CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

MAHABHARATA AND THE NALA EPISODE

Besides the Veda-s, upani�ad-s and the epics of India, Sanskrit

literature possessed a number of beautiful Drsyakavya-s and

Sravyakavya-s. The classical tradition of Sanskrit Kavya literature

begins with the Ramayara- the Adikavya. The true representatives of

the finest poetic genius are ValmTki and Vyasa, after them Bhasa and

Ka!idasa. They illustrate all the wealth of sound and sense and all the

power of literary imagination and sensuous charm, in their poetry.

Especially in the poems of Kapdasa, the natural majesty, grace and

rhythmic beauty of Sanskrit language have attained their perfection.

His poetry is the expression of the best thoughts and the noblest

emotions in beautiful form and melodious diction.

 The Mahabharata of Vyasa has a wide canvas from the point of

view of poetic imagination as well as of its presentation of the ethical

code. M.B., a vast storehouse of legends and myths of different types

and a repository of Indian culture, has been a perennial source of

inspiration to later writers in various fields.

From the literary point of view, the Mahabharata is

undoubtedly a superb epic. It holds a supreme position among all

such works in world literature. Some try to compare it to Homer's

Iliad and Odyssey, and Virgil's Aenied. But the comparison is most

inadequate because the Iliad and the Odyssey, cannot equal the

1
Mahabharata in its richness and excellence. The two great epics of

India are a treasure trove of episodes and anecdotes, and a perennial

source of inspiration and subject matter for writers of India who

made their names world renowned by composing rich and sweet

Kavya-s based on the stories and events of the Ramayal)a and the

Mahabharata. So their epic grandeur and magnitude cannot be

challenged in anyway.

2
 The subject-matter of the Mahabharata, 1s a vast one. It

incorporates all activities of human life. The purpose of the

2
composition of the M.B.has been clearly stated in the Adiparva. The

valuable lessons contained in it awaken the spirit of purity in

thought. The subject matter can be analysed under three heads.

1 . The Pa i:, dava story,

2. Ancient stories and legends, and

3. Didactic and ethical sermons.

To the fabric of the main story are added a vast number of old

legends of Gods, Kings and Sages. Sometimes a whole section is

added to illustrate a particular theme, as in the Nafopakhyana. In

course of time, ·In of time, discourses on philosophy, religion, law

and the duties of the various castes and Asrama-s were freely added

to the text, as a result of which it became more a smfti or

Dharmasastra than an epic dealing with heroic actions, wars and

mighty personalities. This fact is recognised in the following words

of the Mahabharata itself:

3
 � "'qf� "'q" cnm "'q" l=flaT "'q" �'B
��g'™ a�.-{J?l��g1™ -;, afcfclRta'

It is said that the Mahabharata must have passed through

three stages of developments, before it assumed its present shape.

There are indications of this in the MB itself. The following verses

found in the Anukrama,:,ikaparva indicates the three stages.

These verses suggest that in the first stage the epic had a little

over 8000 verses; in the second stage it consisted of 24000 verses,

and in the third stage it contained one lakh verses. It is also probable

that the work had three different names - �, �lxci'-1 l=IBT�lxci'-1 in

' ' I '

the three stages respectively. A careful examination of the subject

matter and the style reveals that this epic passed through these three

4
stages at the hands of Vyasa, Vaisampayana and Ugrasravas before it

reached the present form.

The original and the most ancient part of the epic must have

had a historical theme - a conflict between the two ancient tribes, the

KuriJ-s and the Paficala-s. These two tribes quarelled for a longtime

and finally became united into a single people." Various authors who

lived in the days of great conflict between the two tribes must have

composed battle songs describing the fights and glorifying their

heroes. These songs in the early stages were not uniform, because

they were orally handed down from generation to generation; and it

was the work of Vyasa who collected and edited them up into a

comparatively short epic describing the tragic fate of the Kuru-s. This

perhaps forms the first stage of Mahabharata when it was also known

by the name� victory, because the work described the victory of

the Paf)dava-s. Once a literary nucleus was formed, it was easy to

rally round it other elements. In this second stage, the work was

enlarged by adding narrations of the whole life story of the Par:idava-s

in the epic style, and incorporating into it the didactic and

5
philosophical - ethical elements. The title Jayam was thus

transformed into Bharatam. In the third stage � was transformed

into l=fITT'J..J l�c·Pt by rallying around it various elements. In course of

time, the epic assumed the shape of a vast treatise on Dharmasastra

and developed into a work of one lakh verses dealing with various

topics of religion, morals, law, etc. in addition to the stories of

kings, heroes and sages. Hence it came to be regarded not as a mere

epic but as an authority on Dharma. Even the status of a fifth Veda

was given to it: � 4.:)-'i:P-tl � I

The Mahabharata is divided into eighteen Parva-s (books),

namely, the Adi/ the Sabha/ the Vana, the· Virata, the Udyoga, the

Bhr?ma, the Droi:ia, the Kanya, the Sa/ya, the Sauptika/ the Stri, the

Santi, the Anusasana/ the Asvamedha, the Asramavasika, the

Mausala, the Mahaprastanika and the Svargarohar:,a. These Parva-s

have been named after some important incidents in the main

narrative of the epic, which is connected with the Kuru dynasty.

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 In the language of the Mahabharata it is a tree - sangraha

adhyaya is its seed; Paulom and Asthika parva-s are its roots;

Samvara parva is its trunk; Vira(a and udyogaparva-s are its best part;

Bh!fma and Drora parva-s are its branches; Karra parva is its

flower; Sa/ya parva is its smell; Str! parva is the sweet shades cast by

the trees; Asvamedhaparva is its nectar; Asramavasikaparva is the

shelter it gives to tired and fatigued travelers. As rain clouds are

enjoyable by all, so the immortal Mahabharata tree would be

3
enjoyable by all the poets of future generations. Indeed, it is a tree

of prediction of the poet. We have seen that so many good poets in

India have made that names renowned by composing wonderful

Kavya-s by resorting to this great epic. The Mahabharata is not a

mere Kavya but a great Mahakavya. It is an epic in its true sense,

maintaining all the traits and qualifications that an epic should

possess.

Vyasa, author of the Mahabharata, was not only a great poet

but also a religious prophet and a social reformer. His creative

genius has its full manifestation in the Bhagavat Gita, which forms its

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core. The context of the Bhagavat Gita has been wonderfully

created by the poet. The Bhagavat Cfta proclaims the sermons of

Lord Kf?l)a, which constitute the most crucial point in the main

current of the plot of the epic.

The peculiarity of the Mahabharata is that along with this

main plot hundreds of linking stories have been interspersed, as a

result of which we sometimes miss the chain of the main plot. So,

this epic seems unwieldy and bulky, though at the same time it is

boundless in thoughts and incidents. To the sophisticated and

sceptic minds, the Mahabharata is nothing but a congregation of

fanciful stories of days of yore. This epic is the nucleus of all

religious thoughts of men and women in India, especially of those

who are devoted to Hinduism. For long it has administered, and still

administers, religious faith, altitudes, customs behaviour and culture.

If the Mahabharata had no intrinsic value it could not stand the test

of time for more than three thousand years. Even today it is being

considered as folk literature, and as the torch-bearer in the religious

8
life of millions of Hindus. This is so by virtues of the hidden truths

and moral philosophy of the Mahabharata.

In the Mahabharata we hear echoes and re-echoe� of the

thoughts of the great Veda-s. The images are not exactly the same as

we find in the Veda-s, but more colourful, bright and manifested.

The Vedic ideas are crystallised and concentrated, but in the M.B.,

they are elaborated, explained and amplified. The ideas and the

thoughts of the M.B., though they have their origin in the Vedas, are

found different in colour and smell.

The Mahabharata is like an endless forest. It is deep, dense

and extensive. It is awful and at the same time pleasing. Herein, we

find the wild beasts that roar fiercely; but we hear also sweet musical

notes of birds. We find the sages and ascetics living in hermitages,

engaging their minds in endless interrogations on life and death, and

in enquires about the supreme soul. This is what the great

Mahabharata is. Here virtue and vice, morality and immorality,

remain side by side. It is a daring adventure to explore its treasures.

9
One who is able to explore the hidden treasure would surely

acknowledge the greatness of this enriched text.

From point of view of politics, the subject of the Mahabharata

is valuable because herein we get, for the first time, a comprehensive

account of ancient Indian political thought. In the Santiparva/ the

Rajadharmanusasana chapters present a synthetic and systematic

view of the political thought of ancient India. In the Vanaparva we

find a clear indication that the poet had extensive and thorough

knowledge of the geography of the entire Bharata. Herein we obtain

the names of rivers, mountains, lakes and places of pilgrimage. We

can see that the men in the M.B. age had clear-cut knowledge of the

astronomical science also. They knew the position of stars and

planets and their movements. BhfJmapitamab in his bed of arrows

declared that he would not die during the winter solstice - he would

wait for the summer solstice. This shows that men in that age had

astronomical knowledge.

Above all the Mahabharata is the life history of Lord Kf�l)a.

Directly or indirectly, all his activities have influenced the content of

10
the epic. He played the main role in the Kuruk?etra war. Vyasa had

depicted the character of Kf?r:ia with superb dexterity. Through the

Bhagavat Cha/ Kf?r:ia declares himself an avatara - incarnation of

God. We can see that the principal subject - matter of Mahabharata

.. .
covers the activities of Lord Krsna.

We can say that the Mahabharata "is the encyclopaedia of that

age, wherein we find the accumulation of all knowledge and

science of those far-off days. It contains principles of religion, morals

and ethical science, laws and canons of life, worldly stories and

mythological and legendary fables, popular beliefs, customs and

social practices, economic and political science, geographical and

astronomical science, doctrines of human knowledge and gospels of

life. One would be astonished to find all these combined together in

a single text.

EPISODES IN THE MAHABHARATA

There is a significant number of episodes (Upakhyanas) in the

Mahabharata. The word Upakhyana or episode means a subordinate

11
tale or story in the epic. Most of these Upakhyanas are old stories,

which serves as illustrations, for the better understanding of the facts

given in the epic. The numerous episodes constitute about four-fifth

of the whole poem. Many of them are very interesting for various

reasons and some are distinguished by considerable poetic beauty.

These episodes embody a number of moral and ethical themes, and

contain charming allusions to natural objects and domestic life.

Didactically, these episodes help us to cultivate basic qualities such

as nit), dharma, truthfulness, etc. in life. So these episodes can be

considered as the wisdom literature of India. According to their

nature, four categories of episodes.can be seen. They are legends or

old stories, stories told by early people, handed down from

generation to generation or carried by migratory tribes, stories used

for the time being or temporary stories, and stories based on

philosophy or ethical doctrines.

According to their shape (largeness) episodes can be divided in

to three: 1) brhat 2) madhyama, and 3) laghu. Najopakhyana/

Ramopakhyana/ Agastyopakhyana of Vanaparva/ and

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Yayatyupakhyana of Adiparva are some of the examples of the brhat

type of Upakhyana-s. Sakuntalopakhyana of Adiparva, and

Savitryupakhyana of Santiparva are Madhyamopakhyana-s.

Matsyopakhyana/ Naciketopakhyana, etc., are laghu Upakhyana-s.

The insertion of these episodes in to the body of the main story helps

us to understand the moral and ethical teachings.

The famous episode of Sakuntaja occurs in Book I of the

Adiparva. This supplied Kalidasa with the subject of the famous

play, Abhijfiana SakuntaJa. Its poetic beauty is remarkable. Episodes

are plentiful in Book Ill of the Vanaparva. Here is found the

Matsyopakhyana - or the episode of the fish, being the story of the

flood, narrated with greater diffuseness than the simple story told in

the Satapatha Brahmara. The fish here declares itself to be Brahma,

Lord of Creation, and not Vi�l)U, as in the Bhagavatapurara. Manu

no longer appears as the progenitor of mankind, but as a Creator

who produces all beings and worlds a new by means of his ascetic

power.

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 Another episode is the history of Rama, interesting in its

relation to Valm!ki's Ramayafla, which deals with the same subject

at much greater length. The myth of the descent of the Ganges from

heaven to earth, narrated here, is told in the Ramayal)a also.

Another legend is that of the sage ~?yasrriga, who produced

ram in the country of Lomapada, king of the Anga-s. ~?yasrnga,

rewarded with the hand of the pnncess Santa, performed the

sacrifice for king Dasaratha, which brought about the birth of Rama.

This episode is peculiarly important from a critical point of view, as

the legend recurs not only in the Ramayafla but also in the

Padmapurafla/ the Skanda purafla and a number of other sources.

Another interesting episode is the story of king US!nara, son of

Sibi, who sacrificed his life to save a pigeon from a hawk. It is told

again in another part of Book III of the Vanaparva about Sibi himself,

as well as in Book XIII of Anusasanaparva about Vr~adarbha - son of

Sibi. This story is famous in Pali as well as Sanskrit literature and has

spread beyond the limits of India.

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 The story of the abduction of Draupadi forms an episode of her

life while she was dwelling with the Pal)9u -s in the Kamyaka forest.

She was accidentally seen, when alone, by king Jayadratha of

Sindhu, who was passing with a great army. He fell in love with her

at first sight and he forcibly carried her off. She was rescued only

after a terri ble fight. In that fight the Pal)9u -s annihilated

Jayadratha's horse. Interesting as an illustration of the mythological

ideas of the age is the episode which describes the journey of Arjuna

to Indra's heaven. Here we see the mighty warrior - god of the Veda-

5 transformed into a glorified king of later times.

In the story of Savithri we have one of the finest of the many

ideal female characters of the ancient epic poetry of India. This story

of Satyavan and Savithri is found in the Santiparva of the

Mahabharata.

.
NALA EPISODE

Najopakhyanam is the most important and popular among the

episodes of the Mahabharata. This is elaborately presented in the

15
Vanaparva of the epic. Chapters 49 to 70 are used to narrate the

long story of the great king, Na!a. Tradition has accorded to it, more

or less, a religious sanctity and it is widely believed that a

4
recapitulation of the tale destroys sin and ill-luck. • Mallinatha, the

famous commentator, has high lighted the traditional sanctity of the

story, quoting the Mahabharata, which says that the story of

Karkotaka, the serpent, princess Damayanti, King Na!a and King

~tuparf)a is sure to do away with the evil effects of Kali. It is said that

without this episode, the Mahabharata might appear as a drama

without its hero. Though this story is not connected with the main

story, it has acquired an unique position.

This is the oldest and most beautiful of the stories inserted in

the Mahabharata. It is one of the least corrupted of the episodes, its

great popularity having prevented the transforming hand of an editor

from introducing Siva and Vi?f)u, or from effacing the simplicity of

the manners it depicts - the prince, for instance, cooks his own food-

or from changing the character of Indra, and such other old traits.

The poem is pervaded by a high tone of morality, manifested above

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all in the heroic devotion and fidelity of Damayanti, its leading

character. It also contains many passages distinguished by tender

pathos.

The story IS told by the wise Brhadasva to the exiled

Yudhigira, inorder to console him in the loss of the kingdom he has

forfeited in a play of chess. Na!a, prince of Ni~adha, chosen from

among many competitors for her hand by Damayanti princess of

Vidarbha, passes several years of happy married life with her. Then,

possessed by the demon Kali, and indulging in gambling, he loses

his kingdom and all his possessions. Wandering half-naked in the

forestwith Damayanti, he abandons her in his frenzy. Very pathetic

is the scene describing how he repeatedly returns to the SPOlt where

his wife lies asleep on the ground before he finally deserts her.

Equally touching are the accounts of her terror on awakening to final

herself alone in the forest, and of her lamentations as she roams in

search of her husband. There are graphic descriptions of the beauties

and terrors of the tropical forest in which Damayanti wanders. At

last she finds her way back to her father's court at KUl)gina. Many

17
are the striking similes by means of which the poet dwells on the

grief and wasted form of the princess in her separation from her

husband.

Na!a, meanwhile, transformed with a dwarf, has become

charioteer to the king ~tuparl)a of Ayodhya. Damayanti at last hears

news leading her to guess at her husband's whereabouts. She

accordingly holds out hopes of her hand to the king of Oudh, on

condition of his driving the distance of 500 miles to KUl)9na in a

single day. Naja, acting as charioteer, is rewarded by the king with

the secret of the highest skill in dicing. Recognised by his wife

inspite of his disguise, he regains his true form. He plays again and

wins back his lost Kingdom. Thus after years of adventure, sorrow

and humiliation he is at last reunited with Damayanti with whom he

spends the rest of his days in happiness.

Though several supernatural and miraculous features like

those which occur in fairy tales are found in the episode of Na!a,

they are not sufficient to mar the spirit of true poetry which pervades

the story as a whole.

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 This story of king Na!a has influenced a large number of poets

in various languages. Dr. N.P. Unni, in his work Na!a episode in

5
Sanskrit literature, says that the theme captivated the Indian mind

so much so that poets and dramatists adopted the story again and

again in their compositions. Now, there is a vast literature on the

theme in the many regional languages of India. There is a

considerable literature on the theme in Sanskrit itself, besides

numerous works in Prakft, including Jaina literature. Among the

various forms of literature, Kavya and Nataka take the premier

position. A survey of this literature will enable us to know the vast

influence of the story on Sanskrit authors. We meet with a wide

variety of compositions on the theme from a very early period down

to the present day. Poets and dramatists all over India have shown a

predilection for the theme since it contains all the trials and

tribulations of human drama - love, intrigue, separation and

excitement. There are 205 works on the theme including plays.

Mahakavya-s, Campukavy«;.s/ etc. in several languages. In Sanskrit

itself there are 5 7 works.

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 None of the other episodes of the Mahabharata, has

influenced writers as that of Na!a and Damayanti. No one other

than Ka!idasa chose the Sakunta!a episode, for a whole play, even

though it was very interesting. Poets chose the Na!a theme not only

6
for Kavyas but also for all other branches of literature. Though they

are based on the same story, he never find them dull and

monotonous. In Sanskrit, there are about thirty kavya-s based on this

theme. Most of them faithfully follow the original. Some works like

Nai~adhfyacarita deviated a little from the original, in respect of the

descriptions which are indispensable In a Mahakavya.

Nai~adhfyacarita contains only a part of Naja's adventures and

carnes the story no further beyond the return of the hero to his

capital with his bride, and the description of their affection and

happiness.

The present author, Vamana Bhana Bar:ta, was also very much

influenced by this great episode. Without changing from the structure

of the original story, he presents this Mahakavya in an attractive style.

Indeed this M.K can claim equality with the Paficamahakavyas.

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 T. Ganapthy Sastri says in the introduction to this Mahakavya

(Published as T.S.S No.3): The single palm leaf of manuscript copy of

Nafabhyudaya written in Malayalam characters was obtained from

his highness the Maharaja 's Palace Library. It appears to be 100 years

old and contains, however, only 8 sarga-s and 3 slokas in the 9

1h

Sarga. No other manuscript copy be had from anywhere . So we can

assume that this work ends with abhyudaya-the prosperity-of the

hero Na/a.

SOME IMPORT ANT SANSKRIT WORKS

BASED ON THE NALA EPISODE

Rhetoricians like Bharata, Bhamaha, etc, have stated that the

source of a poetic work should be taken from an epic of Pural)a. So,

almost all writers in Sanskrit literature depended on the Mahabharata

and the Ramayai:ia for their subject matter. Sakuntalopakhyana

influenced only our great poet Ka�idasa. But Nafopakhyana

influenced more than 200 writers in different languages. This may be

because this episode satisfied all the requirements of a poet. They

could give full expression to their poetic genius through this great

21
theme. The following are some of the important Sanskrit

compositions based on this episode.

Naifadhiya carita : is the most famous work based on the Na/a

theme. Critics accept this as one among the Pancamahakavya-s. The

, -
author, Sri Har?a, gave stress to descriptions in this work. We can see

that a greater part of this poem is occupied by different types of

descriptions. The whole story of Na!a is not seen here. Highly

elaborate language and ornate diction are seen here. The poet

expresses his knowledge in various sciences through this Mahakavya.

Sahrdayananda - of Kf?r:iananda covers the entire story of Na!a in 15

cantos. In a forceful style, the poet describes the story with necessary

elaboration and using popular metres. A Kerala poet Vasudeva

wrote the poem Najodaya on the Na!a theme. He wished to display

his skill in manipulating artificial metres and elaborate tricks of style

than in narrating the story. This is considered as a Yamaka poem.

Uttaranaifadhfyacarita deals with the story of the life after the

marriage of Na!a and Damayanti. This is written by Vai:idarubhaga.

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 A very long poem in 100 cantos 1s Nafayana by

Manikyacandra. Nafacandrodaya of Karunakara 1s a recently

discovered work on this theme. Abodhakara, Damayantiparit:,aya,

etc., are some among the other Mahakavya-s based on the theme.

According to Dr. N.P. Unni there are more than 50 poems in total,

in Sanskrit literature itself, with the story of Na!a.

Nafacampu and Damayanti campu of Trivikrama Bhatta,

Nafacarita prabhandha (anonymous author) are the beautiful

campukavyas built on the Na/a story.

Nafacarita Nataka is a drama on the Na/a theme. NTlakanta

D1ksita is the author of the nataka which contains six acts

Na/avilasa of Ramacandrasuri is a drama in seven Acts. The

playwright brings in more natural settings borrowed from the Jaina

tradition. He tries to avoid all supernatural surroundings and to

introduce human elements as far as possible. Another drama

Nai�adhananda of K?1iiendra is also based on the Na/a episode.

Bha1miparir:iaya of Sr1nivasa D1k?ita is a drama form based on Na/a

23
episode. Damayanti kalyar)a, Na/avijaya, Na/a Damayantiya, etc.

are some among the other plays based on this famous episode.

Through a detailed study of the works based on the Na/a

episode , one can understand that writers not only of olden times but

also of the 20th century paid attention to the charm of poetry. This

story possessing scope for all emotions and facts of human life

naturally attracted them. Writers contributed much to Sanskrit

literature, by exploiting this episode, and composing masterpieces

which stand on a par with world classics.

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 NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. Bhattacharya, A.N., Dharma, Adharma and Morality m

Mahabharata, Delhi, 1992, p.3.

2. �clcb,�J-J1amctf: xi� , xi &.ff-!i cb9 a�:

cl2IT lff'I! cNf!l o I � � f.i g ci -a+=r: I I

The Mahabharata as it elaborates, Dharma, Artha, Kama and

Mok�a Collectively and separately as the sun which dispelled

the darkness of ignorance of men

3. M.B. Adiparva, Chapter Anukramanika

M.B., Vanaparva

5. Unni, Dr. N.P., Naja Episode in Sanskrit Literature

6. Ibid.,

In Sanskrit literature there are 57 works including 27

poems, 27 Dramas, and 3 campus, based on the Naja

theme

25
In Prakft language there are 5 prose works and 9 poems

There are 3 works in Gujarati , 3 in Tamil, 4 in Telugu and

9 in Kannada. 1 each in Oriya, Sindhi and Bengali, 3 works

in Hindi and 58 works in Malayalam.

26