family home while they complete their
education, many leave home to live with friends or partners, or move to a college in
a different city as tends to happen in the US. Family conflict and dysfunction can also
drive young people to leave the family; in some cases, they may even leave to live
on the streets (Pears & Noller, 1995). Although some adolescents may actively decide
to move from the family home to cohabitation or marriage, others slide into these
relationships (Stanley, Rhoades & Markman, 2006). In this day and age it is clear that
the vast majority of young people cohabit before marriage; the implications of this
situation for their future relational stability will be discussed later.

7.2 Family Structure and Leaving Home

Adolescent boys and girls from single-parent families have been found to leave home
early more often than those from two-parent families (Cooney & Mortimer, 1999) and
girls from single-parent families are more likely to cohabit and to give birth outside
of marriage (McLanahan & Bumpass, 1988; Miller, 2002). Also children of divorced
parents and children living in families with a step-parent have been found to leave
home earlier due to conflict within the home than do children whose parents do not
divorce (Jansen, 2001).
A decline in the quality of family relationships in step-parent families appears
to be a  reason why children from these families leave earlier. The  finding that
children living in stepfamilies leave home earlier has been supported in studies
conducted in a number of western countries (e.g. Australia, New Zealand and Great
Britain; Cartwright, 2005). Once children leave the homes of their stepfamilies they
often have more distant patterns of engagement with those families. Young people
from step-families who are living away from home tend to live further away from the
family, have less frequent contact and give and receive less family support (White,
1994).
Cartwright (2005) has pointed out that there are a number of important things
that parents can do to decrease the likelihood of issues arising for their children when
they want to bring a new partner into the home. Based on her interview study with
children, parents and therapists, she suggest that: 1) parents develop the relationship
slowly so that children can become used to the notion of a new family member; 2)
parents ensure that they spend time alone with their children so that they see that
their parent’s interest and concern for them has not changed; 3) the step-parent
develops a relationship with the children and supports the parent’s discipline, rather
than discipline themselves; and 4) the step-parent actively seek to avoid a  conflict
with the child’s other parent and household. (See also Chapter 5)

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Adolescents receive more support from fathers when their parents remain
married than do adolescents whose parents are not married to each other. Over time
these adolescents from continually-married families report more satisfaction with
their fathers after they themselves have left home than do those whose fathers are no
longer married to their mothers (Levitt, Silver & Santos, 2007).
Parental financial support is important for adolescents as they make the
transition into emerging adulthood and independent living. Step-parents and
the remarried natural parents of children tend to be less positive about providing
financial support to their transitioning child or children than are continually
married parents (Aquilino, 2005). Also, single parents are less likely to view
financial support of their oldest adolescent positively, but this situation appears
to change over time with single-parents becoming more positive about providing
monetary resources to their children over time perhaps because their resources may
improve over time.
Aquilino (2005) found that step-parent families were more likely to give financial
aid to the children of first marriages if they also had a biological child in common.
As Aquilino suggests, this situation would be influenced by the perception or reality
of limited resources that many single parents have, the poorer family relationships
that often exist in stepfamilies and a  belief that the other biological parent has
prime responsibility. Financial support can be crucial to young people and can be
instrumental in their ability to continue their education. A lack of such support may
drive them into the workforce before they are ready, a situation that could lessen their
chances for future success (Aquilino, 1999).

7.3 Family Relationships and Leaving Home

Adolescents who leave home at a  younger age usually do so because of problems

within the family, and they are likely to experience greater adjustment problems than
those who leave later in their development (Hussong & Chassin, 2002). Young people
in their late teens and early 20’s have reported family conflict as a reason for moving to
a cohabiting relationship with their partners (Sassler, 2004). Good relationships with
parents are an important support that enables young women to avoid forming their
own romantic relationship earlier than is desirable or experiencing a teen pregnancy
(Amato, Landale, Havasevich-Brooks, Booth, Eggebeen, Schoen & McHale, 2008; see
also Chapter 6).
Levitt and colleagues (2007) found that support from parents was associated
with positive relationships with parents after leaving home, particularly if young
people were transitioning out of home to go to college. These positive relationships
contributed to adolescent adjustment after the transition out of the family home as
measured by self-esteem and mood (i.e. how depressed or unhappy the adolescents
rated themselves). Adolescents whose parents provide them with less support as they

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 Leaving Home for College   149

move out of the family home may find the transition more difficult and experience
poorer adjustment.
Alcoholic parents often have difficulty in supporting their children’s development
and transitions. Children of alcoholic parents are more likely to have difficulty leaving
home and when they do, this process can involve more conflict and less likelihood of
planning and discussion with parents. These children also tend to feel less positive
about leaving home and are likely to have left home at a younger age than children
of parents who were not alcoholic. Such adolescents may believe they cannot leave
because their parents need their support or alternatively may not feel confident about
managing this transition on their own without the support of their parents. On the
other hand, some adolescents may leave early because of the need to escape the home
environment (Hussong & Chassin, 2002).

7.4 Leaving Home for College

Continuing education is currently seen as a positive direction for adolescents, so that

they are assured of good future prospects (Amato et  al., 2008). Many adolescents
leave home to attend college or university, especially in the USA. Although this can
be an exciting time, such transitions also involve challenges and stress. These young
people need to move to apartments, dormitories and other shared living environments,
where they will have to be self-sufficient without the direct support of their families
or usual social networks (Bernier, Larose & Whipple, 2005; Holmstrom, Karp & Gray,
2002).
In an  interview study, Holmstrom and colleagues (2002) interviewed high
school seniors from upper-middle class families, who were preparing to leave home
for college. Although excited, these young people were not focused on academic
expectations, but rather talked about their uncertainty and fears about the move.
They raised issues around how they would cope with everyday tasks, such as
laundry, budgeting, managing family ties and making new friends. Many held
concerns about the attractiveness or otherwise of the campus, having to share with
other students and leaving their own bedrooms at home. These adolescents spoke
of enthusiasm for being away from parental control whilst at the same time being
concerned their parents would not be there to look after them. Some students referred
to the transition as a “test of independence” and expressed fears about being able to
manage. The  necessity for ongoing support from parents was also raised by these
young people. It appears that young people are ultimately aware they need to know
their parents are there for them when they need advice.
Beasley, Hackett and Maxwell (2004) compared the dietary habits of college
students in the UK. They compared students who lived at home with those who lived
independently. They found that the quality of the diet of adolescents living at home
was likely to be worse than those living independently. Perhaps young people living

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at home have more financial resources through their parents to snack and consume
convenience foods and takeaways. On the other hand, the young people living at home
tended to smoke and drink alcohol less. Parents may see the monitoring and support
of healthy behaviours in relation to smoking cigarettes and consuming alcohol as
more important than worrying about their adolescents’ eating habits.
Although leaving home for college to begin this phase of their independent lives
can be seen as a  normal progression, many adolescents experience homesickness
and distress. Adolescents who have secure family attachments may fare better during
this transition than those who experience more insecure attachments with parents
(Bernier et  al., 2005). The  quality of parent-adolescent relationships is of crucial
importance to how well adolescents cope with leaving home, even when leaving
involves undertaking what is generally considered a positive step.

7.5 Leaving Home for the Military

Mayseless (2004) conducted a  study of 18-year-old males from Israel who were
finishing high school and leaving home to perform their mandatory three-year
military service. This transition can be stressful and is distinct from leaving home
for college as there is no choice involved, either for parents or the adolescent males.
While these adolescents were in the process of developing their attachment to
friends and girlfriends, they still saw their parents as their main source of security.
Mayseless found that young males who had a fear of abandonment reported poorer
adjustment and young males who had a fear of closeness indicated better adjustment
to this transition. She suggests that perhaps having a fear of closeness may be suited
to military life, as in this situation emotion and seeking closeness is not expected,
possibly quite the reverse.
In another study of young males in Israel leaving home to commence their
military service, Scharf, Mayseless &  Kivenson-Baron (2004) looked at the
coping skills and development of the adolescents over time. These researchers
looked at how the young men were coping with the transition from home, their
development in mature relationships with peers and family and their confidence
in their abilities and their individuality. Young men who were secure, or confident
in themselves and their relationships, coped better with basic training than
did those who were dismissing of relationships and closeness. (See Chapter 2
on attachment theory) At the end of basic training, the secure young men were
doing better than the dismissing young men in their relationships with parents
and peers. No differences were found for the level of individuation between the
secure or dismissing young men, although the secure young men seemed more
able to take advantage of opportunities, such as undertaking leadership roles that
enhanced their development and individuality.

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 Leaving Home to Marry or Cohabit   151

7.6 Leaving Home to Marry or Cohabit

There have been trends toward cohabitation, rather than marriage, over the past
few decades. According to the Bureau of Statistics, in Australia, 76% of people who
married in 2006 indicated that they had cohabited prior to their marriage, of these
53% of males and 55% of females aged under 19 who married indicated that they
had cohabited before marrying. In 2001, 10% of all young people aged 16 to 19 were
in live-in relationships, with the majority of these (63%) in defacto or cohabiting
contexts (Australian Bureau of Statistics). It has been consistently found that couples
who cohabit before marriage are more likely to divorce (Martin, Martin &  Martin,
2001), particularly if they are not committed to the partner before living together.
Adolescents who have goals of higher education and more definite plans for
their futures may be less likely to cohabit than those who are uncertain about their
futures (Manning, Longmore &  Giordano, 2007). Parents’ roles in such decision-
making are important and their relationships with their adolescents and support for
their children’s higher education choices greatly assist young people to make plans,
feel confident about those plans and attain their goals (Berrios-Allison, 2005; Keller
& Whiston, 2008).
Martin and colleagues (2001) discuss adolescent cohabitation and attitudes to
marriage. These authors reflect upon the information that indicates that cohabitation
is more accepted than in previous generations and that young people can see it as
an option in itself or a way to test out relationships before the commitment of marriage.
Some young people may be choosing to cohabit as they see the conflict between their
parents and want to ensure their own relationships will be stable before they marry.
Also some young people may learn greater acceptance of cohabitation through their
experience of their parents’ marital breakdown and subsequent new partnerships
that may involve sexual relations outside of marriage and/or cohabitation. On
the other hand, it has been found that adolescents are not rejecting marriage. In
a  study of adolescents’ expectations to marry or cohabit, Manning and colleagues
(2007) found that more girls than boys and a greater proportion of young people in
general indicated an expectation that they would marry. Further, about one quarter
of the adolescents in this study indicated that they expected to marry without prior
cohabitation.
Although some young people may be attempting to test out relationships
through cohabitation, the data do not generally support the idea that cohabiting
before marriage is a good predictor of marital success. Couples who cohabit before
marriage are 50 percent more likely to divorce than those who do not cohabit
(Martin et al., 2001). There is evidence, however, that the timing of cohabitation is
important. Those couples who cohabited before becoming engaged (that is, who used
cohabitation as a test before committing to each other) were more likely to have lower
marital satisfaction and greater potential for divorce than those who cohabited after
engagement (Rhoades, Stanley &  Markman, 2009). In seeking to understand this

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cohabitation effect, Cohan and Kleinbaum (2002) compared couples in their first two
years of marriage who had or had not cohabited. Differences were found between the
two groups, with those who had cohabited before marriage being more negative in
their problem-solving and displaying fewer supportive behaviours than those who
had not cohabited before marriage.
Adolescents may not be prepared for such adult relationships and may make the
mistakes they are trying to avoid; certainly many will not be prepared for parenthood
(Martin et  al., 2001). Young women with strong religious values are less likely to
engage in sexual relationships at an early age, cohabit or give birth outside of marriage
(Amato, et  al., 2008). Also adolescents with religious values indicate that they are
more likely to marry and not cohabit beforehand (Manning et al., 2007). Amato and
colleagues (2008) found that young women who had good relationships with their
parents, had good school experiences and high self-esteem did not slide into early
family formation or childbirth.
The transition to parenthood is a major life experience for anyone and may be quite
stressful for young parents as they are still negotiating other major changes such as
exploring their independence and individuality (Arnett, 2000; Gee, McNerney, Reiter
& Leaman, 2007). Early parenthood has other obvious implications such as limiting
young people in their educational and career options through the primary demands
of looking after an infant or small child (e.g. Werner-Wilson, 1998). The involvement
of the father with the children of young single women has an important role for both
the young mother and the child, depending on the quality of the relationship between
the couple, fathers can provide positive support (Gee et  al., 2007). However, many
young parents end their relationship within the first few years of the birth of the child
(Gee & Rhodes, 2003).

7.7 Rural Youth Leaving Home

In Australia many young people who live in regional areas need to leave home to
broaden their opportunities, continue their education or find employment. Many of
these adolescents are aged as young as 15 or 16 and are moving for educational or
employment reasons rather than personal or family reasons (Jones, 2004). Therefore
they are more likely to experience homesickness than other adolescents leaving
home in different contexts. Jones indicates that this situation can mean confusing
change away from the security of family and community and that this push to leave
can be greater for young rural women as they have even fewer job opportunities
in their communities than young males. This researcher also indicates that the
accommodation options for such young people are often transitory and many of the
young people return to the security of home communities, even at the sacrifice of their
education or employment opportunities.

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Abbott-Chapman (2001) discusses some of the issues and influences facing

adolescents in rural Australia. She indicates that the choices that rural adolescents
make about their futures after high school tend to be strongly influenced by parents
and family. Therefore when the parents see further education as not necessarily
leading to employment they may encourage their child to remain in the rural
community even though work may not be readily available and staying prevents
them from being able to compete for broader employment opportunities. On the
other hand, rural communities can offer support for finding local employment and of
course allow young people to benefit from continuing and necessary family support.
Similar issues have been found for rural youth in Scotland. Jones (2001)
indicates that young people in rural Scotland either leave their rural communities
to seek further education or employment or remain in their communities with more
restricted opportunities for their futures. Jones also notes that the housing market in
Scotland is not set up to be supportive of young people leaving home, with council
and community housing opportunities being more directed at couples and families.
He indicates that for single young women without a child their predominant option is
to stay at home with parents. Jones concludes that to provide support for rural young
people to stay in their communities there needs to be a combination of establishing
affordable housing for single young people and the provision of better training,
transport and employment opportunities.

7.8 Running Away From Home

Adolescents under 18 who leave home without the permission of their parents are
termed runaways. Running away from home is an issue because adolescents who do
so are often placing themselves in risky situations (Tyler, Hoyt, Whitbeck & Cauce,
2001).
Girls are more likely than boys to run away and adolescents from poorer families
are more likely to run away than adolescents from families with greater resources
(Tyler & Bersani, 2009). Adolescents whose mothers monitor them and know where
they are and know their friends seem less likely to run away. Adolescents who report
greater personal victimisation, negative school experiences and delinquency appear
more likely to run away from their family homes than those who report more positive
family and school environments (Tyler & Bersani).
Some studies indicate that running away from home is associated with severe
emotional problems, and that these adolescents are not mature enough to be properly
prepared for living independently. On the other hand, there are studies indicating
that running away from home can be a positive response to difficult or abusive home
situations (e.g. Booth, Rustenbach & McHale, 2008; Gullotta, 2003).
Gullotta (2003) reports that many adolescents who run away from home do so
because of common parent-adolescent conflicts, such as rules or school, and that

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most run to a friend’s or relative’s house and many are away for two days or less. He
suggests that two different groups of adolescents are being confused; the ones who
run away and the ones that are forced to leave, or are thrown out of home. Adolescents
who run away usually have the option to return to their homes, whereas those who are
forced to leave may only have the option of becoming homeless.

7.9 Homelessness

Youth homelessness has become a much talked-about and researched topic over the last
few decades. As is the case for adolescents who run away from home, but who do not
necessarily become homeless, homeless adolescents are at risk. Homeless males are more
likely than homeless females to experience physical assault, and homeless females are
more likely than homeless males to experience sexual assault (Stewart et al., 2004).
Many adolescents become homeless due to leaving disturbed home environments
(e.g. poverty, abuse, parental psychiatric illness) and these adolescents are more
likely to suffer from depression, anxiety and alcohol abuse (Stewart, Steiman, Cauce,
Cochran, Whitback & Hoyt, 2004). In an interview study of 50 homeless young people,
Hyde (2005) found that the majority discussed physical abuse and about half discussed
family conflict as reasons for leaving home. Of the young people in the study, 75%
were from single-parent households and many others described difficulties with step-
parents and parents’ new partners. Many young people may not readily seek or respond
to assistance once they have become homeless, which may be partly due to experience
of failure when engaging with adults in their lives and a sense of reluctance to give up
the sense of independence they have achieved (Hyde, 2005).
Suicide is the leading cause of death for homeless adolescents (Roy, Haley,
Leclerc, Sochanski, Boudreau &  Boivin, 2004). Kidd (2006) looked at why
homeless young people suicide. What he found was that young people coming
from an  abusive past had low self-esteem, felt very lonely and used drugs.
This situation led to young people feeling trapped, or helpless, increasing
the likelihood that they would be suicidal. These feelings of being trapped or
feeling helpless were greater for the adolescents who had been thrown out of
home. The  young people in this study, however, reported a  decline in suicide
ideation and suicide attempts and fewer self-harming behaviours after leaving
home to live on the streets. The authors suggest that this improvement in their
adjustment is due to their home life having been even more negative than street
life. In addition, the negative attitude that many of these young homeless had to
suicide, may have led to this change as the newer homeless young people sought
acceptance in this group. The  decrease in self harm and suicide behaviours
could also be due to gaining a sense of belonging with the other young people
living on the streets and gaining some sense of control over their experience, at
least for those adolescents who chose to leave home (e.g., Pears & Noller, 1995).

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Homeless adolescents are more likely than their counterparts with stable living
accommodation to participate in high-risk sexual behaviours, to use drugs, to become
parents as adolescents, and to contract AIDs (Rosenthal, Rotheram-Borus, Batterham,
Mallett, Rice & Milburn, 2007). Fortunately, most of these adolescents do not continue
to increase these risky behaviours and many first-time homeless adolescents return
home within six months (Rosenthal et al.).

In a  two-year longitudinal study of homeless adolescents in Los Angeles and

Melbourne, Rosenthal and colleagues (2007) found that adolescents who had
remained homeless, or were in unstable living arrangements at the two-year follow up
were sexually active but very few were engaging in sex work. However, the homeless
in both countries were using drugs at a higher level than their counterparts in high
schools. This study showed that most of the adolescents did not become chronically
homeless and many returned home.

In an  exploratory interview study, Lindsey and colleagues (Lindsey, Kurtz, Jarvis,
Williams &  Nackerud, 2000) investigated the ways in which some adolescents
managed to make successful transitions from homelessness to adulthood. They
interviewed 12 young people who had previously been homeless adolescents but
who had turned their lives around and were now in college. Learning was perceived
as important by the young people in this study. Sometimes a period of crisis, such
as going to jail, instigated conscious learning and planning for a  different future.
Religion or spirituality was indicated as important in facilitating their ability to get
their lives back on track for seven of the young people interviewed.

I didn’t necessarily believe in God that everybody else believes in, but I always believed in
a higher power. And for me, just being able to say that I know I’m [here] because of something
greater than myself. What it is, I have no idea, but just being able to pray to something, you know,
just say “Help me” to somebody. . . . And they ain’t going to judge you, come down and slap you
. . . (Kameka, (21) p.135).

One of the key themes that the young people spoke about was personal resources
such as independence, maturity, determination and recognising their own value.
They also indicated that the ability to communicate with others appropriately, to take
responsibility for their own actions and to be able to accept assistance were important
for their transitions, as well as being able to assist others.

It gives me purpose. . . . All that comes from it is good. There’s nothing negative about [it]. It’s like
you’re helping yourself, you’re helping the other person, and then you’re giving the other person
also the opportunity to help others. So it’s like you’re seeing this goodness multiply. That’s just
so cool (Trisha (22) p.130).

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7.10 Summary

Late adolescence is a transitional period and a time when children and their parents are
considering options for their future lives in adulthood. Only a minority of adolescents
leave home to live independently but the circumstances under which they do has have
implications for the adolescent and for their family relationships. The transitionary
period between adolescence and adulthood has been termed emerging adulthood.
Living arrangements for emerging adults are diverse and the patterns of young people
leaving home become more predictable in their mid twenties.
Family structure can have an  impact on the ways young people leave home.
Children in continuously married families tend to leave home later than those from
divorced, single-parent and step-families. Young people from these families can
experience more conflict and less family support to leave home. Family emotional and
financial support is important to the adjustment of adolescents during this transition
out of home.
Family issues are a  key reason that children leave home early. Issues such as
family conflict and unresponsive and alcoholic parents can contribute to children
making early leaving-home transitions. These background contexts impact on their
adjustment and their ability to be independent, which hinders the possibility of
a positive transition out of home.
Many adolescents leave home to continue their education and are often challenged
by the notion of managing day–to-day issues such as laundry and budgeting. Going to
college is also an exciting time for adolescents and some see this as a time where they
can test out their ability to live independently. However, young people still perceive
that they need their parents’ continued support. Adolescents are likely to experience
homesickness during the transition to college and the quality of the parent-adolescent
relationship is crucial for their adjustment to living out of home.
In Israel adolescents leave home after high school for mandatory military service,
which is a different experience from going to college, as there is no choice. Young men
who are secure in their family relationships may adjust better to the basic training
experience and in their development of mature relationships and independence.
Young men who are dismissing in terms of their attachment style appear to function
well in the military environment and develop independence. This situation may be
due to the context of the military that does not value those seeking closeness.
Some young people leave home to move in with romantic partners. There has
been a move toward cohabitation as a viable relationship option for young people.
Adolescents who have clear goals for the future are less likely to cohabit, as are those
who have religious values, come from continually married families and have good
relationships with their parents.
Early transitions to parenthood can create stress for young parents who are
still negotiating their independence and can limit their opportunities for the future.
The support of young mothers by an involved father of their child can be of benefit

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 Some Implications for Practitioners   157

to both the young woman and the child. However, many of these relationships end
during the first few years after the birth of the child.
Rural young people face specific challenges due to the lack of educational and
job opportunities that often exist in their communities. They also face problems with
finding appropriate and affordable housing and can return home at the expense of
their plans for the future.
Adolescents can run away, because they choose to leave the family, or because
they are pushed or thrown out of home. Some adolescents may react to serious
emotional or family issues by running away and yet others may do so due to what
is perceived as common parent-adolescent conflict. These adolescents often find
themselves in risky situations, participate in risky behaviours and are likely to
experience more violence and assaults than other adolescents in our communities.
Many of these young people have left home due to disturbed home environments
and are more likely to suffer from mood disorders and to abuse drugs and alcohol.
How helpless or trapped young people feel in this situation appears to have a large
impact on their outcomes. Many runaways only do so for a  few days and visit
relatives or friends and then return home.
Suicide has been found to be the largest cause of death for homeless young
people. However, many homeless young people do not become chronically homeless
and manage the adjustment to adulthood. Some reasons young people have given for
their ability to transition well into emerging adulthood have been religious beliefs,
learning from their experiences, their personal strengths, taking responsibility for
their own behaviour and helping others.

7.11 Some Implications for Practitioners

As indicated, there are many contexts in which young people may leave home.
The  reasons young people leave home will have a  direct impact upon the type
of support or services they or their families need. Because the reasons for leaving
home are often multidimensional and therefore complex, it is inappropriate to
propose simple solutions that would not be relevant in all cases. For example, youth
homelessness is a  widely-acknowledged issue that communities and governments
have spent large amounts of financial resources in an attempt to resolve but with little
far-reaching success.
The research indicates that young people leaving home to go to college may not
be equipped with all the necessary life skills (e.g. financial management, dealing
with laundry, diet etc.) for managing their day to day lives when living away from
the family home. These types of findings indicate a need for a focus on life skills for
adolescents and the necessity for parents to encourage the development of such skills
before young people reach an age where they are likely to be thinking about leaving
home.

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158   Leaving the Family

Interventions for young people leaving home also need to include more broad-
based interventions rather than just individual ones. For example, rural young people
who leave home for work or study and young people leaving troubled homes need
to be able to access affordable housing and community supports when their parents
either are unable or unwilling to provide ongoing financial and emotional assistance.
These may be provided by governments or by nongovernment welfare organizations.
Research shows that couples who cohabit prior to making a commitment to marry
are more likely to divorce. In addition young couples tend to “slide” into cohabitation,
without any real discussion of the issues. For these reasons, it seems important that
information about cohabiting should be made readily available to young people and
their families. Information that can assist young people to make informed decisions
and facilitate their parents’ involvement in the decision would seem a  beneficial
psycho-educational response that allows for highlighting the importance and
implications for such decisions.
Step-families are acknowledged to involve specific needs and challenges, which is
the reason why organisations such as Step-families Australia have been established.
Such programs aim to assist step-families adapt to the changing family structure and
to develop positive relationships. The research indicates that young people leaving
home from step-families tend to have more distant relationships with their parents,
even though it is crucial for young people to have their parents’ ongoing support.
Interventions aimed at increasing the closeness or responsiveness amongst family
members in these families may be critical for adolescents’ positive transitions to
leaving home.
Finally, as each life stage is dependent upon prior contexts and experiences, early
intervention in troubled family relationships is crucial to an adaptive transition for
adolescents leaving home and their ability to return home should the need arise. For
this reason the main practice implication when working with troubled families is to
support them to enhance their functioning at an early stage of family life and assist
them to be aware of and consider implications for the future, if changes are not made.
In this chapter we have discussed some of the issues and contexts that contribute
to adolescents leaving home, and factors that make these transitions easier or harder
for them. In the next and final chapter we aim to discuss the challenges for adolescents
and families with a particular focus on resilience and ways families can build upon
both the families’ and their adolescents’ resilience.

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