Fuild Mechanics Unit 2 PDF

SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 1
FLUID KINEMATICS
AND DYNAMICS
Er.S.Keerthibalan.,PGD(QSV).,ME.(CEM).,MISTE.,AMIE.,CEngg.
Assistant Professor
~-~IL
CHAPTER
A. KINEMATICS OF FLOW
• 5.1 INTRODUCTION
Kinematics is defined as that branch of science which deals with motion of particles without
considering the forces causing the motion. The velocity at any point in a flow field at any time is
studied in this branch of fluid mechanics. Once the velocity is known, then the pressure distribution
and hence forces acting on the fluid can be determined. In this chapter, the methods of determining
velocity and acceleration are discussed.
• 5.2 METHODS OF DESCRIBING FLUID MOTION
The fluid motion is described by two methods. They are -(i) Lagrangian Method, and (ii) Eulerian
Method. In the Lagrangian method, a single fluid particle is followed during its motion and its
velocity, acceleration, density, etc., are described. In case of Eulerian method, the velocity, accelera-
tion, pressure, density etc., are described at a point in flow field. The Eulerian method is commonly
used in fluid mechanics.
• 5.3 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
The fluid flow is classified as :

(i) Steady and unsteady flows ;
(ii) Uniform and non-uniform flows ;
(iii) Laminar and turbulent flows;
(iv) Compressible and incompressible flows ;
( v) Rotational and irrotational flows ; and
(vi) One, two and three-dimensional flows.
S.3.1 Steady and Unsteady Flows. Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid
characteristics like velocity, pressure, density, etc., at a point do not change with time. Thus for
steady flow, mathematically, we have
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I t64 Fluid Mechanics
(~~) Xo,Y0 ,Zo

=o, (t) xo,Y0 ,Zo
=0,(~~) xo,Y0 ,Zo
=0
where (x0, y 0 , z0 ) is a fixed point in fluid field.
Unsteady flow is that type of flow, in which the velocity, pressure or density at a point changes with
respect to time. Thus, mathematically, for unsteady flow
(~~t,Y 0
, Zo # O, (t) xo,Y ,Zo
0
# O etc.
S.3.2 Uniform and Non-uniform Flows. Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in
which the velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space (i.e., length of direction of
the flow). Mathematically, for uniform flow
(av)
as t = constant
_ 0
where av= Change of velocity

as= Length of flow in the direction S.
Non-uniform flow is that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time changes with respect
to space. Thus, mathematically, for non-uniform flow
(av)
as t = constant
# 0
•
S.3.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flows. Laminar flow is defined as that type of flow in which
the fluid particles move along well-defined paths or stream line and all the stream-lines are straight and
parallel. Thus the particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer. This
type of flow is also called stream-line flow or viscous flow.
Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a zig-zag way. Due to the
movement of fluid particles in a zig-zag way, the eddies formation takes place which are responsible
for high energy loss. For a pipe flow, the type of flow is determined by a non-dimensional number VD
V
called the Reynold number,
where D = Diameter of pipe
V = Mean velocity of flow in pipe
and v = Kinematic viscosity of fluid.
If the Reynold number is less than 2000, the flow is called laminar. If the Reynold number is more
than 4000, it is called turbulent flow. If the Reynold number lies between 2000 and 4000, the flow may
be laminar or turbulent.
S.3.4 Compressible and Incompressible Flows. Compressible flow is that type of flow in
which the density of the fluid changes from point to point or in other words the density (p) is not
constant for the fluid. Thus, mathematically, for compressible flow
p # Constant
Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is constant for the fluid flow. Liquids
are generally incompressible while gases are compressible. Mathematically, for incompressible flow
p = Constant.
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Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 165 I

S.3.S Rotational and lrrotational Flows. Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the
fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines, also rotate about their own axis. And if the fluid
particles while flowing along stream-lines, do not rotate about their own axis then that type of flow is
called irrotational flow.
S.3.6 One-, Two- and Three-Dimensional Flows. One-dimensional flow is that type of
flow in which the flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time and one space co-ordinate only,
say x. For a steady one-dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of one-space-co-ordinate only. The
variation of velocities in other two mutually perpendicular directions is assumed negligible. Hence
mathematically, for one-dimensional flow
u =f(x), v = 0 and w = 0
where u, v and ware velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.
Two-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and two
rectangular space co-ordinates say x and y. For a steady two-dimensional flow the velocity is a function
of two space co-ordinates only. The variation of velocity in the third direction is negligible. Thus,
mathematically for two-dimensional flow
u =fi(x, y), v =fi(x, y) and w = 0.
Three-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and three
mutually perpendicular directions. But for a steady three-dimensional flow the fluid parameters are
functions of three space co-ordinates (x, y and z) only. Thus, mathematically, for three-dimensional
flow
u =fi(x, y, z), v =fi(x, y, z) and w =f 3 (x, y, z).
• S.4 RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE (Q)
It is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a section of a pipe or a channel.
For an incompressible fluid (or liquid) the rate of flow or discharge is expressed as the volume of fluid
flowing across the section per second. For compressible fluids, the rate of flow is usually expressed as
the weight of fluid flowing across the section. Thus
(i) For liquids the units of Qare m 3/s or litres/s
(ii) For gases the units of Q is kgf/s or Newton/s
Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe in which
A = Cross-sectional area of pipe
V = Average velocity of fluid across the section
Then discharge Q=AxV. ... (5.1)
• S.S CONTINUITY EQUATION
The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called continuity equation. Thus for
a fluid flowing through the pipe at all the cross-section, the quantity of fluid per second is constant.
Consider two cross-sections of a pipe as shown in Fig. 5.1.
Let Vi= Average velocity at cross-section 1-1
pi = Density at section 1-1
Ai = Area of pipe at section 1-1
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I 166 Fluid Mechanics

and V 2, p 2, A 2 are corresponding values at section, 2-2. G) @
i
Then rate of flow at section 1-1 = p 1A 1V 1
{ ( { ({~ ( ( { ( { ( { { { { { ( { { ({{~ { ( { { { { t i
Rate of flow at section 2-2 = p2A 2 V 2

According to law of conservation of mass
Rate of flow at section 1-1
OF FLOW
= Rate of flow at section 2-2
DIR~ON
777 ,+.1
~nn:nn,,,,,,
1
,,,,>n
or P 1A 1V1= P2A2 Vz ... (5.2) 1 2
Equation (5.2) is applicable to the compressible as well as incom- Fig. 5.1 Fluid flowing through
pressible fluids and is called Continuity Equation. If the fluid is in- a pipe.
compressible, then p 1 = p2 and continuity equation (5.2) reduces to
A1V1 = A2V2 .. .(5 .3)
Problem 5.1 The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are JO cm and 15 cm respectively. Find
the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is
5 mis. Determine also the velocity at section 2.
Solution. Given :
®
At section 1, D 1 =10cm=0.lm G)
I I
7t 2 7t 2 2 _L-------r1-
A1 = 4 (D1) = 4 (.1) = 0.007854 m --+- 1D1=10cm 1D2=15cm
V 1 = 5 mis.
At section 2, D 2 = 15 cm= 0.15 m
V1 = Sm/sec
7t 2 2
A 2 =- (.15) = 0.01767 m Fig. 5.2
4
(i) Discharge through pipe is given by equation (5.1)
or Q = A 1 x V1
= 0.007854 x 5 = 0.03927 m 3/s . Ans.
Using equation (5.3), we have A 1V 1 = A 2 V2
A1½ 0.007854
(ii) : . V2 = - - = - - - - x 5.0 = 2.22 mis. Ans.
A2 0.01767
Problem 5.2 A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of diameters
20 cm and 15 cm respectively. If the average velocity in the 30 cm diameter pipe is 2.5 mis, find the
discharge in this pipe. Also determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe if the average velocity in 20 cm
diameter pipe is 2 mis.
Solution. Given :
D1 = 30cm -
V 1 = 2.5m/sec
G)
Fig. 5.3
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Di= 30 cm = 0.30 m
1t 2 1t 2 2
Ai= - Di = - x .3 = 0.07068 m
4 4
Vi= 2.5 mis
D 2 = 20 cm = 0.20 m
1t 2 1t 2
A 2 =- (.2) =- X .4 = 0.0314 m ,
4 4
V2 = 2 mis
D3 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
1t 2 1t 2
A 3 =- (.15) =- X 0.225 = 0.01767 m
4 4
Find (i) Discharge in pipe 1 or Qi
(ii) Velocity in pipe of dia. 15 cm or V3
Let Qi, Q2 and Q3 are discharges in pipe 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Then according to continuity equation
Qi= Q2 + Q3 ... (1)
(i) The discharge Q1 in pipe 1 is given by
Qi= Ai Vi= 0.07068 x 2.5 m 3/s = 0.1767 m 3/s. Ans.
(ii) Value of V 3
Q2 = A 2V 2 = 0.0314 x 2.0 = 0.0628 m 3/s
Substituting the values of Qi and Q2 in equation (1)
0.1767 = 0.0628 + Q3
Q3 = 0.1767 - 0.0628 = 0.1139 m 3/s
But Q3 = A 3 X V3 = 0.01767 x V3 or 0.1139 = 0.01767 X V3
V3 - O.ll 39 6 44 ml A
- 0.01767 = • s. ns.
Problem 5.3 Water flows through a pipe AB 1.2 m diameter at 3 mis and then passes through a
pipe BC 1.5 m diameter. At C, the pipe branches. Branch CD is 0.8 m in diameter and carries one-
third of the flow in AB. The flow velocity in branch CE is 2.5 mis. Find the volume rate of flow in
AB, the velocity in BC, the velocity in CD and the diameter of CE.
Solution. Given :
Diameter of pipe AB, DAB= 1.2 m
Velocity of flow through AB, VAB = 3.0 mis
Dia. of pipe BC, DBc= 1.5 m
Dia. of branched pipe CD, Dev= 0.8 m
Velocity of flow in pipe CE, VcE = 2.5 mis
Let the flow rate in pipe AB= Q m 3/s
Velocity of flow in pipe BC= VBc mis
Velocity of flow in pipe CD= Vcv mis
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D
A:__ ~ _....!:BT - T - - - -~
t
1.2 m 1.5 m C
Ve? 2.5 m/sec
Fig. 5.4
Diameter of pipe CE=DCE
Then flow rate through CD= Q/3
2Q
and flow rate through CE= Q-Q/3 = -
3
(i) Now volume flow rate through AB= Q = VAB x Area of AB
7t 2 7t 2 3
= 3.0 X - (DAB) = 3.0 X - (1.2) = 3.393 m /s. Ans.
4 4
(ii) Applying continuity equation to pipe AB and pipe BC,
VAB x Area of pipe AB = VBc x Area of pipe BC
7t 2 7t 2
or 3.0 x- (DAB) = VBC x- (DBc)
4 4
or 3.0 x (l.2) 2 = VBC x (l.5)2 [ Divide by ¾]
3 X 1.2 2
or --2- = 1.92 mis. Ans.
1.5
(iii) The flow rate through pipe
CD= Q 1 = g_ = 3393 = 1.131 m 3/s

3 3
Q 1 = Vco x Area of pipe CD x~ (Dco)2
4
7t 2
or 1.131 = VcD x- x 0.8 = 0.5026 VcD
4
1.131
VCD = 0 _5026 = 2.25 mis. Ans.
(iv) Flow rate through CE,
Q2 = Q - Q 1 = 3.393 - 1.131 = 2.262 m 3/s
Q 2 = VCE X Area of pipe CE= VCE~ (DCE)2

4
7t 2
or 2.263 = 2.5 x 4 X (DCE)
2.263 X 4 ~
or DcE = - - - =vl.152 = 1.0735 m
2.5 X 7t
Diameter of pipe CE = 1.0735 m. Ans.
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Problem 5.4 A 25 cm diameter pipe carries oil of sp. gr. 0.9 at a velocity of 3 mis. At another
section the diameter is 20 cm. Find the velocity at this section and also mass rate of flow of oil.
Solution. Given :
at section 1, D 1 = 25 cm = 0.25 m
1t 21t 2 3
A 1 =- D 1 =- x 0.25 = 0.049 m
4 4
V1 = 3 mis
at section 2, D 2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
1t 2 2
A 2 =- (0.2) = 0.0314 m
4
V2 =?
Mass rate of flow of oil = ?
Applying continuity equation at sections 1 and 2,
A1V1 = A2V2
or 0.049 x 3.0 = 0.0314 x V2
0.049 X 3.0
V2 = - - - - = 4.68 mis. Ans.
0.0314
Mass rate of flow of oil = Mass density x Q = p x A 1 x V1
Density of oil
Sp. gr. of oil =
Density of water
Density of oil = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water
= 0.9 X 1000 kglm 3 = 900 3kg
m
Mass rate of flow = 900 X 0.049 X 3.0 kgls = 132.23 kg/s. Ans.
Problem 5.5 A jet of water from a 25 mm diameter nozzle is directed vertically upwards. Assuming
that the jet remains circular and neglecting any loss of energy, that will be the diameter at a point 4.5 m
above the nozzle, if the velocity with which the jet leaves the nozzle is 12 mis.
Solution. Given :
A
T
Dia. of nozzle, D 1 = 25 mm= 0.025 m
Velocity of jet at nozzle, V 1 = 12 mis
Height of point A, h = 4.5 m I
JET OF I 4.5 m
Let the velocity of the jet at a height 4.5 m = V2 WATER
Consider the vertical motion of the jet from the outlet of the
nozzle to the point A (neglecting any loss of energy).
Initial velocity,
Final velocity,
u = V1 = 12 mis
V = V2
NOZZLE
·J
Value of g = - 9.81 mls 2 and h = 4.5 m
Using, V2 - u2 = 2gh, we get
V/ - 122 = 2 X (- 9.81) X 4.5
Fig. 5.5
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V2 =.J12 2 - 2 x 9.81 x 4.5 = .,J144 - 88.29 = 7.46 mis

Now applying continuity equation to the outlet of nozzle and at point A,
we get
7t 2
AV, - D, x '1; 2
or A 2 -- _,_, -- _4_ _ __ 7t X (0.025) X 12 = 0.0007896
V2 V2 4 X 7.46
Let D 2 = Diameter of jet at point A.
7t
Then
2
A 2 =2 D 2 or 0.0007896 =47t x D2
2
0.0007896 X 4
D 2 = - - - - - = 0.0317 m = 31.7 mm. Ans.
7t
• 5.6 CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE-DIMENSIONS
Consider a fluid element of lengths dx, dy and dz in the direction of x, y and z. Let u, v and w are the
inlet velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively. Mass of fluid entering the face ABCD
per second
= p x Velocity in x-direction x Area of ABCD
=p Xu X (dy X dz)
Then mass of fluid leaving the face EFGH per second= pu dydz +__i_ (pu dydz) dx
ax
Gain of mass in x-direction
= Mass through ABCD - Mass through EFGH per second
a
= pu dydz - pu dydz - dx (pu dydz)dx
=- -
a
ax (pu dydz) dx z
=-
a
dx (pu) dx dydz { ·: dydz is constant}
Similarly, the net gain of mass in y-direction D 1-------,,,H

I l
A---~'_ __,._
=- -
a (pv) dxdydz
'w E
~ - - F- - _.,.,G_ _ _ x
dz
dy
B,,J<-
,,_v:....__ ____v_..c. dy
and in z-direction =-
a
dZ (pw) dxdydz
' - dx - i
y Fig. 5.6
Net gain of masses = -[__i_

dX
(pu) + __i_ (pv) + j_ (pw )] dxdydz
dy dZ
Since the mass is neither created nor destroyed in the fluid element, the net increase of mass per unit
time in the fluid element must be equal to the rate of increase of mass of fluid in the element. But mass
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a
of fluid in the element is p. dx. dy. dz and its rate of increase with time is at (p dx. dy. dz) or
ap
at. dx dy dz.
Equating the two expressions,
or -[j__ax (pu) + j__ay (pv) + j_az (pw )] dxdydz = aapt . dxdydz

or aap + j__ (pu) + j__ (pv) + j_ (pw) = 0 [Cancelling dx.dy.dz from both sides] ... (5.3A)
t ax ay az
Equation (5.3A) is the continuity equation in cartesian co-ordinates in its most general form. This
equation is applicable to :
(i) Steady and unsteady flow,
(ii) Uniform and non-uniform flow, and
(iii) Compressible and incompressible fluids.
For steady flow,: = 0 and hence equation (5.3A) becomes as
a a a
ax (pu) + ay (pv) + az (pw) = 0 ... (5.3B)
If the fluid is incompressible, then p is constant and the above equation becomes as
au+ av+ aw= O ... (5.4)
ax ay az
Equation (5.4) is the continuity equation in three-dimensions. For a two-dimensional flow, the com-
ponent w = 0 and hence continuity equation becomes as
au+ av = o. ... (5.5)
ax ay
S.6.1 Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Co-ordinates. The continuity equation in
cylindrical polar co-ordinates (i.e., r, 0, z co-ordinates) is derived by the procedure given below.
Consider a two-dimensional incompressible flow field. The
two-dimensional polar co-ordinates are rand 0. Consider a fluid au, · dr
u + -
element ABCD between the radii r and r + dr as shown in ' ilr
Fig. 5.7. The angle subtended by the element at the centre is d0.
The components of the velocity V are u, in the radial direction
and u 0 in the tangential direction. The sides of the element are
having the lengths as
Side AB = rd0, BC= dr, DC= (r + dr) d0, AD= dr.
The thickness of the element perpendicular to the plane of
the paper is assumed to be unity.
Consider the flow in radial direction
Mass of fluid entering the face AB per unit time
= p x Velocity in r-direction x Area
Fig . 5.7
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=p ur X (AB X 1)
X ( ·: Area = AB X Thickness = rde X 1)
= p X Ur X (rde X 1) = p . Ur rde
Mass of fluid leaving the face CD per unit time
= p x Velocity x Area
= p x(u, + a;; .dr) x (CD x 1) (·:Area= CD x 1)
=p x(u, + a;; dr) x(r + dr)de [·: CD= (r + dr) de]
= p x[u, x r + u,dr + r au, dr + au, (dr) 2 ] de

ar ar
= p [ u, X r + u, X dr + r a;; .dr] de
[The term containing (dr) 2 is very small and has been neglected]
Gain of mass in r-direction per unit time
= (Mass through AB - Mass through CD) per unit time
= p. ur rde- p[ u,.r+u,.dr+r au,

ar .dr] de
= p. ur rde- p. Ur r. de-p [ u,.dr+r au,

ar .dr] de
=-p [ u,.dr+r au,

ar.dr ] .de
[This is written in this form because
u ' +-'
=-p [ - au ] r. dr. de (r. de. dr. 1) is equal to volume of
r ar element]
Now consider the flow in e-direction

Gain in mass in e-direction per unit time
= (Mass through BC - Mass through AD) per unit time
= [p x Velocity through BC x Area - p x Velocity through AD x Area]
= [p.u 8 .drxl-p(u8 + aau: .de)xdrxl]
= - p(aa~ .de) dr x 1 ( ·: Area= dr x 1)
au 6 r. de. dr
=-p-. [Multiplying and dividing by r]
ae r
Total gain in fluid mass per unit time
u, au,] e aua rde. dr
= - p [ 7 + -a-r . r. dr. d - p-a-e . - - r - ... (5.SA)
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But mass of fluid element = p x Volume of fluid element
= p X [rd0 X dr X l]
= p x rd0. dr
Rate of increase of fluid mass in the element with time
a ap
= at [p . rd0 . dr] = at. rd0 dr ... (5.5B)
(·: rd0 . dr. 1 is the volume of element and is a constant quantity)

Since the mass is neither created nor destroyed in the fluid element, hence net gain of mass per unit
time in the fluid element must be equal to the rate of increase of mass of fluid in the element.
Hence equating the two expressions given by equations (5.5 A) and (5.5 B), we get
u, au,]
- p[- + - r. dr. d0 - p -
au8 -
rd0. dr
-- = -
ap rd0 dr
r ar ae r at
or - P[ ~ +au, ]- paua . _!_ -- ap [Cancelling rdr . d0 from both sides]

r ar ae r at
or ap +p[~ +au, ] +paua . _!_ =O ... (5.5C)
at r ar ae r
Equation (5.5 C) is the continuity equation in polar co-ordinates for two-dimensional flow.
For steady flow ap = 0 and hence equation (5.5 C) reduces to

at
aua 1 O
u, au, ] +p-.-=
p[ -+-
r ar ae r
or ~ + au, + aua __!_ = O
r ar ae r
au aua
or u + r--' +-- =0
r ar ae
or :r (ru,) + aae (ua) =0 [·: :r (r. u,) =r. a;; +u,] ... (5.5D)
Equation (5.5 D) represents the continuity equation in polar co-ordinates for two-dimensional steady
incompressible flow.
Problem 5.SA Examine whether the following velocity components represent a physically possible
flow?
u, = r sin 0, Ua =2r COS 0.
Solution. Given : u, = r sin 0 and Ua = 2r cos 0
For physically possible flow, the continuity equation,
:r (ru,) + aae (u 8) =0 should be satisfied.

Now u, = r sin 0
Multiplying the above equation by r, we get
. e
ru, = rz sin
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Differentiating the preceding equation w.r.t. r, we get
j_ (rur) = j_ (r2 sin 0)

ar ar
= 2r sin 0 ( ·: sin 0 is constant w .r.t. r)
Now Ue = 2r COS 0
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. 0, we get
a a
a0 (ue) = a0 (2r cos 0)
= 2r (- sin 0) (·: 2r is constant w.r.t. 0)

= - 2r sin 0
j_ (ru,) +~ (u8 )
= 2r sin 0 - 2r sin 0 = 0
ar a0
Hence the continuity equation is satisfied. Hence the given velocity components represent a physi-
cally possible flow.
• S. 7 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
Let Vis the resultant velocity at any point in a fluid flow. Let u, v and w are its component in x, y and
z directions. The velocity components are functions of space-co-ordinates and time. Mathematically,
the velocity components are given as
U = f 1(x, y, Z, t)
V =fi(x, y, Z, t)
W =fix, y, Z, t)
and Resultant velocity, V = ui + vj + wk= ,Ju 2 + v 2 + w 2

Let ax, ay and az are the total acceleration in x, y and z directions respectively. Then by the chain
rule of differentiation, we have
du au dx au dy au dz au
a=-=--+--+-•-+-
x dt ax dt ay dt dt at az
dx dy dz
But - = u,-=v and-= w
dt dt dt
du au au au au
a =-=u-+v-+w-+-
x dt ax ay at az
dv av av av av
Similarly, a = -=u-+v-+w-+- ... (5.6)
Y dt ax ay at az
dw aw aw aw aw
a =-=u-+v-+w-+-
z dt ax ay at az
For steady flow, ~~ = 0, where Vis resultant velocity
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au av aw
or - = 0,- = 0 and- = 0
at at at
Hence acceleration in x, y and z directions becomes
du au au au
a= -=u-+v-+w-
x dt ax ay az
dv av av av
a= -=u-+v-+w- ... (5.7)
Y dt ax ay az
dw aw aw aw
a =-=u-+v-+w-
z dt ax ay az
Acceleration vector A = axi + ayi + ai 1 ... (5.8)
✓ 2 + ay 2 + az 2 .
=ax
s. 7.1 Local Acceleration and Convective Acceleration. Local acceleration is defined as
the rate of increase of velocity with respect to time at a given point in a flow field. In the equation given
by (5.6), the expression au, av or aw is known as local acceleration.

at at at
Convective acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity due to the change of position of
fluid particles in a fluid flow. The expressions other than au, av and aw in equation (5.6) are known
at at at
as convective acceleration.
Problem 5.6 The velocity vector in a fluid flow is given
V = 4x3 i - 10x2yj + 2tk.
Find the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle at (2, 1, 3) at time t = 1.
Solution. The velocity components u, v and w are u = 4x3, v = - 10x2 y, w = 2t
For the point (2, 1, 3), we have x = 2, y = 1 and z = 3 at time t = 1.
Hence velocity components at (2, 1, 3) are
u = 4 x (2)3 = 32 units
v = - 10(2)2(1) = - 40 units
w = 2 x 1 = 2 units
Velocity vector Vat (2, 1, 3) = 32i - 40j + 2k
or Resultant velocity= ,Ju + v + w
2 2 2
=-b2 2 + (-40) 2 + 2 2 = .J1024 + 1600 + 4 = 51.26 units. Ans.

Acceleration is given by equation (5.6)
au au au au
ax = U ax + V ay + W az at
+
av av av av
ay = U ax + V ay + W az at
+
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aw aw aw aw
a= u - + v - + w - + -
z ax ay az at
Now from velocity components, we have
au -_ 12r,
2 au _ 0 au _ 0
- , - and au -_ 0
ax ay az at
av = _ 20xy, av = _ 10x2, av= O av= O

ax ay az at
aw _ 0 aw _ 0 aw _ 0 d aw _ 2 l
-, -, -an -.
ax ay az at
Substituting the values, the acceleration components at (2, 1, 3) at time t = 1 are
ax= 4x3 (12x2) + (- 10x2y) (0) + 2t X (0) + 0
= 48x5 = 48 x (2) 5 = 48 x 32 = 1536 units
ay = 4x3 (- 20xy) + (- 10x2y) (- 10x2) + 2t (0) + 0
= - 80x4y + 100x4y
= - 80 (2)4 (1) + 100 (2)4 x 1 = - 1280 + 1600 = 320 units.
az = 4x3 (0) + (- 10x2y) (0) + (2t) (0) + 2.1 = 2.0 units
Acceleration is A = axi + ayi + ai = 1536i + 320j + 2k. Ans.
or Resultant A = ✓(1536) 2 + (320) 2 + (2) 2 units
=.J2359296 + 102400 + 4 = 1568.9 units. Ans.

Problem 5.7 The following cases represent the two velocity components, determine the third com-
ponent of velocity such that they satisfy the continuity equation :
(i) U = x2 + y2 + z2 ; V = xy2 - yz2 + xy
(ii) V = 2y2, W = 2xyz.
Solution. The continuity equation for incompressible fluid is given by equation (5.4) as
au+ av+ aw = O
ax ay az
Case I. au= 2x
ax
av 2
V = xy2 - yz2 + xy - =2xy-z +x
ay
. . the va1ues of -au and -av m
S u bst1tutmg . continutty
. . equation.
.
ax ay
2 aw
2x + 2xy - Z + X +- = 0
az
aw 2 2
or - = - 3x - 2xy + z or aw = (- 3x - 2xy + z ) az
az
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Integration of both sides gives Jdw = J(- 3x - 2.xy + z 2 ) dz
or w = (- 3xz - 2.xyz + ~ ) + Constant of integration,

where constant of integration cannot be a function of z. But it can be a function of x and y that isf(x, y).
w =(-3xz - 2xyz + z:) + f(x, y). Ans.
Case II. V = 2y2 av= 4y

ay
w = 2.xyz aw = 2.xy
az
. . the va1ues o f -av and -aw m
Su bst1tutmg . contmmty
. . equat10n,
. we get
ay az
au
ax + 4y + 2.xy = 0
au
or - = - 4y - 2.xy or du= (- 4y - 2.xy) dx
ax
x2
Integrating, we get u =- 4.xy- 2y- + f(y, z) =- 4xy - x 2y + f(y, z). Ans.
2
Problem 5.8 A fluid flow field is given by
V = x 2yi + l<.i - (2.xyz + yz2)k
Prove that it is a case of possible steady incompressible fluid flow. Calculate the velocity and accel-
eration at the point (2, 1, 3).
Solution. For the given fluid flow field u = x2y au = 2.xy

ax
av
v=lz - =2yz
ay
w = - 2.xyz - yz 2
aw
- = - 2.xy - 2yz.
az
For a case of possible steady incompressible fluid flow, the continuity equation (5.4) should be
satisfied.
i.e., au + av + aw = 0.
ax ay az
aw
. . au av
Subst1tutmg the values of ax, ay and az' we get
au
- +- +-
av aw =2.xy + 2yz - 2.xy - 2yz =O
ax ay az
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Hence the velocity field V = x2yi + y2<.i - (2.xyz + yz2) k is a possible case of fluid flow. Ans.
Velocity at (2, 1, 3)
Substituting the values x =2, y = 1 and z = 3 in velocity field, we get
V = x2yi + y2<.i - (2.xyz + yz2) k
= 22 X li + 12 X 3j - (2 X 2 X 1 X 3 + 1 X 32) k
= 4i + 3j - 21k. Ans.
and Resultant velocity =.J4 2 + 3 2 + (-21)2 =.Jl6 + 9 + 441 =,J466 =21.587 units. Ans.
Acceleration at (2, 1, 3)
The acceleration components ax, ay and az for steady flow are
au au au
a =u-+v-+w-
x ax ay az
av av av
a= u-+v-+w-
Y ax ay az
aw aw aw
a =u-+v-+w-
z ax ay az
2 au au
u =x y,- =2.xy, - =x 2 and -au =0
ax ay az
2 av av av 2
v =y Z, ax =0, ay =2 yz, az =Y
2aw aw 2aw
w =-2.xyz-yz ,-=-2yz,-=-2xz-z , - = -2.xy-2yz.
ax ay az
Substituting these values in acceleration components, we get acceleration at (2, 1, 3)
ax = x2y (2.xy) + y2z (x)2 - (2.xyz + yz2) (0)
= 2.x3y2 + x 2y2z
=2 (2) 3 !2 + 22 X t2 X 3 =2 X 8 + 12
= 16 + 12 =28 units
ay = x2y (0) + y2z (2yz) - (2.xyz + yz2) (y2)
= 2y3z2 - 2.xy3z - lz2
=2 x 13 x 32 - 2 x 2 x 13 x 3 - 13 x 32 = 18 - 12 - 9 =- 3 units
az = x y (- 2yz) + y2z (- 2xz -
2 z2) - (2.xyz + yz2) (- 2.xy- 2yz)
= - 2x2y2z - 2.xy2z2 - y2z3 + [4x2y2z + 2.xy2z2 + 4.xy2z2 + 2y2z3]
= - 2 X 22 X i2 X 3 - 2 X 2 X i2 X 32 - t2 X 33
+ [4 X 22 X t2 X 3 + 2 X 2 X t2 X 32 + 4 X 2 X t2 X 32 + 2 X t2 X 33:)
= - 24 - 36 - 27 + [48 + 36 + 72 + 54]
= - 24 - 36 - 27 + 48 + 36 + 72 + 54 = 123
Acceleration = axi + a.) + ai =28i - 3j + 123k. Ans.
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or Resultant acceleration= ✓28 2 + (-3)2 + 123 2 = ,J784 + 9 + 15129

= ✓ 15922 = 126.18 units. Ans.
Problem 5.9 Find the convective acceleration at the middle of a pipe which converges uniformly
from 0.4 m diameter to 0.2 m diameter over 2 m length. The rate of flow is 20 litls. If the rate of flow
changes uniformly from 20 Lis to 40 Lis in 30 seconds, find the total acceleration at the middle of the
pipe at 15th second.
Solution. Given :
Diameter at section 1, D 1 = 0.4 m ; D 2 = 0.2 m, L = 2 m, Q = 20 Lis= 0.02 m 3/s as one litre
3
= 0.001m = 1000 cm 3
Find (i) Convective acceleration at middle i.e., at A when Q = 20 Lis.

(ii) Total acceleration at A when Q changes from 20 Lis to 40 Lis in 30 seconds.
Case I. In this case, the rate of flow is constant and equal to 0.02 m3/s. The velocity of flow is in
x-direction only. Hence this is one-dimensional flow and velocity components in y and z directions are
zero or v = 0, z = 0.
du
Convective acceleration = u dy only ... (i)
Let us find the value of u and ~: at a distance x from inlet <D X
The diameter (Dx) at a distance x from inlet or at section X-X is given by,
0.4-0.2 0.4m
T X
-~-
+
0.2m
Dx=0.4- xx
=(0.4-0.lx)m
2
The area of cross-section (AJ at section X-X is given by,

1 ,.._ x_.., X :
:+. 1m .._.!
I
_j
:- 2m
A = ~D 2 = ~ (0.4 - 0.1 x)2 Fig. 5.8
X 4 X 4
Velocity (u) at the section X-X in terms of Q (i.e., in terms of rate of flow)
Q Q Q 4Q
u=--=-=--= 2
Area Ax !!_ D 2 1t (0.4- 0.1 x)
4 X
1.273Q -2
= (0.4 _ O. l x) 2 - 1.273 Q (0.4 - 0.1 x) mis ... (ii)
To find ~:, we must differentiate equation (ii) with respect to x.
du d 2
dx = dx [l.273 Q (0.4 - 0.1 x)- ]
= 1.273 Q (- 2) (0.4 - 0.1 x)- I X (- 0.1) [Here Q is constant]
= 0.2546 Q (0.4 - 0.1 xf 1 ... (iii)
Substituting the value of u and du in equation (i), we get

dx
Convective acceleration= [l.273 Q (0.4 - 0.1 x)- 2] x [0.2546 Q (0.4 - 0.1 xf 1]
= 1.273 X 0.2546 X Q 2 X (0.4 - 0.1 xf3
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= 1.273 X 0.2546 X (0.02) 2 X (0.4 - 0.1 xr3 [ ·: Q = 0.02 m 3/s]
:.Convective acceleration at the middle (where x = 1 m)
= 1.273 X 0.2546 X (0.02) 2 X (0.4 - 0.1 X 1)-3 m/s 2
= 1.273 X 0.2546 X (0.02) 2 X (0.3r3 m/s 2
= 0.0048 m/s 2• Ans.
Case II. When Q changes from 0.02 m 3/s to 0.04 m 3/s in 30 seconds, find the total acceleration
at x = 1 m and t = 15 seconds.
Total acceleration= Convective acceleration+ Local acceleration at t = 15 seconds.
The rate of flow at t = 15 seconds is given by
Q = Q1 + Q2 - Qi x 15 where Q 2 = 0.04 m 3/s and Q1 = 0.02 m 3/s

30
= 0.02 + (0.04 - 0.0 2) x 15 = 0.03 m 3/s

30
The velocity (u) and gradient (:: ) in terms of Qare given by equations (ii) and (iii) respectively
:. Convective acceleration = u.
au
ax
= [ 1.273 Q (0.4 - 0.1 xr2 ] X [0.2546 Q (0.4 - 0.1 x)- 1]
= 1.273 X 0.2546 Q 2 X (0.4 - 0.1 X 1)-3
:. Convective acceleration (when Q = 0.03 m 3/s and x = 1 m)
= 1.273 X 0.2546 X (0.03) 2 X (0.4 - 0.1 X lr3
= 1.273 X 0.2546 X (0.03) 2 X (0.3)-3 m/s 2
= 0.0108 m/s 2 ••• (iv)
Local acceleration=
au a
at= at [l.273 Q (0.4 - 0.1
2
xr]
[ ·: u from equation (ii) is u = 1.273 Q (0.4 - 0.1 x)-2]
-2 aQ
= 1.273 X (0.4 - 0.1 x) X at
[ ·: Local acceleration is at a point where xis constant but Q is changing]
Local acceleration (at x = 1 m)
-2 aQ
= 1.273 X (0.4 - 0.1 X 1) X at
= 1.273 X (0.3)
-2
X
0.02 [ .. aQ = Q2-Q1 = 0.04-0.02 = 0.02]
30 · at t 30 30
= 0.00943 m/s 2 ... (v)
Hence adding equations (iv) and (v), we get total acceleration.
:. Total acceleration= Convective acceleration+ Local acceleration
= 0.0108 + 0.00943 = 0.02023 m/s 2• Ans.
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• S.8 VELOCITY POTENTIAL FUNCTION AND STREAM FUNCTION
S.S. I Velocity Potential Function. It is defined as a scalar function of space and time such
that its negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction. It is
defined by (Phi). Mathematically, the velocity, potential is defined as = f (x, y, z) for steady flow
such that
u=--
a<1>
ax
V = - a
az
where u, v and ware the components of velocity in x, y and z directions respectively.
The velocity components in cylindrical polar co-ordinates in terms of velocity potential function are
given by
Ur=!!
Ue
1
=-; ae
a<1>
I ... (5.9A)
where ur = velocity component in radial direction (i.e., in r direction)

and u8 = velocity component in tangential direction (i.e., in 0 direction)
. . equation
The contmmty . s:~or an mcompress1
• "ble steady fl ow ts
. - au + -av + -aw = O.
ax ay az
Substituting the values of u, v and w from equation (5.9), we get
~(- a<1>)+~(- a<1>)+i_(- a<1>) =O

ax ax ay ay az az
or ... (5.10)
Equation (5.10) is a Laplace equation.
For two-dimension case, equation (5.10) reduces to a f + aayf = 0.

2
ax
2
. .. (5.11)
If any value of that satisfies the Laplace equation, will correspond to some case of fluid flow.
Properties of the Potential Function. The rotational components* are given by
1 ----
ro-
z- 2
(avax au)
ay
* Please, refer to equation (5.17) on page 192.
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0) = _!_(au - aw)
Y 2 az ax
Substituting the values, of u, v and w from equation (5.9) in the above rotational components, we
get
and
a2<1> a2<1> a2<1> a2<1>

If is a continuous function, then--= - - ; - - = - - ; etc.
axay ayax azax axaz
O)z = ffiy = 00x = 0.
When rotational components are zero, the flow is called irrotational. Hence the properties of the
potential function are :
1. If velocity potential () exists, the flow should be irrotational.
2. If velocity potential () satisfies the Laplace equation, it represents the possible steady incom-
pressible irrotational flow.
S.8.2 Stream Function. It is defined as the scalar function of space and time, such that its partial
derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction. It
is denoted by w(Psi) and defined only for two-dimensional flow. Mathematically, for steady flow it is
defined as w= f (x, y) such that
and
ax v
aw=
~: =-u
I ... (5.12)
The velocity components in cylindrical polar co-ordinates in terms of stream function are given as
1 aw aw
Ur= -;-as and Ue= -a; ... (5.12A)
where ur= radial velocity and u0 = tangential velocity
. . equation
The continmty . "~or two- d"1mens10n
. al fl ow 1s
. - au + -av = 0 .
ax ay
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Substituting the values of u and v from equation (5.12), we get
a ( aw) a (aw) a2 w a2 w
ax - ay + ay ax = O or - axay + axay = o.
Hence existence of 'I' means a possible case of fluid flow. The flow may be rotational or irrotational.
.
The rotat10na l component roz ts
. given
. by Olz = -1 - - - . (av au)
2 ax ay
Substituting the values of u and v from equation (5.12) in the above rotational component, we get
For irrotational flow, roz = 0. Hence above equation becomes as aax

2
~ + a~ =O
ay
which is Laplace equation for '1'·
The properties of stream function ('If) are :
1. If stream function ('If) exists, it is a possible case of fluid flow which may be rotational or
irrotational.
2. If stream function ('If) satisfies the Laplace equation, it is a possible case of an irrotational flow.
S.8.3 Equipotential Line. A line along which the velocity potential is constant, is called
equipotential line.
For equipotential line = Constant
d'lf = 0
But = f(x, y) for steady flow
d = a dx + a<1> dy
ax ay
=- udx-vdy
= - (udx + vdy).
For equipotential line, d = 0
or - ( udx + =
vdy) 0 or udx + vdy =0
dy u
= ... (5.13)
dx v
But dy = Slope of equipotential line.

dx
S.8.4 Line of Constant Stream Function
'If = Constant
d'lf = 0
But d'lf = aw dx + aw dy = + vdx - udy

ax ay
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For a line of constant stream function
= d'lf = 0 or vdx - udy =0
dy v
or = ... (5.14)
dx u
But dy is slope of stream line.

dx
From equations (5.13) and (5.14) it is clear that the product of the slope of the equipotential line and
the slope of the stream line at the point of intersection is equal to - 1. Thus the equipotential lines are
othogonal to the stream lines at all points of intersection.
S.8.S Flow Net. A grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines and stream lines is called
a flow net. The flow net is an important tool in analysing two-dimensional irrotational flow problems.
S.8.6 Relation between Stream Function and Velocity Potential Function
From equation (5.9),
we have u=- aq> and v = - aq>

ax ay
From equation (5.12), we have u = - a'I' and v = aa'I'
ay X
Thus, we have u =- aq> =- a'I' and v = - aq> = a'I'

ax ay ay ax
Hence
:!=~; } ... (5.15)
and a<1> =_a"'
ay ax
Problem 5.10 The velocity potential function () is given by an expression
xy3 2 x3y 2
<1>=---x +-+y
3 3
(i) Find the velocity components in x and y direction.
(ii) Show that represents a possible case offlow.
xy3 2 x3y 2
Solution. Given : = - - - x +- +y
3 3
The partial derivatives of w.r.t. x and y are
a<1>
-
y3
=---2x+--
3x 2 y
... (1)
ax 3 3
and
a<1>
-
3xy2 x 3
= ---+-+2y ... (2)
ay 3 3
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(i) The velocity components u and v are given by equation (5.9)
u = - d, will represent a possible case of flow if it satisfies the Laplace equation, i.e.,
a2<1> a2<1>
-+-=0
dx 2 dy 2
From equations (1) and (2), we have
Now dq> = - y3/3 - 2x + x 2y

dx
a2<1>
-2 =-2+2.xy
ax
and
d = - xy2 +-
-
x3
+ 2y
dy 3
a2<1>
dy2 = - 2.xy + 2
a2<1> a2<1>
-2 + -=;---T = (- 2 + 2.xy) + (- 2.xy + 2) = 0
dx oy
Laplace equation is satisfied and hence represent a possible case of flow. Ans.
Problem 5.11 The velocity potential function is given by = 5 (x 2 - y2 ).
Calculate the velocity components at the point (4, 5).
Solution. = 5 (x2 - y2)
d = lOx
dx
d = - lOy.
dy
But velocity components u and v are given by equation (5.9) as
u= _ d =- lOx
dx
V = - d<p = - (- lOy) = lOy

dy
The velocity components at the point (4, 5), i.e., at x = 4, y = 5
u = - 10 x 4 =- 40 units. Ans.
v = 10 x 5 = 50 units. Ans.
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Problem 5.12 A stream function is given by v = 5x - 6y.

Calculate the velocity components and also magnitude and direction of the resultant velocity at any
point.
Solution. v = 5x - 6y
av
ax
= 5 and av = - 6.
ay
But the velocity components u and v in terms of stream function are given by equation (5.12) as
u = - av = - (- 6) = 6 units/sec. Ans.
ay
v = av = 5 units/sec. Ans.
ax
Resultant velocity =.Ju 2 + v2 = ✓6 2 + 5 2 = ✓36 + 25 =J6i = 7.81 unit/sec

V 5
Direction is given by, tan 0 = -=-
u 6
= 0.833
0 = tan- 1 .833 = 39° 48'. Ans.
Problem 5.13 If for a two-dimensional potential flow, the velocity potential is given by
</J = X (2y - J)
determine the velocity at the point P (4, 5). Determine also the value of stream function V at the point P.
Solution. Given : = x (2y - 1)
(i) The velocity components in the direction of x and y are
a<1>
u= - - = - -a [x (2y - 1)] = - [2y - l] = 1 - 2y
ax ax
V= - aq> = - i_ [x (2y - 1)] = - [2x] = - 2x

ay ay
At the point P (4, 5), i.e., at x =4, y = 5
u = 1 - 2 x 5 =- 9 units/sec
v =- 2 x 4 =- 8 units/sec
Velocity at P = - 9i - 8j
or Resultant velocity at P = ✓9 2 +8 2 =.J81+64 = 12.04 units/sec = 12.04 units/sec. Ans.
(ii) Value of Stream Function at P
We know that av = - u = - (1 - 2y) = 2y - 1 ... (i)

ay
and
av
-=v=-2x ... (ii)
ax
Integrating equation (i) w.r.t. 'y', we get
J d'lf = J (2 y - 1) dy or V = 2 y2 - y + Constant of integration.

2
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The constant of integration is not a function of y but it can be a function of x. Let the value of
constant of integration is k. Then
V = y2- y + k. . .. (iii)
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. 'x', we get
av_ ak
ax - ax.
But from equation (ii), ~: = - 2x
.
Equatmg the value of
av we get ak
ax, ax = - 2x.
2
Integrating this equation, we get k = J- 2xdx = - 2 x = - x 2 •
2
Substituting this value of kin equation (iii), we get v = y 2 - y - x2 • Ans.
Stream function vat P (4, 5) = 52 - 5 - 4 2 = 25 - 5 - 16 = 4 units. Ans.
Problem 5.14 The stream function for a two-dimensional flow is given by V = 2.xy, calculate the
velocity at the point P (2, 3 ). Find the velocity potential function (\>.
Solution. Given : v = 2.xy
The velocity components u and v in terms of V are
u= - av = - ~ (2.xy) = - 2x
ay ay
av a
= - = - (2.xy) = 2y.
V
ax ax
At the point P (2, 3), we get u =- 2 x 2 =- 4 units/sec
v = 2 x 3 = 6 units/sec
Resultant velocity at p =.Ju + v = .J4
2 2 2 + 6 2 = .Jl6 + 36 = -/5'i = 7.21 units/sec.
Velocity Potential Function <\>
a<1>
- = - u = - (- 2x) = 2x ... (i)
We know
ax
aq> =- V =- 2y ... (ii)

ay
Integrating equation (i), we get
J d<\> = J2xdx
2x2 2
or <\>=-+C=x +C ... (iii)
2
where C is a constant which is independent of x but can be a function of y.
D 1.f.,~erentiating . <m
. . equation ...) w.r.t. ,y , , we get -a<1> = -ac
ay ay
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But from (ii), dq> = - 2y

dy
ac
-=-2y
dy
2 2
Integrating this equation, we get C = f - 2y dy =- _Y_ = - l
2
Substituting this value of C in equation (iii), we get = x2 - y 2• Ans.
Problem 5.15 Sketch the stream lines represented by 'If = x 2 + y2.
Also find out the velocity and its direction at point (1, 2).
Solution. Given : 'I' = x2 + y2
The velocity components u and v are
u =- -d'lf =- -
a (x + y ) = - 2y
2 2
ay ay 2
v = d'lf = j_ (x 2 + y2) = 2x 4 UNITS / SEC

dx dx
Fig. 5.9
At the point (1, 2), the velocity components are
Resultant velocity
u = - 2 x 2 = - 4 units/sec
v = 2 x 1 = 2 units/sec
= .Ju2 + v2 = .J(-4)2 + 22
r
=.Jw = 4.47 units/sec
and tan e = -u = -42 = 2-1

V
X
0= tan- 1 • 5 = 26° 34'

Resultant velocity makes an angle of 26° 34' with x-axis.
Sketch of Stream Lines
'lf=X2+y2
Fig. 5.10
Let 'If= 1, 2, 3 and so on.
Then we have l=x2 +y2
2=x2 +y2
3=x2 +y2
and so on.
Each equation is a equation of a circle. Thus we shall get concentric circles of different diameters
as shown in Fig. 5.10.
Problem 5.16 The velocity components in a two-dimensional flow field for an incompressible
fluid are as follows :
3
u = -y + 2x - x 2y and v = xy2 - 2y - x 31'3
3
obtain an expression for the stream function 'If.
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Solution. Given : u = y3!3 + 2x - x2y
v = xy2- 2y- x3/3.
The velocity components in terms of stream function are
d\j1 = V =xy2 - 2y - x3/3 ... (i)

ax
-av =- u =- y3/3 - 2x + ry
2
... (ii)
ay
Integrating (i) w.r.t. x, we get V = J (.xy2 - 2y - x3/3) dx
x2y2 x4
or V = -2- - 2xy - 4 x 3 + k, ... (iii)
where k is a constant of integration which is independent of x but can be a function of y.

Differentiating equation (iii) w.r.t. y, we get
-
av 2x 2 y ak 2 ak
= - - -2x+- =x y-2x+-
ay 2 ay ay
But from (ii), av = -y3/3 - 2x + x 2y

ay
Comparing the value of av, we get x y- 2x + ak

2 = -y3!3 - 2x + x2y
ay ay
ak =-l13
ay
Integrating, we get k= f(-y3/3) dy 4

= -=I._= -y
4 x3 12
4
Substituting this value in (iii), we get

x2y2 x4 y4
V= ---2xy----.Ans.
2 12 12
Problem 5.17 In a two-dimensional incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are given by
u = x - 4y and v = - y - 4x.
Show that velocity potential exists and determine its form. Find also the stream function.
Solution. Given : u = x - 4y and v = - y - 4x
au =1 and av =- 1
ax ay
au + av = l _ l = O
ax ay
Hence flow is continuous and velocity potential exists.
Let <j> = Velocity potential.
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Let velocity components in terms of velocity potential is given by
ax =- = - (x - 4y) = -
aq> U X + 4y ... (i)
and
ay =- v = - (- y - 4x) = y + 4x
aq> ... (ii)
x2
Integrating equation (i), we get = - -
+ 4xy + C ... (iii)
2
where C is a constant of integration, which is independent of x.
This constant can be a function of y.
Differentiating the above equation, i.e., equation (iii) with respect to 'y', we get
a<1> = 0 + 4x+ ac
ay ay
But from equation (iii), we have a<1> = y + 4x
ay
Equating the two values of a<1> , we get
ay
ac ac
4x+- =y+4x or -=y
ay ay
Integrating the above equation, we get
2
C=L+c1
2
where C 1 is a constant of integration, which is independent of x and y.
2
Taking it equal to zero, we get C = L.
2
Substituting the value of C in equation (iii), we get
x2 y2
= --+4xy+-. Ans.
2 2
Value of Stream functions
Let V = Stream function
The velocity components in terms of stream function are
av
- = v=-y-4x ... (iv)
ax
and av
ay =- =- (X - 4y) =-
U X + 4y ... (v)
Integrating equation (iv) w.r.t. x, we get

4x 2
V = - yx - - - + k ... (vi)
2
where k is a constant of integration which is independent of x but can be a function of y.
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d'Jf dk
Differentiating equation (vi) w.r.t. y, we get - =- x- 0+-
dy dy
d'Jf
But from equation (v), we have - =-x+4y
dy
Equating the two values of d'Jf , we get - x + dk = - x + 4y or dk = 4y

dy dy dy
2
Integrating the above equation, we get k =4 Y = 2y2
2
Substituting the value of kin equation (vi), we get
'l' = -yx - 2x2 + 2y2. Ans.
• 5.9 TYPES OF MOTION
A fluid particle while moving may undergo anyone or combination of following four types of
displacements :
(i) Linear Translation or Pure Translation,
(ii) Linear Deformation,
(iii) Angular Deformation, and
(iv) Rotation.
5.9.1 Linear Translation. It is defined as the movement of a fluid element in such a way that it
moves bodily from one position to another position and the two axes ab and cd represented in new
positions by a'b' and c'd' are parallel as shown in Fig. 5.11 (a).
5.9.2 Linear Deformation. It is defined as the deformation of a fluid element in linear direction
when the element moves. The axes of the element in the deformed position and un-deformed position
are parallel, but their lengths change as shown in Fig. 5.11 (b).
y y
d'
a a ·- J._1.cf.. · b ,
a' ·- ·-i-r - - b
0 C X O X
C C1
(a) LINEAR TRANSLATION (b) LINEAR DEFORMATION
y
(c) ANGULAR DEFORMATION (d) PURE ROTATION
Fig. 5.11. Displacement ofa fluid element.
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S.9.3 Angular Deformation or Shear Deformation. It is defined as the average change in

the angle contained by two adjacent sides. Let Ll0 1 and Ll0 2 is the change in angle between two
adjacent sides of a fluid element as shown in Fig. 5.11 (c), then angular deformation or shear strain
rate
1
= 2 [Ll0 1 + Ll02]
Now LlS 1 = av X Ax = av and LlS 2 = au . Lly = au.
ax Ax ax ay Lly ay
Angular deformation= _!_ [Ll0 1 + Ll0 2]
2
or Shear strain rate= _!_ [av + au] ... (5.16)

2 ax ay
S.9.4 Rotation. It is defined as the movement of a fluid element in such a way that both of its
axes (horizontal as well as vertical) rotate in the same direction as shown in Fig. 5.11 (d). It is equal
ax au)
to_!_(av -
2 ay for a two-dimensional element in x-y plane. The rotational components are
co - - - - au)
1 (av -
z- 2 ax ay
... (5.17)
co - _!_ (au -
y-2 az ax
aw)
S.9.S Vorticity. It is defined as the value twice of the rotation and hence it is given as 2co.
Problem 5.18 A fluid flow is given by V = 8x3 i - I Ox2yj.
Find the shear strain rate and state whether the flow is rotational or irrotational.
Solution. Given : V = 8x3 i - 10x2yj
u= sx3, au = 24x2, au = 0
ax ay
and
av =- 20xy, av
v=- lOx2y, ax ay =- lOx2
(i) Shear strain rate is given by equation (5.16) as
- +au)
= -1 (av - =-1 (- 20xy + 0) = - lOxy. Ans.
2 ax ay 2
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(ii) Rotation in x - y plane is given by equation (5.17) or
co = _!_ ( dv - du) =_!_ (- 20.xy - 0) =- 10.xy

z 2 dx dy 2
As rotation coz "# 0. Hence flow is rotational. Ans.
Problem 5.19 The velocity components in a two-dimensional flow are
u = y3;3 + 2x -x2y and v = xy 2 - 2y- x 3/3.
Show that these components represent a possible case of an irrotational flow.
Solution. Given : u = y3!3 + 2x - x2y
du
-=2-2.xy
dx
du = 3y2 _ x2 =y2 _ x2
dy 3
Also V = xy 2 - 2y - x3/3
dv
- =2.xy-2
dy
dv 2 3x 2 2 2
-=y--=y-x.
dx 3
(l.) . al fl ow, contmmty
F or a two- d"1mens1on . . equat10n
. ts. -du + -dv = 0
dx dy
. . du dv
Subst1tutmg the value of -:;-- and - , we get
ox dy
du dv
- +- =2 - 2.xy + 2.xy- 2 = 0
dx dy
It is a possible case of fluid flow.
.
(ii) Rotatton, . given
coz ts . by coz = -1 ( -dv - -du) = -1 [(y2 - x 2) - ( y 2 - x 2)] =0
2 dx dy 2
Rotation is zero, which means it is case of irrotational flow. Ans.
• S. IO VORTEX FLOW
Vortex flow is defined as the flow of a fluid along a curved path or the flow of a rotating mass of
fluid is known a 'Vortex Flow'. The vortex flow is of two types namely:
1. Forced vortex flow, and
2. Free vortex flow.
S.10.1 Forced Vortex Flow. Forced vortex flow is defined as that type of vortex flow, in
which some external torque is required to rotate the fluid mass. The fluid mass in this type of flow,
rotates at constant angular velocity, co. The tangential velocity of any fluid particle is given by
v=coxr ... (5.18)
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where r = Radius of fluid particle from the axis of rotation.
I CENTRAL AXIS
V
I
-=-=-j-=-=-=
=-=-=---[-= =-
-= -=-j-=-=-=
LIQUID
=-=-=-1--=-=-=
VERTICAL
CYLINDER
- -_-_--:i...- _-_- -=-=-
- - -=-£-=-=-
- ---
_-_-_-_t-_-_--
-=-=-1-=-=-= -=-=-=+=-=-=
I - SHAFT
I c.o
I
(a) CYLINDER IS STATIONARY (b) CYLINDER IS ROTATING
Fig. 5.12 Forced vortex flow.

Hence angular velocity ro is given by
V
ro = - = Constant. ... (5.19)
r
Examples of forced vortex are :
1. A vertical cylinder containing liquid which is rotated about its central axis with a constant
angular velocity ro, as shown in Fig. 5.12.
2. Flow of liquid inside the impeller of a centrifugal pump.
3. Flow of water through the runner of a turbine.
S. I 0.2 Free Vortex Flow. When no external torque is required to rotate the fluid mass, that
type of flow is called free vortex flow. Thus the liquid in case of free vortex is rotating due to the
rotation which is imparted to the fluid previously.
Examples of the free vortex flow are :
1. Flow of liquid through a hole provided at the bottom of a container.
2. Flow of liquid around a circular bend in a pipe.
3. A whirlpool in a river.
4. Flow of fluid in a centrifugal pump casing.
The relation between velocity and radius, in free vortex is obtained by putting the value of external
torque equal to zero, or, the time rate of change of angular momentum, i.e., moment of momentum
must be zero. Consider a fluid particle of mass 'm' at a radial distance r from the axis of rotation,
having a tangential velocity v. Then
Angular momentum = Mass x Velocity= m xv
Moment of momentum = Momentum x r = m x v x r
Time rate of change of angular momentum = :t (mvr)
For free vortex -

a (mvr) = 0
at
Constant
Integrating, we get mvr = Constant or vr = - - - - = Constant ... (5.20)
m
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S. I 0.3 Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow. Consider a fluid element ABCD (shown
shaded) in Fig. 5.13 rotating at a uniform velocity in a horizontal plane about an axis perpendicular to
the plane of paper and passing through O.
Let r = Radius of the element from 0.
~0 = Angle subtended by the element at O.
~r = Radial thickness of the element.
~A = Area of cross-section of element.
The forces acting on the element are :
+: ~r)
(i) Pressure force, pM, on the face AB.
(ii) Pressure force,(p M on the face CD. O-E:::::=--r----/LL.1..1.'.L(LUJ
2
(iii) Centrifugal force, mv acting in the direction away
r
from the centre, 0. Fig. 5.13
Now, the mass of the element= Mass density x Volume
= p x M x ~r
vz
Centrifugal force = pM~r-.
r
Equating the forces in the radial direction, we get
( p + dp ~r) M - pM = pMM ~
dr r
cJp v2
or -MM=pMM-.
dr r
Cancelling ~r x M from both sides, we get dp = p ~ ... (5.21)

dr r
Equation (5.21) gives the pressure variation along the radial direction for a forced or free vortex
flow in a horizontal plane. The expression dp is called pressure gradient in the radial direction. As dp
dr dr
is positive, hence pressure increases with the increase of radius 'r'.
The pressure variation in the vertical plane is given by the hydrostatic law, i.e.,
dp
-=-pg ... (5.22)
dZ
In equation (5.22), z is measured vertically in the upward direction.
The pressure, p varies with respect to rand z or p is a function of rand z and hence total derivative
of pis
cJp cJp
dp = -dr+-dz.
dr dz
Substituting the values of dp from equation (5.21) and dp from equation (5.22), we get
dr dZ
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v2
dp = p - dr - pgdz ... (5.23)
r
Equation (5.23) gives the variation of pressure of a rotating fluid in any plane.
S. I 0.4 Equation of Forced Vortex Flow. For the forced vortex flow, from equation (5.18),
we have
v=coxr
where co = Angular velocity = Constant.
Substituting the value of v in equation (5.23), we get
002,2
dp = p x - - dr - pg dz.
r
Consider two points 1 and 2 in the fluid having forced vortex flow as shown in Fig. 5.14.
Integrating the above equation for points 1 and 2, we get
ftp = f pco 2 rdr - fi~gdz
or (p, - p,) = [rro' ,; I- pg [zl'.

pro 2 2 2
or (pz - Pi)= - - [rz - '1 ] - pg [Zz - zi]
2
p 2 2 2 2
= 2 [co '2 - co '1 1- pg [Zz - zi]
= -p [v 22- v 12] - pg [z 2 - zi] {".' V2 =COr2} Fig. 5.14

2 v 1 = cor1
If the points 1 and 2 lie on the free surface of the liquid, then p 1 = p 2 and
hence above equation becomes
0 = -p [v 22 - v 12] - pg [z 2 - zi]
2
p 2 2
or pg [z 2 - zi] = 2 [v 2 - v 1 ]
1 2 2
or [z 2 - zi] = - [v 2 - v1 ].
2g
Fig. 5.15
If the point 1 lies on the axis of rotation, then v 1 = co x r1 = co x O = 0. The above
equation becomes as
1 2 V2 2
Zz-Zt = -2g Vz = 2g
V 2 00 2 X ,-, 2
Let z2 -z 1 = Z, then we have Z= - 2- = 2 ... (5.24)
2g 2g
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Thus Z varies with the square of r. Hence equation (5.24) is an equation of parabola. This means
the free surface of the liquid is a paraboloid.
Problem 5.20 Prove that in case of forced vortex, the rise of liquid level at the ends is equal to
the fall of liquid level at the axis of rotation.
Solution. Let R = radius of the cylinder.
0-0 = Initial level of liquid in cylinder when the cylinder is not rotating.
: . Initial height of liquid = (h + x)
: . Volume of liquid in cylinder= rcR 2 x Height of liquid
= rcR 2 X (h + x) ... (i)
Let the cylinder is rotated at constant angular velocity ro. The liquid will rise at the ends and will fall
at the centre.
Let y = Rise of liquid at the ends from 0-0
x = Fall of liquid at the centre from 0-0.
Then volume of liquid X
= [Volume of cylinder upto level B-B]

- [Volume of paraboloid]
= [rcR 2 x Height of liquid upto level B-B]
-----
----- -----
----- ------
----
~~~~~~~~~~t~~~~____
~~~~~__~_
r
- [ -rcR
2
l
h
----------~---
----------i----_-____
-----
-----
----- -----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-- - - - -----
--- --
_l
2- x Height of paraboloid
-----
-----
----- -----
- - -- -----
------------
- - ---
2 rcR2 R -1
= rcR X (h + X + y) - - - X (x + y) AXIS OF
2 ROTATION
rcR2 Fig. 5.16

= rcR 2 x h + rcR 2 (x + y) - - - X (x + y)
2
rcR2
= rcR 2 X h +-- (x + y) ... ( ii)
2
Equating (i) and (ii), we get
rcR2
rcR 2 (h + x) = rcR 2 x h +-- (x + y)
2
or
2 rcR 2 rcR 2 rcR2 rcR2

or rcRx---x=--y or - 2 - x = - 2- y or x=y
2 2
or Fall of liquid at centre = Rise of liquid at the ends.
Problem 5.21 An open circular tank of 20 cm diameter and 100 cm long contains water upto a
height of 60 cm. The tank is rotated about its vertical axis at 300 r.p.m. , find the depth of parabola
formed at the free surface of water.
Solution. Given :
Diameter of cylinder = 20 cm
Radius, R = -202 = 10 cm
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Height of liquid, H= 60 cm
Speed, N = 300 r.p.m.
2rrN 2 X 1t X 300
Angular velocity, ro = - - = - - - - = 31.41 rad/sec.
60 60
Let the depth of parabola =Z
0)2T, 2
Using equation (5.24), Z = - -2- , where r2 = R
2g
(31.41) 2 X (10) 2
= --'----'-------'------'-- = 50.28 cm. Ans.
=
2g 2 x981
Problem 5.22 An open circular cylinder of 15 cm diameter and JOO cm long contains water upto
a height of 80 cm. Find the maximum speed at which the cylinder is to be rotated about its vertical
axis so that no water spills.
Solution. Given :
15
:. Radius, R = - = 7.5 cm
2
Length of cylinder, L = 100 cm
Initial height of water = 80 cm.
Let the cylinder is rotated at an angular speed of ro rad/sec, when the water is about to spill. Then
using,
Rise of liquid at ends = Fall of liquid at centre
But rise of liquid at ends = Length - Initial height
= 100 - 80 = 20 cm
Fall of liquid at centre = 20 cm
Height of parabola =20+20=40cm
Z= 40 cm
00 2 R2 00 2 ( 7 _5)2
Using the relation, Z= - - , we get40 = - - -
2g 2x981
00 2 = 40 X 2 X 981 = 1395 _2
7.5 x7.5
ro = .J1395.2 = 37 .35 rad/s
2rrN
:. Speed, N is given by ro=--
60
or N = 60 X ro = - 60 X37.35
- - - = 356.66 r.p.m. Ans.
21t 2 X 1t
Problem 5.23 A cylindrical vessel 12 cm in diameter and 30 cm deep is.filled with water upto the
top. The vessel is open at the top. Find the quantity of liquid left in the vessel, when it is rotated about
its vertical axis with a speed of (a) 3000 r.p.m., and (b) 600 r.p.m.
Solution. Given :
Radius, R = 6 cm
Initial height of water = 30 cm
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Initial volume of water = Area x Initial height of water
=~ x 12 2 x 30 cm 3 = 3392.9 cm 3
4
(a) Speed, N = 300 r.p.m.
ro = 21rN = 21t x 300 = 3 1.41 rad/s

60 60
ro 2 R 2 (31.41)2x6 2
Height of parabola is given by Z = - - =- - - - - = 18.10 cm.
2g 2 X 981
As vessel is initially full of water, water will be spilled if it is rotated. Volume of water spilled is
equal to the volume of paraboloid.
But volume of paraboloid = [Area of cross-section x Height of parabola] + 2
z -- -1t x 12 2 xl 3-.lO- -- 1023 .53 cm 3

-- -1t D 2 x-
4 2 4 2
Volume of water left = Initial volume - Volume of water spilled
= 3392.9 - 1023.53 = 2369.37 cm 3• Ans.
(b) Speed, N = 600 r.p.m.
(l) = 21tN = 21t X 600 = 62.82 rad/s

60 60
ro 2 R 2 (62.82)2 X 6 2
Height of parabola, Z = - - = - - - - - = 72.40 cm.
2g 2 X 981
As the height of parabola is more than the height of cylinder the shape of imaginary parabola will be
as shown in Fig. 5.17.
Let r = Radius of the parabola at the bottom of the vessel.
TAU:Fl
Height of imaginary parabola i-12cm-i
= 72.40 - 30 = 42.40 cm.
Volume of water left in the vessel
= Volume of water in portions ABC and DEF
= Initial volume of water
- Volume of paraboloid AOF
30cm
i
B \
C
i
·
-~
I.
D
/ I
E
1
I I
I I / I 72.4cm
+ Volume of paraboloid COD. 1
I I . / I
Now volume of paraboloid 42.4cm I I I / I
AOF = ~ x D 2 x Height of parabola
4 1GL,-it\_JH
I
I
I !\
I
\
j
j I
\ .
/ I
I
I
=~
x 12 2 x 72 .4 = 4094.12 cm 3
2
IMAGINARY IMAGINARY
4 2 CYLINDER PARABOLA
For the imaginary parabola (COD), ro = 62.82 rad/sec Fig. 5.17
Z = 42.4 cm
r = Radius at the bottom of vessel
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co 2r 2
Z -_ - _ 62 .822 x r 2
Using the relation - , we get 42 .4 - - - - -
2g 2 x981
r2 = 2 X 981 X 42.40 = 2 1. 079

62.82 X 62.82
r = ✓21.079 = 4.59 cm
Volume of paraboloid COD
= _!_ x Area at the top of the imaginary parabola x Height of parabola

2
1 2 1 2 3
= - x nr x 42.4 =- x 1t x 4.59 x 42.4 = 1403.89 cm
2 2
Volume of water left= 3392.9 - 4094.12 + 1403.89 = 702.67 cm 3 • Ans.
Problem 5.24 An open circular cylinder of 15 cm diameter and 100 cm long contains water upto
a height of 70 cm. Find the speed at which the cylinder is to be rotated about its vertical axis, so that
the axial depth becomes zero. I
Solution. Given : j
Diameter of cylinder
:. Radius, R
= 15 cm
= -152 = 7.5 cm
I
T I
100 cm
Tl
Length of cylinder = 100 cm
Initial height of water = 70 cm.
When axial depth is zero, the depth of paraboloid = 100 cm.
CO2 R2
Using the relation, Z= - - , we get l-15cm-l
2g Fig. 5.18
CO 2 X 7.5 2
100= - - -
2 X 9.81
CO2= 100 X 2 X 9.81

7.5 X 7.5
l00x 2 x 9.81 = 442.92 = 59 _05 rad/s

co=
7.5 X 7.5 7.5
2nH
:. Speed, N is given by C0=--
60
or N = 60xco = - 60x59.05
- - - = 563.88 r.p.m. Ans.
21t 27t
Problem 5.25 For the problem (5.24), find the difference in total pressure force (i) at the bottom
of cylinder, and (ii) at the sides of the cylinder due to rotation.
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Solution. (i) The data is given in Problem 5.24. The difference in total pressure force at the
bottom of cylinder is obtained by finding total hydrostatic force at the bottom before rotation and after
rotation.
Before rotation, force= pgAh
where p = 1000 kg/m 3, A= Area of bottom=~ D 2 =~ x (0.15)2 m 2, h = 70 cm= 0.70 m

3 4
Force= 1000 x 9.81 x~ x (0.15) 2 x 0.7 N = 121.35 N

4
After rotation, the depth of water at the bottom is not constant and hence pressure force due to the
height of water, will not be constant. Consider a circular ring of radius r and width dr as shown in
Fig. 5.19. Let the height of water from the bottom of the tank upto free surface of water at a radius
ro2r2
r=Z=--.
Hydrostatic force on ring at the bottom,

2g
dF = pg x Area of ring x Z
I
100 cm
ro2r2
= 1000 x 9.81 x 2nrdr x - -
ro2r2
= 9810 x 2 x nr x - - x dr
2g
2g
1
Total pressure force at the bottom
R 2 2 dr
=f dF = Jof 9810 x 2 x nr x ~ dr
2g
= i
0
0.D75
19620 x 7t
(1)2
x-
2g
r 3 dr
Fig. 5.19
From Problem 5.24, ro = 59 .05 rad/s
R = 7.5 cm= .075 m.
Substituting these values, we get total pressure force
= 19620 X 7t X (59.05) 2
2 x9.81
[~].o
4
75
19620 X 7t X (59.05)2 (.075)4

= - - - - - - - - x - - - = 86.62 N
2 x9.81 4
Difference in pressure forces at the bottom
121.35 - 86.62 = 34.73 N. Ans.
(ii) Forces on the sides of the cylinder
Before rotation = pgAh
where A = Surface area of the sides of the cylinder upto height of water
= nD x Height of water= 7t x .15 x 0.70 m 2 = 0.33 m 2
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h = C.G. of the wetted area of the sides
= -1 x height
. 0.70 O
of water = -- = .35 m
2 2
Force on the sides before rotation = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.33 x 0.35 = 1133 N
After rotation, the water is upto the top of the cylinder and hence force on the sides
= 1000 x 9.81 x Wetted area of the sides x _!_ x Height of water

2
= 9810 X nD X 1.0 X _!_ X 1.0 = 9810 X rr, X .15 X _!_ = 2311.43 N

2 2
Difference in pressure on the sides
2311.43 - 1133 = 1178.43 N. Ans.
S. I O.S Closed Cylindrical Vessels. If a cylindrical vessel is closed at the top, which contains
some liquid, the shape of paraboloid formed due to rotation of the vessel will be as shown in Fig. 5.20
for different speed of rotations.
Fig. 5.20 (a) shows the initial stage of the cylinder, when it is not rotated. Fig. 5.20 (b) shows the
shape of the paraboloid formed when the speed of rotation is 00 1• If the speed is increased further say
002, the shape of paraboloid formed will be as shown in Fig. 5.20 (c). In this case the radius of the
parabola at the top of the vessel is unknown. Also the height of the paraboloid formed corresponding
to angular speed 00 2 is unknown. Thus to solve the two unknown, we should have two equations. One
equation is
2 2
Z= r
002
2g
The second equation is obtained from the fact that for closed vessel, volume of air before rotation
is equal to the volume of air after rotation.
Volume of air before rotation = Volume of closed vessel - Volume of liquid in vessel
nr xz 2
Volume of air after rotation = Volume of paraboloid formed = - --
2
I
:-:-::1-:-: I
-:-:-{:-:-
----- -:-:+:-:-:
-:-:-t-:-: :-:-:r-:-::::
------ :-:-1-:-::::
:-:-1-:-:::: :-:-1-:-:::: -=-=-t-:-::
_-_--+-_--= ----
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 5.20
Problem 5.26 A vessel, cylindrical in shape and closed at the top and bottom, contains water upto
a height of 80 cm. The diameter of the vessel is 20 cm and length of vessel is 120 cm. The vessel is
rotated at a speed of 400 r.p.m. about its vertical axis. Find the height of paraboloid formed.
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Solution. Given :
Diameter of vessel
:. Radius,
Length of vessel
=
R=
=
20 cm
10 cm
120 cm
T z
Speed, N= 400 r.p.m.
ro = 2rrN = 27t x 400 = 4 1.88 rad/s
1
60 60
When the vessel is rotated, let Z
= Height of paraboloid formed
r = Radius of paraboloid at the top of the vessel
I- 20- 1
This is the case of closed vessel. Fig. 5.21
Volume of air before rotation= Volume of air after rotation
1t2 1t2 2Z
or - D x L - - D x 80 = 1tr x -
4 4 2
where Z = Height of paraboloid, r = Radius of parabola.
1t2 1t2 2Z
or - D x 120 - - D x 80 = 1tr x -
4 4 2
or ~ X D 2 X (120 - 80) = ~ D 2 X 40 = 7tr2 X z

4 4 2
or ~ X 20 2 X 40 = 4000 X 7t = 7tr2 X z
4 2
r2XZ= 4000X7tX2 = 8000 ... (i)
7t
ro 2 r 2
Z =--,we 41.88 2 x r 2 41.88 2 x r 2
Using relation get Z = - - - - = = 0.894 r 2
2g 2g 2 x981
r2=-z- ~ R7
0.894 Is
Substituting this value of r 2 in (i), we get r -i-- ,
_z_ X Z= 8000
II
le /I
T
0.894
Z2 = 8000 X 0.894 = 7152
TT 21
Ilnd Method
Z = -J7152 = 84.56 cm. Ans.
Let Z1 = Height of paraboloid, if the vessel would not have been

closed at the top, corresponding to speed,
120
li 1
N = 400 r.p.m. Fig. 5.22
or ro = 41.88 rad/s
ro 2 R 2 41.88 2 X 10 2
Then Z 1 = - - = - - - - = 89.34 cm.
2g 2 X 981
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Half of Z 1 will be below the initial height of water in the vessel
i.e., AO= ~ = 8934 = 44.67 cm

2 2
But height of paraboloid for closed vessel
= CO = CA +AO= (120 - 80) + 44.67 cm
= 40 + 44.67 = 84.67 cm. Ans.
Problem 5.27 For the data given in Problem 5.26, find the speed of rotation of the vessel, when
axial depth of water is zero.
Solution. Given :
Diameter of vessel
:. Radius,
Initial height of water
Length of vessel
= 20 cm
R = 10 cm
= 80 cm
= 120 cm
160
I
1
Let ro is the angular speed, when axial depth is zero.
When axial depth is zero, the height of paraboloid is 120 cm and
radius of the parabola at the top of the vessel is r.
2 2 2 2
:. Using the relation, Z = ~ or 120 = ro xr Fig. 5.23
2g 2 x980
ro 2r 2 = 2 X 980 X 120 = 235200 ... (i)
Volume of air before rotation= Volume of air after paraboloid
nR 2 x (120 - 180) = Volume of paraboloid
= nr 2 x Z
2
= - -x-
nr 2Z 2
or n X 10
2
X 40 = -nr X 120
2 2
or
r2 = n X 10 2 X 40 X 2 = 8000 = 66 _67
rr, X 120 120
Substituting the value of r 2 in equation (i), we get
ro 2 X 66.67 = 235200
235200
ro = - - - = 59 .4 rad/s
66.67
. .
S pee d N ts b 2nN
given y ro = - -
60
or N = 60 X (0 =-
60 -
X 59.4
- = 567.22 r.p.m. Ans.
2n 2n
Problem 5.28 The cylindrical vessel of the problem 5.26 is rotated at 700 r.p.m. about its vertical
axis. Find the area uncovered at the bottom of the tank.
Solution. Given :
Diameter of vessel = 20 cm
Radius, R = 10 cm
Length of vessel = 120 cm
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21rN 2 X 1t X 700
ro = - - = - - - - = 73.30 rad/s.
60 60
If the tank is not closed at the top and also is very long, then the height of parabola corresponding
to ro = 73.3 will be
ro2 XR2 73.3 2 X 10 2
= = - - - - = 274.12 cm
2xg 2 x980
From Fig. 5.24,
+ 120 + X2 = 274.12
Xi
120
or xi+ x 2 = 274.12 - 120 = 154.12 cm ... (i)
From the parabola, KOM, we have
ro\ 2 73.3 2 x r/ ... ( ii)

020 +Xi)= 2g = 2 X 980
For the parabola, LON, we have

-i,9-- +I
ro 2rl 73.3 2 x rl r2
... ( iii)
Xi= 2g = 2X980 Fig. 5.24
Now, volume of air before rotation= Volume of air after rotation

Volume of air before rotation = 1tR 2 x (120 - 80) = 1t x 102 x 40 = 12566.3 cm 3 .. .(iv)
Volume of air after rotation = Volume of paraboloid KOM - volume of paraboloid LON
2 (120 + x,) 2 x,
= 1tr i X 2 - 1tr2 X 2 ... (v)
Equating (iv) and (v), we get
m/
(120 + x1 ) nrl x x 1
12566.3= - - - - - - - - .. .(vi)
2 2
Substituting the value of r/ from (ii) in (vi), we get
(120 + x1 ) x 2 x 980 (120 + x 1 ) nrl + x 1
12566.3 = 1t X 7332 X 2 - 2
.. ) 2 2x980x(120+x 1)}
{ ·: From (u , 1i = 2
(73.3)
2
or 12566.3 = 0.573 (120 + xi)2 - 1tr2 xx,
2
Substituting the value of Xi from (iii) in the above equation
12566.3 = 0.573 (120 + 73.32 x rl )2 - nrl x 73_32 rl

2 X 980 2 2 X 980
= 0.573 (120 + 2.74 r/)2 - 4.3 x x r/ r/
2
= 0.573 [120 + 2.74 2 r/
+ 2 x 120 x 2.74 r/] - 4.3 r/
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= 0.573 [14400 + 7.506 r/ + 657.6 r/] - 4.3 r/
12566.3
0 _573 = 21930 = 14400 + 7.506 r 24 + 657.6 r 22 - 4.3 r 2
4
or r/ (7.506 - 4.3) + 657.6 r/ + 14400 - 21930 = 0

or 3.206 r/ + 657.6 r/- 7530 = 0
2 -657.6 ± ✓657.6 2 -4 X (-7530) X (3.206)
r2 =
2 x3.206
-657.6 ± .J432437.76 + 96564.72

=
6.412
= - 657 ·6 ± 72732 = - 215.98 or 10.87

6.412
Negative value is not possible
r/ = 10.87 cm 2
:. Area uncovered at the base= rcr/ = re x 10.87 = 34.149 cm 2 • Ans.

Problem 5.29 A closed cylindrical vessel of diameter 30 cm and height 100 cm contains water
upto a depth of 80 cm. The air above the water surface is at a pressure of 5.886 N/cm 2 . The vessel is
rotated at a speed of 250 r.p.m. about its vertical axis. Find the pressure head at the bottom of the
vessel: (a) at the centre, and (b) at the edge.
Solution. Given :
Diameter of vessel = 30 cm
:. Radius, R = 15 cm
Initial height of water, H= 80 cm
Length of cylinder, L = 100 cm
Pressure of air above water = 5.886 N/cm 2
N
or p = 5.886 X 104 - 2
m
Head due to pressure, h = p/pg
l-30cm-l
5.886 X 10 4
= - - - - = 6 m of water Fig. 5.25
1000 X 9.81
_ 2rcN -
ro- _ 2rc
-- x 250
-- _ 26 . 18 rad/s
60 60
Let Xi = Height of paraboloid formed, if the vessel is assumed open at the top and it is very long.
ro 2 R 2 26.18 2 X 15 2
Then we have xi = - - = - - - - - = 78.60 cm ... (i)
2g 2 x981
Let r i is the radius of the actual parabola of height x 2
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Then X2 -
m\
2
-- -
26.18 2 x
---~
r/ = 0.35 rl
2
... (ii)
- 2g - 2 x981
The volume of air before rotation
= nR 2 (100 - 80) = rr, x 15 2 x 20 = 14137 cm3
Volume of air after rotation= Volume of paraboloid EOF
= 21 X nr1 2 X X2
But volume of air before and after rotation is same.
1 2
14137 = - X nr1 X X2
2
2
But from (ii), X2 = 0.35 rl
1 2 2
14137 = 2 x nr 1 x 0.35 r 1
rl4 = 2 X 14137 = 25714

rr, X 0.35
r 1 = (25714)114 = 12.66 cm
Substituting the value of r 1 in (ii), we get
x 2 = 0.35 x 12.66 2 = 56.1 cm
Pressure head at the bottom of the vessel
(a) At the centre. The pressure head at the centre, i.e., at H = Pressure head due to air+ OH
= 6.0 + (HL- LO) {·: OH= LH- LO}
·: HL=lO0cm=lm }
= 6.0 + (1.0 - 0.561) {
LO = x 2 = 56.l cm = .561 m
= 6.439 m of water. Ans.

(b) At the edge, i.e., at G= Pressure head due to air + height of water above G
= 6.0 +AG= 6.0 +(GM+ MA)= 6.0 +(HO+ x 1)
= 6.0 + HO + 0.786 { ·: x 1 = 78.6 cm= 0.786 m}
·: HO= LH - LO= 100- 56.l}
{
= 6.0 + 0.439 + 0.786 =43.9cm=0.439m
= 7.225 m of water. Ans.

Problem 5.30 A closed cylinder of radius R and height H is completely filled with water. It is
rotated about its vertical axis with a speed of m radians/s. Determine the total pressure exerted by
water on the top and bottom of the cylinder.
Solution. Given :
Radius of cylinder =R
Height of cylinder =H
Angular speed =ffi
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As the cylinder is closed and completely filled with water, the rise of water level at the ends and
depression of water at the centre due to rotation of the vessel, will be prevented. Thus the water will
exert force on the complete top of the vessel. Also the pressure will be exerted at the bottom of the
cylinder.
Total Pressure exerted on the top of cylinder. The top of cylinder
is in contact with water and is in horizontal plane. The pressure variation
at any radius in horizontal plane is given by equation (5.21) l
H
dp pv2 pro2r2 2
or
Integrating, we get
- = - = - - = p r o r {·: v=roxr}
dr r r j
pro2r2 p
f dp =f pro 2 rdr or p = - - =-
ro 2 r 2
2 2
Consider an elementary circular ring of radius rand width dr on the top
of the cylinder as shown in Fig. 5.26.
Area of circular ring = 2nrdr
Fig. 5.26
Force on the elementary ring = Intensity of pressure x Area of ring
= p x 2nrdr
= £. ro 2 r2 x 2nrdr.
2
Total force on the top of the cylinder is obtained by integrating the above equation between the
limits O and R.
Total force or Fr= rR £.ro 2r 2 x2nrdr=£.ro 2 x2n rR r 3 dr
Jo 2 2 Jo
= £.ro 2 x2n
2
[~]R4 0
= £.ro 2 x2n x ~
2 4
P(l}2
= --xnR 4 ... (5.25)
4
Total pressure force on the bottom of cylinder, F8
= Weight of water in cylinder + total force on the top of cylinder
= pg X nR 2 X H + £. ro 2 X nR4 = pg X nR 2 X H + FT ... (5.26)

4
p = Density of water.
Problem 5.31 A closed cylinder of diameter 200 mm and height 150 mm is completely filled with
water. Calculate the total pressure force exerted by water on the top and bottom of the cylinder, if it
is rotated about its vertical axis at 200 r.p.m.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of cylinder = 200 mm = 0.20 m
Radius, R = 0.1 m
Height of cylinder, H= 150 mm= 0.15 m
Angular speed, _ 2nN -

ro- _ -
2n-x -
200
--_ 20 .94 radi s
60 60
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Total pressure force on the top of the cylinder is given by equation (5.25)
p 2 4 1000
FT= - x ro x 1t xR =- - x 20.942 x 1t x (0.1) 4 = 34.44 N. Ans.
4 4
Now total pressure force on the bottom of the cylinder is given by equation (5.26) as
FB=pgxnR 2 xH+Fr
= 1000 X 9.81 X 1t X (0.1) 2 X 0.15 + 34.44
= 46.22 + 34.44 = 80.66 N. Ans.
S. I 0.6 Equation of Free Vortex Flow. For the free vortex, from equation (5.20), we have
v x r = Constant = say c
C
or v= -
r
Substituting the value of v in equation (5.23), we get
v2 c2 c2
dp = p - dr - pg dz= p X -2-- dr - pg dz= p X -3 dr - pg dz
r r xr r
Consider two points 1 and 2 in the fluid having radius r 1 and r2 from the central axis respectively as
shown in Fig. 5.27. The heights of the points from bottom of the vessel is z1 and z2 •
Integrating the above equation for the points 1 and 2, we get
r2 dp =
J1
f2 pc2r dr-f 2pgdz
I 3 I
2 r2 -3 r2
or p 2 - p 1 = pc Ji r dr - pg Ji dz
=- 1 [vi - vn-pg[z2 -z1]
= f [v~ -vJ]-pg[z 2 -z 1 ]
Dividing by pg, we get
or ... (5.27)
Equation (5.27) is Bernoulli's equation. Hence in case of free vortex

flow, Bernoulli's equation is applicable.
Fig. 5.27
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Problem 5.32 In a free cylindrical vortex flow, at a point in the fluid at a radius of 200 mm and
at a height of 100 mm, the velocity and pressures are IO mis and II7.72 kN/m 2 absolute. Find the
pressure at a radius of 400 mm and at a height of 200 mm. The fluid is air having density equal to
1.24 kg/m 3•
Solution. At Point 1 : Given :
Radius, ri = 200 mm = 0.20 m
Height, Zi = 100 mm= 0.10 m
Velocity, Vi= 10 mis
Pressure, Pi= 117.72 kN/m 2 = 117.72 x 103 N/m 2

At Point 2: r2 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
z2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
p 2 = pressure at point 2
p = 1.24 kg/m 3
For the free vortex from equation (5.20), we have
v x r = constant or viri = v2r2
_ v1 xr1 _ lOx0.2 _ 5 ml
V2- - - - - S
r2 0.4
Now using equation (5.27), we get
2 2
.E.!_+~ + Zi = 12 +~ + Z2
pg 2g pg 2g
But p = 1.24 kg/m 3
117.72 X 10 3 10 2 p2 52
- - - - - + - - - + 0.1 = -+---+0.2
1.24 X 9.81 2 X 9.81 pg 2 X 9.81
or l2_ = 117.72 X 103 + 102 + 0.1 - _5_2_ - 0.2

pg 1.24 X 9.81 2 X 9.81 2 X 9.81
= 9677.4 + 5.096 + 0.1 -
1.274 - 0.2 = 9676.22
P2 = 9676.22 X pg= 9676.22 X 1.24 X 9.81
= 117705 N/m 2 = 117.705 x 103 N/m 2
= 117.705 kN/m 2 (abs.)= 117.705 kN/m 2 • Ans.
(8) IDEAL FLOW (POTENTIAL FLOW)
• S. I I INTRODUCTION
Ideal fluid is a fluid which is incompressible and inviscid. Incompressible fluid is a fluid for which
density (p)remains constant. Inviscid fluid is a fluid for which viscosity(µ) is zero. Hence a fluid for
which density is constant and viscosity is zero, is known as an ideal fluid.
The shear stress is given by, 't = µ du . Hence for ideal fluid the shear stress will be zero asµ= 0
dy
for ideal fluid. Also the shear force (which is equal to shear stress multiplied by area) will be zero in
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case of ideal or potential flow. The ideal fluids will be moving with uniform velocity. All the fluid
particles will be moving with the same velocity.
The concept of ideal fluid simplifies the typical mathematical analysis. Fluids such as water and air
have low viscosity. Also when the speed of air is appreciably lower than that of sound in it, the
compressibility is so low that air is assumed to be incompressible. Hence under certain conditions,
certain real fluids such as water and air may be treated like ideal fluids.
• S.12 IMPORTANT CASES OF POTENTIAL FLOW
The following are the important cases of potential flow :

(i) Uniform flow, (ii) Source flow,
(iii) Sink flow, (iv) Free-vortex flow,
(v) Superimposed flow.
• S.13 UNIFORM FLOW
In a uniform flow, the velocity remains constant. All the fluid particles are moving with the same
velocity. The uniform flow may be :
( i) Parallel to x-axis ( ii) Parallel to y-axis.
S.13.1 Uniform Flow Parallel to x-Axis. Fig. 5.27 (a) shows the uniform flow parallel to
x-axis. In a uniform flow, the velocity remains constant. All the fluid particles are moving with the
same velocity.
u
Fig. 5.27 (a)

Let U = Velocity which is uniform or constant along x-axis
u and v = Components of uniform velocity U along x and y-axis.
For the uniform flow, parallel to x-axis, the velocity components u and v are given as
u = U and v = 0 ... (5.28)
But the velocity u in terms of stream function is given by,
u = a"'
ay
and in terms of velocity potential the velocity u is given by,
u=-
a<1>
ax
a"'- =a<1>
u= - ... (5.29)
ay ax
Similarly, it can be shown that v = - a'I'
ax = a<jay> ... (5.29A)
But u = U from equation (5.28). Substituting u = U in equation (5.29), we have
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U=a'l'=a<1> ... (5.30)

ay ax
or U = ~: and also U = ~!
First part gives d\jf = U dy whereas second part gives d = U dx.
Integration of these parts gives as
\JI= Uy+ Ci and<!>= Ux+ C2
where Ci and C2 are constant of integration.
Now let us plot the stream lines and potential lines for uniform flow parallel to x-axis.
Plotting of Stream lines. For stream lines, the equation is
\JI= u X y + Ci
Let \jf = 0, where y = 0. Substituting these values in the above equation, we get
0 = U x 0 + Ci or Ci = 0
Hence the equation of stream lines becomes as y
\JI = u. y ... (5 .3 1)
The stream lines are straight lines parallel to x-axis and at a Stream lines
distance y from the x-axis as shown in Fig. 5.28. In equation

(5.31), U. y represents the volume flow rate (i.e., m 3/s) be-
tween x-axis and that stream line at a distance y.
4 y=4 IJl4 = U x 4 = 4U
II
3
Note. The thickness of the fluid stream perpendicular to the
plane is assumed to be unity. Then y x 1 or y represents the area of 2
y=3 w3 = U x 3 = 3U ,
y=2
flow . And U. y represents the product of velocity and area. Hence '1'2 = U x 2 = 2U
y=1
U. y represents the volume flow rate. '1'1 = U X 1=U
0 y=O
'l'o X
Plotting of potential lines. For potential lines, the equation is Fig. 5.28
= U. x+ C2 ... (5.32)
Let = 0, where x = 0. Substituting these values in the above equation, we get C2 = 0.
Hence equation of potential lines becomes as
= U.x
The above equation shows that potential lines are straight lines parallel to y-axis and at a distance of
x from y-axis as shown in Fig. 5.29.
Fig. 5.30 shows the plot of stream lines and potential lines for uniform flow parallel to x-axis. The
stream lines and potential lines intersect each other at right angles.
y y
Potential lines
0 C
N
C
w
C ,.C Potential
II
-e- lines
-e- "'
-e-
~
-e-
0
-e-
0 ~
X X
0 X 0 IJl=O
2 3 4 X
Fig. 5.29 Fig. 5.30
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S.13.2 Uniform Potential Flow Parallel to y-Axis. Fig. 5.31 shows the uniform potential
flow parallel to y-axis in which U is the uniform velocity along y-axis.
Fig. 5.31
The velocity components u, v along x-axis and y-axis are given by
u = 0 and v = U ... (5 .33)
These velocity components in terms of stream function (\Jf) and velocity potential function () are
given as
d\Jf a<1>
u=-=- ... (5.34)
dy ax
d\Jf d ... (5 .35)
and v= - - = -
dx dy
But from equation (5.33), v = U. Substituting v = U in equation (5.35), we get
U = - d'Jf = d = U dy.
Integration of these parts gives as
'I'= - U. x + Ci and = U.y + C2 ... (5.36)
where Ci and C2 are constant of integration. Let us now plot the stream lines and potential lines.
Plotting of Stream lines. For stream lines, the equation is 'I'= U.x + Ci
Let 'I'= 0, where x = 0. Then Ci = 0.
Hence the equation of stream lines becomes as 'I'= - U.x ... (5.37)
The above equation shows that stream lines are straight lines parallel to y-axis and at a distance of x from
the y-axis as shown in Fig. 5.32. The -ve sign shows that the stream lines are in the downward direction.
y
Stream lines
•1
0
II
• •
•
4
y=4
3
y=3 3
2 .,..
0 y=2 N ('l '<!"
<1>2
II II II II II
X X X X X
y= 1
<1>1
0 4
y=0 1 2 3 = 0 X
Fig. 5.32
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Plotting of Potential lines . For potential lines, the equation is = U.y + C 2
Let = 0, where y = 0. Then C2 = 0.
Hence equation of potential lines becomes as = U.y ... (5.38)
The above equation shows that potential lines are straight lines parallel to x-axis and at a distance of
y from the x-axis as shown in Fig. 5.32.
• S.14 SOURCE FLOW
The source flow is the flow coming from a point (source) and
moving out radially in all directions of a plane at uniform rate.
Fig. 5.33 shows a source flow in which the point O is the source
from which the fluid moves radially outward. The strength of a
source is defined as the volume flow rate per unit depth. The unit
of strength of source is m 2/s. It is represented by q.
Let u, = radial velocity of flow at a radius r from the source 0
q = volume flow rate per unit depth
r = radius
The radial velocity u, at any radius r is given by,
u, = _i_ ... ( 5 _39 ) Fig. 5.33 fiSource flow,(Flowaway
21tr rom source1
The above equation shows that with the increase of r, the radial velocity decreases. And at a large
distance away from the source, the velocity will be approximately equal to zero. The flow is in radial
direction, hence the tangential velocity u 0 = 0.
Let us now find the equation of stream function and velocity potential function for the source flow.
As in this case, u 0 = 0, the equation of stream function and velocity potential function will be obtained
from u,.
Equation of Stream Function
By definition, the radial velocity and tangential velocity components in terms of stream function are
given by
u = -1-chv and u0 =- -a"' [See equation (5.12A)]

' r ae ar
But u = _i_ [See equation (5.39)]

r 21tr
q q
or d\jl = r. -.d0
21tr
= -
27t
d0
Integrating the above equation w.r.t. 0, we get
= _!j__ x 0 + C 1, where C 1 is constant of integration.

\jl
21t
Let \jl = 0, when 0 = 0, then C 1 = 0.
Hence the equation of stream function becomes as
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v= L.
21t
0 ... (5.40)
In the above equation, q is constant.

The above equation shows that stream function is a function of 0. For a given value of 0, the
stream function 'I' will be constant. And this will be a radial line. The stream lines can be plotted by
having different values of 0. Here 0 is taken in radians. 'I' =¼
Plotting of stream lines
When 0 = 0, 'I' = 0
Stream lines
0 = 45 = -1t ract·tans, 'I' = -q . -1t =-q
0 .
umts are radial
4 21t 4 8
0 = 90 = -1t
0 ct·
ra tans, 'I' = -q . -1t =-q .
umts
8 = 7t '1' = 0
2 21t 2 4
0 = 135 = -3n
0 ct· q 3n 3q
ra tans, 'I' = - .- =- umts
.
4 21t 4 8
The stream lines will be radial lines as shown in Fig. 5.34.
'I' -- ;r
3q
Equation of Potential Function
By definition, the radial and tangential components in Fig. 5.34 Stream line for
terms of velocity function are given by source flow.
u = -a<1> and u0 = -1 .-a<1> [See equation (5.9A)]

' ar r a0
But from equation (5.39), u, = _i_

21tr
Equating the two values of u,, we get
dq> = _i_ or d = _i_ dr

dr 21tr 21tr
f d = f _i_.dr
21tr
Potential lines
are circle
or = 2: f ~ dr [·: 2: is a constant term]
= _!j__ loge r ... (5.41)

21t
In the above equation, q is constant.
The above equation shows, that the velocity potential function is
a function of r. For a given value of r, the velocity function will be
constant. Hence it will be a circle with origin at the source. The
velocity potential lines will be circles with origin at the source as
shown in Fig. 5.35.
Let us now find an expression for the pressure in terms of
radius.
Fig. 5.35 Potential lines for source.
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Pressure distribution in a plane source flow
The pressure distribution in a plane source flow can be obtained with the help of Bernoulli's equa-
tion. Let us assume that the plane of the flow is horizontal. In that case the datum head will be same
for two points of flow.
Let p = pressure at a point 1 which is at a radius r from the source at point 1
u, = velocity at point 1
p 0 = pressure at point 2, which is at a large distance away from the source. The velocity will
be zero at point 2. [Refer to equation (5.39)]
Applying Bernoulli's equation, we get
)!_ + u; = _&_ + 0 or
(p - Po) u2
=--'
pg 2g pg pg 2g
2
-
(p - P) o p.u,
or ----
2
But from equation(5.39), u =__!!__

r 21tr
Substituting the value of u, in the above equation, we get
pq2
=- ... (5.42)
81t2r2
In the above equation, p and q are constants.
The above equation shows that the pressure is inversely proportional to the square of the radius
from the source.
• S. IS SINK FLOW
The sink flow is the flow in which fluid moves radially

inwards towards a point where it disappears at a constant rate.
This flow is just opposite to the source flow. Fig. 5.36 shows
a sink flow in which the fluid moves radially inwards towards
point 0, where it disappears at a constant rate. The pattern of
stream lines and equipotential lines of a sink flow is the same
as that of a source flow. All the equations derived for a source
flow shall hold to good for sink flow also except that in sink
flow equations, q is to be replaced by (- q).
Problem 5.33 Plot the stream lines for a uniform flow of:
(i) 5 mis parallel to the positive direction of the x-axis and Fig. 5.36 Sink flow
(ii) 10 mis parallel to the positive direction of the y-axis. (Flow toward centre)
Solution. (i) The stream function for a uniform flow parallel to the positive direction of the
x-axis is given by equation (5.31) as
'If= Uxy
The above equation shows that stream lines are straight lines parallel to the x-axis at a distance y
from the x-axis. Here U = 5 mis and hence above equation becomes as
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'I'= Sy
For y = 0, stream function 'I'= 0
For y = 0.2, stream function 'I'= 5 x 0.2 = 1 unit
For y = 0.4, stream function 'I'= 5 x 0.4 = 2 unit
The other values of stream function can be obtained by substituting the different values of y. The
stream lines are horizontal as shown in Fig. 5.36 (a).
y
0.8 1j1 = 4
y = 0.8
0.6 lj/ =3
y = 0.6
0.4 1j1=2
y = 0.4
0.2 lj/ =1
y = 0.2
0
y=0 X
1j1=0
Fig. 5.36 (a)
(ii) The stream function for a uniform flow parallel to the positive direction of the y-axis is given by
equation (5.37) as
'lf=-Uxx
The above equation shows that stream lines are straight lines parallel to the y-axis at a distance x
from the y-axis. Here U = 10 mis and hence the above equation becomes as
'lf=-lOxx
The negative sign shows that the stream lines are in the downward direction.
For x = 0, the stream function 'I' = 0
For x = 0.1, the stream function 'I'= - 10 x 0.1 = - 1.0 unit
For x = 0.2, the stream function 'I' = - 10 x 0.2 = - 2.0 unit
For x = 0.3, the stream function 'I' = - 10 x 0.3 = - 3.0 unit
The other values of stream function can be obtained by substituting the different values of x. The
stream lines are vertical as shown in Fig. 5.36 (b) .
y
p i '?
N C")
O O O 0
X X X X
0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Fig. 5.36 (b)
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Problem 5.34 Determine the velocity of flow at radii of 0.2 m, 0.4 m and 0.8 m, when the water
is flowing radially outward in a horizontal plane from a source at a strength of 12 m 2/s.
Solution. Given :
Strength of source, q = 12 m 2/s
The radial velocity ur at any radius r is given by equation (5.39) as
u =_!!__
r 21tr
12
When r = 0.2 m, u
r
=- - - = 9.55 mis. Ans.
2n x0.2
12
When r = 0.4 m, u
r
=- - - = 4.77 mis. Ans.
2n X 0.4
12
When r = 0.8 m, u
r
= - - - = 2.38 mis. Ans.
2n X 0.8
Problem 5.35 Two discs are placed in a horizontal plane, one over the other. The water enters at
the centre of the lower disc and flows radially outward from a source of strength 0.628 m 2/s. The
pressure, at a radius 50 mm, is 200 kN/m 2• Find :
(i) pressure in kN/m 2 at a radius of 500 mm and
(ii) stream function at angles of 30° and 60° if f// = 0 at 0 = 0°.
Solution. Given :
Source strength, q = 0.628 m 2/s
Pressure at radius 50 mm, p 1 = 200 kN/m 2 = 200 x 103 N/m 2
(i) Pressure at a radius 500 mm
Let p 2 = pressure at radius 500 mm
(ur)i = velocity at radius 50 mm
(urh = velocity at radius 500 mm
The radial velocity at any radius r is given by equation (5.39) as
u = _!!__
r 21tr
0.628
When r = 50 mm = 0.05 m, (ur)i = 2 1t x 0 _05 = 1.998 mis ==- 2 mis
When r= 500 mm= 0.5 m, (Ur )2 -_ 0.628

= 0.2 mis
2n x0.5
Applying Bernoulli's equation at radius 0.05 m and at radius 0.5 m,
or
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200 X 10 3 2 2 p2 0.2 2
or ----+- = -- +--
1000 2 1000 2
or 200 + 2 = ---1!.2_ + 0.02

1000
or ---1!.2_ = 202 - 0.02 = 201.98

1000
p 2 = 201.98 X 1000 N/m 2 = 201.98 kN/m 2• Ans.
(ii) Stream functions at 0 = 30° and 0 = 60°
For the source flow, the equation of stream function is given by equation (5.40) as
'I'= L.e, where 0 is in radians

2n
0.628 30 X 1t 30X1t radians

( ·: 0 = 30° = --- . )
When 0 = 30°, 'If= 2n X 180 180
= 0.0523 m 2/s. Ans.
0.628 60n 2
When 0 = 60°, 'If= - - x - - = 0.1046 m Is. Ans.
21t 180
• S.16 FREE-VORTEX FLOW
Free-vortex flow is a circulatory flow of a fluid such that its stream lines are concentric circles.
For a free-vortex flow, u8 x r = constant (say C)
Also, circulation around a stream line of an irrotation vortex is
r = 21tr x Ue = 2n x C ( ... r x Ue = C)
where u8 = tangential velocity at any radius r from the centre.
Ue = - -
r
21tr
The circulation r is taken positive if the free vortex is anticlockwise.
For a free-vortex flow, the velocity components are
u6
r
= -- and ur =0
2nr
Equation of Stream Function
By definition, the stream function is given by
u6 = - -
-av and u =--
1 av [See equation (5.12A)]
a, r r ae
In case of free-vortex flow, the radial velocity (ur) is zero. Hence equation of stream function will
be obtained from tangential velocity, u8 • The value of u8 is given by
Ue = - -
r
21tr
Equating the two values of u 8 , we get
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aw _ r
------ or
r
d\jl = - --dr
dr 21tr 21tr
or (-: ~ is a constant term) ... (5.43)
The above equation shows that stream function is a function of

radius. For a given value of r, the stream function is constant. Hence
the stream lines are concentric circles as shown in Fig. 5.37. Stream
Equation of potential function. By definition, the potential lines
function is given by,
1 a<1>
u ---
e- r ae and u,= ar
a<1>
[See equation (5.9A)]
Here u, =0 and u0 = ___E_.

Hence, the equation of potential Fig. 5.37
2nr
function will be obtained from u 0 •
Equating the two values of u 0 , we get
1 a<1> r or d= r. -
r .d0= -2 d0
r
=
r ae 21tr 2nr 1t
fd = f~d0 ... (5.44)
The above equation shows that velocity potential function is a function of 0. For a given value of 0,
potential function is a constant. Hence equipotential lines are radial as shown in Fig. 5.38.
Velocity potential
lines
<D
Fig. 5.38 Potential lines are radial.
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• S. I 7 SUPER-IMPOSED FLOW
The flow patterns due to uniform flow, a source flow, a sink flow and a free vortex flow can be
super-imposed in any linear combination to get a resultant flow which closely resembles the flow
around bodies. The resultant flow will still be potential and ideal. The following are the important
super-imposed flow :
(i) Source and sink pair
(ii) Doublet (special case of source and sink combination)
(iii) A plane source in a uniform flow (flow past a half body)
(iv) A source and sink pair in a uniform flow
( v) A doublet in a uniform flow.
S.17.1 Source and Sink Pair. Fig. 5.39 shows a source and a sink of strength q and (- q)
placed at A and B respectively at equal distance from the point O on the x-axis. Thus the source and
sink are placed symmetrically on the x-axis. The source of strength q is placed at A and sink of
strength (- q) is placed at B. The combination of the source and the sink would result in a flownet
where stream lines will be circular arcs starting from point A and ending at point B as shown in
Fig. 5.40.
y
A B
0 X
71-
Source (q)
a
+ a
Fig . 5.39 Source and sink p air.
Stream
lines
Fig. 5.40 Stream lines fo r source-sink p air.

Equation of stream function and potential function
Let P be any point in the resultant flownet of source and sink as shown in Fig. 5.41.
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y
, 0
A O B X
f.-- a - ----- a -I
- - - - - x - - - --
Fig. 5.41
Let r, 0 = Cylindrical co-ordinates of point P with respect to origin 0
x,y = Corresponding co-ordinates of point P
r 1, 0 1 = Position of point P with respect to source placed at A
r 2 , 0 2 = Position of point P with respect to sink placed at B
a= Angle subtended at P by the join of source and sink i.e., angle APB.
Let us find the equation for the resultant stream function and velocity potential function. The
equation for stream function due to source is given by equation (5.40) as 'Vi = q · 81 whereas due to
21t
sink it is given by 'lf2 = (-q 0 z). The equation for resultant stream function ('If) will be the sum of
21t
these two stream function.
'If = 'If I + 'If 2
= q0, +(-q0z)= -q (02 -0,)
21t 21t 21t
= ;: . a [·: a= 02 - 0 1• In triangle ABP, 0 1 +a+ (180° - 02)
= 180°
-q.a
= ... (5.45)
21t
The equation for potential function due to source is given by equation (5.41) as <1> 1 = _!j_ loge r 1 and
21t
due to sink it is given as <1> 2 = -q log er2 . The equation for resultant potential function () will be the
21t
sum of these two potential function.
= <1>1 + <1>2
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... (5.46)
To prove that resultant stream lines will be circular arc passing through source and sink
The resultant stream function is given by equation (5.45) as
-q.a
\j/=--
21t
For a given stream line 'V = constant. In the above equation the term _!j__ is also constant. This
21t
means that (0 2 - 0 1) or angle a will also be constant for various positions of P in the plane.
To satisfy this, the locus of P must be a circle with AB as chord, having its centre on y-axis, as
shown in Fig. 5.40.
Consider the equation (5.45) again as
-q
'V = -
21t (J., = --q
21t (02 - 01)
= _!j_ (01 - 02)

21t
or (01 - 02) = 21t\j/
q
Taking tangent to both sides, we get
tan (0 1 - 0 2) = tan ( 2 :'l') or -tan

-- 01-- -tan-0-2 _
1 + tan 0 1 • tan 0 2
- tan (21t\j/)
--
q
... (i)
But tan 0 1 = _Y_ and tan 02 = _Y_ ... (5.46A)

x+a x-a
Substituting the values of tan 0 1 and tan 02 in equation (i),
y
--- - ---
y
(x + a) ( x - a) = tan ( 21t\j/)
l+ - Y_ __ Y_ q p
(x+a) (x-a)
or y(x -a)-y(x+a) = tan (21t\j/)

x 2 -a2 + y2 q y
or - 2ay = tan ( 21tq\jf)

x2 -a2 + y2
-2ay 1 A O B
or ~--,-'-~=-~-~ f---- a --+-f--- a - I
x2 - a2 + y2
cot
(21t\j/) q - - - - - X _ _ _ _....,
or x 2 - a2 + y2 = - 2ay cot ( 2 :'l') Fig. 5.41 (a)
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or x2 - a 2 + y2 + 2ay cot ( 2 :'l') =0
or x2 + y2 + 2ay cot ( 2 :'l') - a2 = 0
or x2 + y2 + 2ay cot ( 2 :'l') + a 2 cot 2 (

2 :'l') - a 2 cot 2 ( :'l') -
2 a2 = O
:'l')]
[ Adding and subtracting a 2 cot 2 ( 2
or x2 +[y+ aco,(2;)]' = a+a' cot' ( 2 2: )
= a 2 [1+cot 2 ( 2 :'l')]
= a 2 cosec 2 (
2:'l')
or ... (5.47)
The above is the equation of a circle* with centre on y-axis at a distance of± a cot ( 2 :'l') from
the origin. The radius of the circle will be a cosec ( 2 :'l').

Similarly, it can be shown that the potential lines for the source-sink pair will be eccentric non-
intersecting circles with their centres on the x-axis as shown in Fig. 5.41 (b).
Potential lines
Fig. 5.41 (b) Potential lines for source sink pair (Potential lines are eccentric
non-intersecting circles with their centres on x-axis).
*The equation x2 + y2 = a2 is the equation of a circle with centre at origin and of radius 'a' .
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Problem 5.36 A source and a sink of strength 4 m 2/s and 8 m2/s are located at (- 1, 0) and ( 1, 0)
respectively. Determine the velocity and stream function at a point P ( 1, 1) which is lying on the
flownet of the resultant stream line.
Solution. Given :
Source strength, q 1 = 4 m 2/s
Sink strength, q 2 = 8 m 2/s
Distance of the source and sink from origin, a = 1 unit.
The position of the source, sink and point P in the flow field is shown in Fig. 5.42.
From Fig. 5.42, it is clear that angle 0 2 will be 90° and angle 0 1 can be calculated from right angled
triangle ABP.
The equation for stream function due to source is given by equation (5.40) as 'l'i = qi x01
21t
whereas due to sink it is given by 'Jf2 = -q 2 x 82 . The resultant stream function 'I' is given as
21t
'If = '1'1 + '1'2
y
p (x , y)
(1 , 1)
Source
(-1 , 0)
01
-"------'-----+------..,,...--'----- X
A O B
Sink
I-- a=1 - a=1 -I (1 , 0)
- - - x - --
Fig. 5.42
= qi X 01 + (-q2 X02) = qi X 01 - q2 X02 ... (i)

21t 21t 21t 21t
Let us find the values of 0 1 and 02 in radians. From the geometry, it is clear that the traingle ABP is
a right angled triangle with angle 02 = 90° = 90 x 1t = 1t radians.

180 2
BP 1
Also tan 0 1 = - = - = 0.5
AB 2
or 0 1 = tan- 1 0.5 = 26.56° = 26.56 x ~ radians = 0.463

180
Substituting these values in equation (i),
'If = .!!J.... X 0.463 - !h.._ X 1t

21t 21t 2
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1t 8 1t
= - X 0.463 - - X -
21t 21t 2
= 0.294 - 2.0 = - 1.706 m 2/s. Ans.
To find the velocity at the point P, let us first find the stream function in terms of x and y co-
ordinates. The stream function in terms of 0 1 and 0 2 is given by equation (i) above as
% X0 1 q2 X 02
"' = ----=----=--
--=----'- -
21t 21t
The values of 0 1 and 02 in terms of x, y and a are given by equation (5.46A) as
y and tan 0 2 = __
Y_
tan0 1 = - -
x+a (x-a)
or 0 1 = tan- 1 _Y_ and 0 2 = tan- 1 _ _

Y_
x+a (x- a)
Substituting these values of 0 1 and 0 2 in equation (i), we get
'If = !h.... tan- 1 _Y_ - !h.... tan- 1 _Y_
2n x+a 2n x-a
The velocity component u=- a"' and a"'

v=--.
ay ax
u=- a"'
ay
= ~ [.!h.... tan -1 _Y_ - !h.... tan -1 _Y_]
ay 21t X +a 21t X - a
qi 1 1 q2 1 1
= - x-----x--- - - x-----x---
21t 1 +
x+a
2
(-y-)
(x + a) 2n 1 +
x-a
2
(x - a) (-y-)
q1 (x+a) 2 1 q (x-a) 2 1
=- 2 x - - - - -2 x - - ~ - - x - - -
2n (x+a) +y2 (x+a) 2n (x-a) 2 +y2 (x-a)
q1 (x + a) q2 (x - a)
= 2n (x +al+ y2 - 2n (x- al+ y2
At the point P(l, 1), the component u is obtained by substituting x = 1 and y = 1 in the above
equation. The value of a is also equal to one.
qi 1+ 1 q2 (1 - 1)
u=----,---
2n (1+1) 2 +1 2 - 2n (1-1) 2 +1 2
= !h.... ~ - !h.... x 0 =!h.... x ~ =__i_ x ~ = 0.2544 mis

2n 5 2n 2n 5 2n 5
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Now a"'
v=--
ax
=- j_ [1!._ tan -I _Y_ - !h.... tan -I _Y_]
ax 21t X +a 21t X - a
- -[1!._ l x y(-l) xl-!h....x l x y(-l) xl]

- 21t 1+(x~ar (x+a)2 2n 1+(x:ar (x-a)2
=-
[
qt (x+a)2 (-y) q2 (x-a)2 (-y)
2n (x + a) 2 + y2 x (x + a) 2 - 2n (x - a) 2 + y2 x (x - a) 2
l
qi Y q2 Y
= 2n (x+a) 2 + y2 - 2n (x-a) 2 + y2
At the point P(l, 1),
v=1Lx 1 _!h....x 1 (·: a= 1)

21t (1 + 1) 2 + i2 21t (1-1) 2 + i2
qi 1 q2 1
=-X---X-
21t 5 2n 1
= 1Lx.!._!h....=-±-x_!_ _ _!_ = 0.1272 - 1.272 = - 1.145 mls2
2n 5 2n 2n 5 2n
The resultant velocity, V = .Ju + v = .Jo.2544

2 2 2 + (-1.145) 2 = 1.174 mis. Ans.
Problem 5.37 For the above problem, determine the pressure at P(l, 1) if the pressure at infinity
is zero and density of fluid is I 000 kg/m 3•
Solution. Given :
Pressure at infinity, Po= 0
Density of fluid, p = 1000 kg/m 3
The velocity* of fluid at infinity will be zero. If V0 = velocity at infinity, then V0 = 0.
The resultant velocity of fluid at P(l, 1) = 1.174 mis (calculated above)
or V= 1.174 mis.
Let p = pressure at P( 1, 1)
Applying Bernoulli's theorem at point at infinity and at point P, we get
v,2 v2
.f!..Q_+_o_=_f!__+-
pg 2g pg 2g
P v2 P v2 P v2
or 0+0=-+- or 0=-+- or 0=-+-
pg 2g pg 2g p 2
p v2 1.174 2
or = --=--- ( ·: V = 1.174 m/s)
p 2 2
* From equation (5.39), the velocity at a distance 'r' from source or sink is given by u, = _!!__ At infinity,
21tr
r is very very large hence velocity is zero.
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Fluid Mechanics
or - - 1.1742 xp-
p- - - -
1.1742 1000
- -X- - -- - 68914
. N/m.
2 A
ns.
2 2
S. I 7.2 Doublet. It is a special case of a source and sink pair (both of them are of equal strength)
when the two approach each other in such a way that the distance 2a between them approaches zero
and the product 2a . q remains constant. This product 2a . q is known as doublet strength and is
denoted by µ.
Doublet strength, µ = 2a . q ... (5.48)
Let q and (- q) may be the strength of the source and the sink respectively as shown in Fig. 5.43.
Let 2a be the distance between them and P be any point in the combined field of source and sink.
2a
X -----.!
Fig. 5.43
Let 0 is the angle made by Pat A whereas (0 + 80) is the angle at B.
Now the stream function at P,
q0 q q
'I'= - - - (0 + 80) = - - 80 ... (5.49)
2n 2n 2n
From B, draw BC .l on AP. Let AC= or, CP = rand AP= r + or. Also angle BPC = 80. The angle
80 is very small. The distance BC can be taken equal to r x 80. In triangle ABC, angle BCA = 90° and
hence distance BC is also equal to 2a . sin 0. Equating the two values of BC, we get
r x 80 = 2a . sin 0
00 = 2a. sin 0
r
Substituting the value of 80 in equation (5.49), we get
q 2a sin 0
'lf=--X---
2n r
µ sin 0
=--x-- [·: 2a . q =µfrom equation (5.48)] ...(5.50)
2n r
In Fig. 5.43, when 2a • 0, the angle 80 subtended by point P with A and B becomes very small.
Also Or • 0 and AP becomes equal to r. Then
sin 0 = PD =2:'..
AP r
Also AP 2 = AD 2 + PD 2 or r2 = x 2 + y2
Substituting the value of sin 0 in equation (5.50), we get
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µ y 1 µy µy
'If= --X-X-=---=------
21t r r 2nr 2 21t (x 2 + y2)
... (5 .50A)
or x2 + y2 = - ___&_ or
21t'lf
The above equation can be written as
+2xyx--+
x 2 +y 2 µ (--
µ ) - --
µ )
41t'I' 41t'lf
2
(
41t'lf
2
=0 [ Adding and subtracting ( 4 ~'1')
2
]
or x2+ (y+~)2 (~)2

41t'lf
=
4 7t'lf
... (5 .51)
The above is the equation of a circle with centre (o, ~)

41t'1'
and radius ~
41t'1'
. The centre of the
circle lies on y-axis at a distance of ~ from x-axis. As the radius of the circle is also equal to ~ ,
41t'1' 41t'1'
hence the circle will be tangent to the x-axis. Hence stream lines of the doublet will be the family of
circles tangent to the x-axis as shown in Fig. 5.44.
Stream lines are circles
tangent to x-axis with
centre on y-axis
x-axis
Stream lines
y lines
Fig. 5.44 Stream lines for a doublet.
Potential function at P
Refer to Fig. 5.43. The potential function at P is given by
= 2: log e (r+ br) + (- 2: ) log er [Refer to equation (5.41)]
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= - q log (r + or) - - q log r = - q log (r

-+ -or) = - q log ( 1 + -or)*
2n e 2n e 2n e r 2n e r
2
=_!J__[Or +(or) x.!..+ .....]
2n r r 2
= 2~ ~ [ As 6: is a small quantity. Hence ( 6: )' becomes negligible]
But in Fig. 5.43, from triangle ABC, we get ~ = cos 0

2a
or= 2a cos 0
Substituting the value of or, we get
<\> = _!j__ X 2a COS 0
2n r
µ cos0
= - x -- [·: 2a x q = µ from equation (i)] ... (5.52)
2n r
In Fig. 5.43, when 2a • 0, the angle o0 becomes very small.
Also or • 0 and AP becomes equal to r. Then
AD X
cos 0= - = -
AP r
Also AP2 = AD2 + PD 2 or r2 = x 2 + y2
Substituting the value of cos 0 in equation (5.52), we get
<\>= ~x(~)x.!.=~x~
2n r r 2n r 2
=~X X
2n (x 2 + y2)
or
The above equation can be written as
µ $
x2 - 2n X µ ) -
+ ( 41t<\)
2
(
2
µ ) + Y2 = O
41t<\> [ Adding and subtracting ( 4~<\> rl
or (x _l)
41t<\>
2
+ y2 = (l)
41t<\>
2
... (5.53)
The above is the equation of a circle with centre (l, o)

41t<\>
and radius (l).
41t<\>
The centre of the
circle lies on x-axis at a distance of l

from y-axis. As the radius of the circle is equal to the
41t<\>
distance of the centre of the circle from the y-axis, hence the circle will be tangent to the y-axis.
x2
* Expansion of log, (l + x) =x + - + ...
2
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Hence the potential lines of a doublet will be a family of circles tangent to the y-axis with their centres
on the x-axis as shown in Fig. 5.45.
Potential lines or
Potential lines <)> lines are ci rcles
with centre on x-axis
__-r--,,__ but tangent to y-axis
Fig. 5.45 Potential lines for a doublet.

Problem 5.38 A point P(0.5, 1) is situated in the flow field of a doublet of strength 5 m 2Is.
Calculate the velocity at this point and also the value of the stream function .
=
Solution. Given : Point P(0.5, 1). This means x 0.5 and y 1.0 =
Strength of doublet, µ = 5 m 2/s
(i) Velocity at point P
The velocity at the given point can be obtained if we know the stream function ('If). But stream
function is given by equation (5.50A) as
'Jf=-~X y
2n (x 2+y2)
The velocity components u and v are obtained from the stream function as
u- _d'Jf
- dy
=-a
dy
[--µ2n x--y-]
(x 2 + y2)
(-: ~ is a constant term)
[·: ; [y(x2 + y2r'J = y [-1] [x2 + y2 r 2[2y]+(x2 + y2r' .1
-2y2 1
=----+----
(x2+y2)2 (x2+y2)
and
v=--Z-=--!~-~x~(x--:-y 2 2~ )]
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= :,, ! [(x< i)] =:,, [(x::;,r]

Substituting the values ofµ= 5 m 2/s, x = 0.5 and y = 1.0, we get the velocity components as
u = - l:_ [ x2 - y2
21t (x2 + y2)1
l
= - _2__ [ 0.52 - 12
21t (o.52 + i2)2
l
= _ _2__ 0.75 = - 0 382
21t 1.252 .
and v = __!:_[ -2xy ]=_2__[-2x0.5x1]=_2__[--=.!_] = _ 0 509

21t (x2 + y2)2 21t (o.52 + i2)2
21t 1.252 .
Resultant velocity, V= .Ju

2 +v 2 =.J(-0.382) 2 +(-0.509) 2 = 0.636 mis. Ans.
(ii) Value of stream function at point P

µ y 5 1.0 5 1
'lf=-----=--X----=--X-
21t (x + y )
2 2 2 2
21t (0.5 + 1 ) 21t 1.25
= - 0.636 m 2/s. Ans.
Solution in polar co-ordinates
The above question can also be done in r, 0 (i.e., polar) co-ordinates. The stream function in r, 0
co-ordinates is given by equation (5.50) as
"'= µ
--x--
2n
sine
r
... (i)
and velocity components in radial and tangential directions are given as
u = .!. x aw=.!.~[-__!:_ sine]

r r ae r ae 21t r
= _!_ x (-__!:_) x _!_~(sin 0)

r 2n r ae
[·.- ~ is a constant term and also r is constant w. r. t. 0]

... (ii)
and
= - (-__!:_sine) j_ [.!.] = l:_ sin 0 (- 1) . __!__

21t ar r 2n r2
µ sin
[ ·: - -- 0.1s a constant w. r. t. r ]
21t
µ sine
=--x-- ... (iii)
21t r2
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Now r= .Jx 2 + y2 = .Jo.5 2 + 12 = ,J1.25

. y 1 X 0.5
sm 0 = -= ~ = 0.894 and cos 0 = -= ~ = 0.447
r -v 1.25 r -v 1.25
Substituting the values of r, sin 0 and cos 0 in above equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
µ sin 0 5 0.894 2
'I' = - 2 n -r- = - 2 n x ,Ji. 25 =- 0.636 m Is. Ans.
µ
u,= - - x -
1
2 x cos 0 = - -5 x -1- x 0.447 = - 0.2845 mis
2n r 2n (1.25)
µ sin 0 5 0.894
and u0 = - 2 n x-----;z-=- 2 n x 1.25 = - 0.569 mis
Resultant velocity, V=.Ju;+u~
= .J(- 0 .2845)2 + (- 0.569 )2 = 0.636 mis. Ans.

S.17.3 A Plane Source in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Half-Body). Fig. 5.46 (a) shows
a uniform flow of velocity U and Fig. 5.46 (b) shows a source flow of strength q. When this uniform
flow is flowing over the source flow, a resultant flow will be obtained as shown in Fig. 5.46. This
resultant flow is also known as the flow past a half-body. Let the source is placed on the origin 0.
Consider a point P(x, y) lying in the resultant flow field with polar co-ordinates r and 0 as shown in
Fig. 5.46.
y
+ X
u (q)
(a) Uniform flow (b) Source flow
Half body Point P(x , y)

(r, 0)
Fig. 5.46 Flow pattern resulting from the combination of a uniform flow and a source.
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The stream function ('I') and potential function (<\>) for the resultant flow are obtained as given
below:
'I'= Stream function due to uniform flow + stream function due to source
- q
-U.y+-0 ... (5.54)
21t
= U . r sin 0 + _:!_ 0 ( ·: y = r sin 0) ... (5 .54A)
21t
and <\> = Velocity potential function due to uniform flow + Velocity potential function due to source
= U. x +_:!_log er= U. r cos 0 +_:!_log er ... (5.54B)

21t 21t
The following are the important points for the resultant flow pattern :
(i) Stagnation point. On the left side of the source, at the point S lying on the x-axis, the velocity of
uniform flow and that due to source are equal and opposite to each other. Hence the net velocity of the
combined flow field is zero. This point is known as stagnation point and is denoted by S. The polar co-
ordinates of the stagnation point S are rs and 1t, where rs is radial distance of point S from 0.
The net velocity (or resultant velocity) is zero at the stagnation point S.
ld'lf 1a( . 21tq)0 0+ 2: 0]
Ur= -;-as=-;- ae U.rsme+ [·.- 'I'= U.r sin
= !r [u.r cos e + _:!_]

2n
= u. cos e + __!J_
2nr
At the stagnation point, 0 = 1t radians (180°) and r = rs and net velocity is zero. This means ur = 0
and v8 = 0. Substituting these values in the above equation, we get
0= u . cos 180° + _q_ [·: Ur= o, e = 180° and r = rs]

2nrs
=- U + _q_ or U=-q-
2nrs 21trs
or r __ q_
... (5.55)
s- 21tU
From the above equation it is clear that position of stagnation point depends upon the free stream
velocity U and source strength q. At the stagnation point, the value of stream function is obtained
from equation (5.54A) as
w=U.rsine+L.e
21t
For the stagnation point, the above equation becomes as
'Ifs= U. rs sin 180° + _:!_ X 0

21t
[·: At stagnation point, 0 = 1t radians= 180° and r = rs]
= 0 + :!_ = !!_ ... (5.56)

2 2
The above relation gives the equation of stream line passing through stagnation point. We know
that no fluid mass crosses a stream line. Hence a stream line is a virtual solid surface.
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(ii) Shape of resultant flow. At the stagnation point S, the net velocity is zero. The fluid particles
that issue from the source cannot proceed further to the left of stagnation point. They are carried
along the contour BSB' that separates the source flow from uniform flow. The curve BSB' can be
regarded as the solid boundary of a round nosed body such as a bridge pier around which the
uniform flow is forced to pass. The contour BSB' is called the half body, because it has only the
leading point, it trails to infinity at down stream end.
The value of stream function of the stream line passing through stagnation point S and passing over
the solid boundary (i.e., curve BSB') is 'l's= !l....

2
Thus the composite flow consists of :
(1) flow over a plane half-body (i.e., flow over curve BSB') outside 'I'= !l... and
2
(2) source flow within the plane half-body.
The plane half-body is described by the dividing stream line, 'I'= !l....
2
But the stream function at any point in the combined flow field is given by equation (5.54) as
q
'lf=U.y+-0
21t
If we take 'I' = !l... in the above equation, we will get the equation of the dividing stream line.
2
Equation of the dividing stream line (i.e., equation of curve BSB') will be
!l... = U . y + __!l..._ • 0 or U . y = !l... -

2 21t 2
__!l..._ 0 =
21t
!l...
2
(1 -~) 1t
or y= _!l..._(1-~)
2U 1t
... (5.57)
From the above equation, the main dimensions of the plane half-body may be obtained. From this
equation, it is clear that y is maximum, when 0 = 0.
Hence At 0 = 0, y is maximum and Ymax = _!l..._ ••• the maximum ordinate

2U
1t
At0= - y = 2~ ( l - ; . : ) = 4~ ... the ordinate above the origin
2'
At 0 = 1t, y= 2~ (1 -:) 0 = ... the leading point of the half-body
31t
At0=-, y = 2~ ( l - ~:) = - 4~ ... the ordinate below the origin.
2
The main dimensions are shown in Fig. 5.47.
(iii) Resultant velocity at any point
The velocity components at any point in the flow field are given by
Ur=
ld'lf ld[ . q]
-;:-ae=-;:- d0 U.rsm0+ 21t 0
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= ! [u. r cos 0 +
r
L]
21t
= U.cos 0 + _!J_
21tr
Leading
- _g_
Ymax - 2U
point
Plane half-body
Fig. 5.47
The above equation gives the radial velocity at any point in the flow field. This radial velocity is due
to uniform flow and due to source. Due to source the radial velocity is _!J_. Hence the velocity due
21tr
to source diminishes with increase in radial distance from the source. At large distance from the
source the contribution of source is negligible and hence free stream uniform flow is not influenced
by the presence of source.
Ue = - d\jl = -~[u.rsin 0
dr dr
+Le]
21t
= - [U. sin 0 + O] = - U sin 0 [·: 2: 0 is constant w. r. t. r]
Resultant velocity, V= .Ju;+ u~

(iv) Location of stagnation point
At the stagnation point, the velocity components are zero. Hence equating the radial and tangential
velocity components to zero, we get
q
u, = 0 or U cos 0 + _!J_ = 0 or U cos 0 = - - -
21tr 21tr
q
or rcoo0=--- B~ rcoo0=x
21tU
x=--q-
21tU
When u0= 0 or - U sin 0 = 0 or sin 0 = 0 as U cannot be zero
or 0= 0 or 7t But y = r sin 0 :. y = 0
Hence stagnation point is at (--q-,

21tU
o), the leading point of the half-body.
-II Er.S.Keerthibalan.,PGD(QSV).,ME.(CEM).,MISTE.,AMIE.,CEngg.
I~
Assistant Professor
~I IL

(v) Pressure at any point in flow field
Let p 0 = pressure at infinity where velocity is U
p = pressure at any point P in the flow field, where velocity is V
Now applying the Bernoulli's equation at a point at infinity and at a point Pin the flow field, we get
Po U 2
-+-
pg 2g
= p
-+-
pg 2g
V2
or ---=---=---
U2
2g
V2
2g
p
pg
Po
pg
P - Po
pg
The pressure co-efficient is defined as
C = p- Po
p 1 2
2pU
u 2 v2 ]
pg [2g-2g
=
-1 pu2
2
=u2-v2
u
=1-(v)2
u
2
... (5.58)
Problem 5.39 A uniform flow with a velocity of 3 mis is flowing over a plane source of strength
30 m 2/s. The uniform flow and source flow are in the same plane. A point P is situated in the flow
field. The distance of the point P from the source is 0.5 m and it is at an angle of 30° to the uniform
flow. Determine : (i) stream function at point P, (ii) resultant velocity of flow at P and (iii) location
of stagnation point from the source.
Solution. Given : Uniform velocity, U = 3 mis ; source strength, q = 30 m 2/s ; co-ordinates of
point Pare r = 0.5 m and 0 = 30°.
(i) Stream function at point P
The stream function at any point in the combined flow field is given by equation (5.54A)
'I' = U . r sin 0 + _!j__ 0

2n
at point P, r = 0.5 m and 0 = 30° or 30 x 1t radians.
180
p
F ig. 5.48
Stream function at point P,
"' = 3 X 0.5 X
. 30° + -30
sm X
( - 30 X 1t
)
21t 180
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= 0.75 + 2.5 = 3.25 m 2/s. Ans.
(ii) Resultant velocity at P
The velocity components anywhere in the flow are given by
1a'I' 1a[ . q]
Ur= -;-as=-;- ae U.rsm0+ 21t 0
r 21t
q]
= -1 [ U.rcos0+- = U.cos0+--
q
21tr
30
=3 X COS 30° + - - - (·: At P, r = 0.5, 0 = 30°, q = 30)
2n x0.5
= 2.598 + 9.55 = 12.14
and Ue = -a'I' = -
ar ar [u. r sin 0 + L.
~
21t
e]
= - U sin 0 + 0 = - U sin 0
= - 3 x sin 30° = - 1.5
Resultant velocity, V=.Ju;+u~
= .J12.142 + (-1.5) 2 = 12.24 mis. Ans.

(iii) Location of stagnation point
The horizontal distance of the stagnation point S from the source is given by equation (5.55) as
q 30
rs= - - =--- = 1.59 m. Ans.
2nU 2nx3
The stagnation point will be at a distance of 1.59 m to the left side of the source on the x-axis.
Problem 5.40 A uniform flow with a velocity of 20 mis is flowing over a source of strength 10 m2Js.
The uniform flow and source flow are in the same plane. Obtain the equation of the dividing stream
line and sketch the flow pattern.
Solution. Given: Uniform velocity, U = 20 mis; Source strength, q = 10 m 2/s
(i) Equation of the dividing stream line
The stream function at any point in the combined flow field is given by equation (5.54A)
'lf=U.rsine+Le
21t
= 20 x r sin 0 + .!Q_ 0 (·: U = 20 mis and q = 10 m2/s)

21t
The value of the stream function for the dividing stream line is 'I'= !l... Hence substituting 'I'= !l.. in
2 2
the above equation, we get the equation of the dividing stream line.
!l.. = 20r sin 0 + .!Q_ 0

2 21t
or .!..2_ = 20r sin 0 + .!Q_ 0 (·: q= 10)

2 21t
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. 10
or 5 = 20r sm 0 + - 0 = 20y + -10 0 (": r sin e = y)
21t 21t
10
2oy= 5- - e
21t
or y = -5 - -10X -
e
= 0.25 - - e ... (i)
20 2n 20 4n
The above relation gives the equation of the dividing stream line.
From the above equation, for different values of 0 the value of y is obtained as :
Value of 0 Value of y fro m (i) Remarks

0 0.25 m Max . half width of body
1t
- 0.125 m The +ve ordinate above the origin
2
1t 0 The leading point
31t
- - 0.125 m The -ve ordinate below the origin
2
2n - 0.25 m The max. -ve ordinate
(ii) Sketch of f low pattern
For sketching the flow pattern, let us first find the location of the stagnation point. The horizontal
distance of the stagnation point S from the source is given by the equation,
r, = _q_ = 10 = 0.0795 m
· 2nU 2n x20
Hence the stagnation point lies on the x-axis at a distance of 0.0795 m or 79.5 mm from the source
towards left of the source. The flow pattern is shown in Fig. 5.49.
~-------
79.5 mm
Fig. 5.49
Problem 5.41 A uniform flow with a velocity of 2 mis is flowing over a source placed at the
origin. The stagnation point occurs at (- 0.398, 0). Determine :
(i) Strength of the source, (ii) Maximum width of Rankine half-body and
(iii) Other principal dimensions of the Rankine half-body.
Solution. Given :
Uniform velocity, U = 2 mis
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Co-ordinates of stagnation point = (- 0.398, 0)
This means r5 = 0.398 and stagnation point lies on x-axis at a distance of 0.398 m towards left of
origin. The source is placed at origin.
(i) Strength of the source
Let q = strength of the source
We know that r = _q_

s 2nU
or q = 2nU x rs= 2n x 2 x 0.398 = 5.0014 m2/s .:::: 5 m 2/s. Ans.
(ii) Maximum width of Rankine half-body
The main dimensions of the Rankine half-body are obtained from equation (5.57) as
y= L(1-~) ... (i)

2U n
The value of y is maximum, when 0 = 0.
y = _!j__
2U
max
(1 -.2.) = _!j__
1f,
= - 5 - = 1.25 m
2U 2 X 2
Maximum width of Rankine body = 2 x Ymax = 2 x 1.25 = 2.5 m. Ans.
(iii) Other Principal dimensions of Rankine half-body
Using equation (5.57), we get
y= L(1-~)
2U n
1f,
At 0= -, 5 = 0.625 m
y= L[1-(~)]=L[1-_!._]=_!f__=-
2 2U n 2U 2 4U 4 x 2
The above value gives the upper ordinate at the origin, where source is placed.
Width of body at origin = 2 x 0.625 = 1.25 m
At the stagnation point, the width of the body is zero.
1.25 m
0.625 m
l
Origin
Stagnation (Source is placed here)
point
Rankine half-body
Fig. 5.50
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S.17.4 A Source and Sink Pair in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Rankine Oval Body).
Fig. 5.51 (a) shows a uniform flow of velocity U and Fig. 5.51 (b) shows a source sink pair of equal
strength. When this uniform flow is flowing over the source sink pair, a resultant flow will be obtained
as shown in Fig. 5.51 (c). This resultant flow is also known as the flow past a Rankine oval body.
Sink
-)r(~qJ
Source
u
(a) Uniform flow Source I• a

•
0
)fC
a--.j
Sink
• X
(b) Source and sink pair
Uniform
flow
(c)
Fig. 5.51
Let U = Velocity of uniform flow along x-axis

q = Strength of source
(- q) = Strength of sink
2a = Distance between source and sink which is along x-axis.
The origin O of the x-y co-ordinates is mid-way between source and sink. Consider a point P(x, y)
lying in the resultant flow field. The stream function (\jl) and velocity potential function () for the
resultant flow field are obtained as given below :
'I'= Stream function due to uniform flow + stream function due to source
+ stream function due to sink
= '!'uniform flow+ '!'source + '!'sink
= ux + .!L 0 + (-q) x 0
y 21t I 21t 2
(where 0 1 is the angle made by P with source along x-axis and 0 2 with sink)
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=U X y + q0l - qS 2 = U X Y + _.!J_ (81 - 82)

21t 21t 21t
= U x r sin 0 + _.!J_ (0 1 - 02) (·: y = r sin 0) ... (5.59)

21t
and = potential function due to uniform flow + potential function due to
source + potential function due to sink
= <!>uniform flow + <!>source + <l>sink
q (-q)
= U Xx+ - logerl + - - loger2
21t 21t
=U X r cos 0 + _.!J_ [logerl - loger2] (·: x=rcos0)

21t
= U X r cos 0 + _.!!_[loge
2n r2
3._] ... (5.60)
The following are the important points for the resultant flow pattern :
(a) There will be two stagnation points S 1 and S2 , one to the left of the source and other to the right
of the sink. At the stagnation points, the resultant velocity (i.e., velocity due to uniform flow, velocity
due to source and velocity due to sink) will be zero. The stagnation point S 1 is to the left of the source
and stagnation point S2 will be to the right of the sink on the x-axis.
Let Xs = Distance of the stagnation points from origin O along x-axis.
Let us calculate this distance Xs.
For the stagnation point S 1,
(i) Velocity due to uniform flow= U
·: The velocity at any radius due to source= _!1___]

( ii) Velocity due to source = (q ) [ 2nr
2n xs - a
For S1 , the radius from source = (x s - a)
(iii) Velocity due to sink= (- q ) [·: At S1, the radius from sink= (xs + a)]
2n xs + a
At point S1, the velocity due to uniform flow is in the positive x-direction whereas due to source and
sink are in the-vex-direction.
q (-q)
The resultant velocity at S 1 = U - ( )- ( )
2n xs - a 2n xs + a
But the resultant velocity at stagnation point S1 should be zero.
U- q + q =0
2n(xs-a) 2n(xs+a)
or U= q - q
2n(xs-a) 2n(xs+a)
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q [ 1 1 l q [(xs+a)-(xs-a)l q 2a
= 2n (xs -a) - (xs +a) = 2n (xs -a)(xs +a) = 2n (xJ-a 2)
2 2 q •a
or Xs-a = - -
nU
or xJ = a 2 + qa
nu
=a2 [1 + _q_]
naU
xs = a ✓( 1 + n!u) ... (5 .61)
The above equation gives the location of the stagnation point on the x-axis.
(b) The stream line passing through the stagnation points is having zero velocity and hence can be
replaced by a solid body. This solid body is having a shape of oval as shown in Fig. 5.51. There will
be two flow fields, one within the oval contour and the other outside the solid body. The flow field
within the oval contour will be due to source and sink whereas the flow field outside the body will be
due to uniform flow only.
The shape of solid body is obtained from the stream line having stream function equal to zero. But
the stream function is given by equation as
'If= U X r sin 0 + _!j_ (81 - 82)

2n
For the shape of solid body,'Jf = 0
0= U X r sin 0 + _!j_ (81 - 82)

2n
or U X r sin 0 =- _!j_ (81 - 82) = _!j_ (82 - 81)

2n 2n
q (02 -0,)
r=----- ... (5 .62)
2n U sin 0
From the above equation, the distances of the surface of the solid body from the origin can be
obtained or the shape of the solid body can be obtained. The maximum width of the body <Ymax) will
be equal to OM as shown in Fig. 5.52.
Fig . 5.52
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From triangle AOM, we have
OM
tan 0 1 = - -
AO
or OM= AO tan 0 1 = a tan 0 1
or Ymax = a tan 0 1 (·: OM= Ymax) ... (5.63)
Let us find the value of 0 1•
When the point P lies on M, then r = OM, 0 = 90° = 1t

2
and 02 = 180° - 01 =1t - 01 [Refer to Fig. 5.52]
[·: AM=BM Angle ABM = Angle BAM = 0i]
Substituting these values in equation (5.62), we get
q ((n-0i)-0 1 ) q (n-20i)
OM=-------
21t U sin 1t 21t U
2
or [where OM = Ymaxl
or or 21tUYmax = 1t - 201
q
or 20 l -_ 1t- 21tUYmax or 0 l -_ 1t _ 1tUYmax

q 2 q
Substituting this value of 0 1 in equation (5.63), we get
Ymax = a tan [; - nU;max] = a cot [ nU;max] ... (5.64)
From the above equation, the value of Ymax is obtained by hit and trial method till L.H.S. = R.H.S. In
this equation ( nU;max ) is in radians.
The length and width of the Rankine oval is obtained as :

Length, L = 2 x Xs
=2xa ✓( 1+ n!u) [·: x, =a ✓(I+ .:u)] .. (5.65)
and Width, B = 2 X Ymax
= 2a cot ( nU;max ) . . .. (5.66)
Problem 5.42 A uniform flow of velocity 6 mis is flowing along x-axis over a source and a sink
which are situated along x-axis. The strength of source and sink is 15 m 2Is and they are at a distance
of 1.5 m apart. Determine :
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(i) Location of stagnation points, (ii) Length and width of the Rankine oval
(iii) Equation of profile of the Rankine body.
Solution. Given: Uniform flow velocity, U = 6 mis
Strength of source and sink, q = 15 m 2/s
Distance between source and sink, 2a = 1.5 m
a= I. 5 = 0.75 m
2
(i) Location of stagnation points (Refer to Fig. 5.51)
For finding the location of the stagnation points, the equation (5.61) is used.
xs = a ✓(1 + naU
q ) = 0.75 (1 + 15
nx0.75x6
) = 1.076 m
The above equation gives the distance of the stagnation points from the origin. There will be two
stagnation points.
The distance of stagnation points from the source and sink= xs - a= 1.076 - 0.75 = 0.326 m. Ans.
(ii) Length and width of the Rankine oval
Length, L = 2 x xs = 2 x 1.076 = 2.152 m.
Width, B = 2 X Ymax ... (i)
Let us now find the value of Ymax
Using equation (5.64), we get
Ymax = a cot ( nU;max) = 0.75 cot ( rr, X 61~ Ymax) = 0.75 cot (0.4n Ymax)
0
180)
= 0.75 cot ( 0.4n Ymax X ~
[-: (0.4n Ymax) is in radians and hence (0.4n Ymax) X l!O will be in degrees]
= 0.75 cot (72 X Ymax)°

The above equation will be solved by hit and trial method. The value of xs = 1.076. But xs is equal
to length of major axis of Rankine body and Ymax is the length of minor axis of the Rankine body. The
length of minor axis will be less than length of major axis. Let us first assume Ymax = 0.8 m. Then
Ymax L.H.S. R.H.S.
0.8 0.8 0.75 cot (72 x 0.8) 0 = 0.75 cot 51.6° = 0.475
0.7 0.7 0.75 cot (72 x 0.7) 0 = 0.75 cot 50.4° = 0.577
0.6 0.6 0.75 cot (72 x 0.6) 0 = 0.75 cot 43.2° = 0.798
0.65 0.65 0.75 cot (72 x 0.65) 0 = 0.75 cot 46.8° = 0.704
0.67 0.67 0.75 cot (72 x 0.67) 0 = 0.75 cot 48.24° = 0.669 .:::: 0.67
From above it is clear that, when Ymax = 0.67, then L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Ymax = 0.67 m
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get
Width, B = 2 x Ymax = 2 x 0.67 = 1.34 m. Ans.
(iii) Equation of profile of the Rankine body
The equation of profile of the Rankine body is given by equation (5.62) as
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q (02 -0,) 1s (02 -0i) o.39s(0 2 -0 1 )

r = - ---- = ---- = ------. Ans.
21t U sin 0 21t 6 x sin 0 sin 0
S.17.S A Doublet in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Circular Cylinder). Fig. 5.53 (a)
shows a uniform flow of velocity U in the positive x-direction and Fig. 5.53 (b) shows a doublet at the
origin. Doublet is a special case of a source and a sink combination in which both of equal strength
approach each other such that distance between them tends to be zero. When the uniform flow is
flowing over the doublet, a resultant flow will be obtained as shown in Fig. 5.53 (c). This resultant
flow is known as the flow past a Rankine oval of equal axes or flow past a circular cylinder.
(a) Uniform flow
(b) Doublet
Potential lines
'lf=O
(c)
Fig. 5.53
The stream function ('If) and velocity potential function () for the resultant flow is obtained as
given below :
'If = stream function due to uniform flow + stream function due to doublet
=U Xy + (- µ sin
21tr
0)
[Stream function due to doublet is given by equation (5.50) as = - __!:__ sin 0]
21tr
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= U x r x sin 0 - ~ sin 0 (·: y=rsin0)

21tr
= (u X r - ~ ) sin 0
2nr
... (5.67)
and <\> = Potential function due to uniform flow + potential function due to doublet
µ cos0
=Uxx+-x--
21t r
. (5.52), potential
[From equat10n . function
. due to doublet = -µ cm0]
X--
21t r
µ cos0
=U X r COS 0 + - X -- (·:x=rcos0)
21t r
= (u X r +~)
2nr
COS 0 ... (5.68)
Shape of Rankine oval of equal axes

To get the profile of the Rankine oval of equal axes, the stream line 'I' is taken as zero. Hence
substituting 'I' = 0 in equation (5.67), we get
0= (u X r - ~ ) sin 0
2nr
This means either sin 0 = 0 or U x r- ~ =0

21tr
(i) If sin 0 = 0, then 0 = 0 and ± 1t i.e., a horizontal line through the origin of the doublet. This
horizontal line is the x-axis.
(ii) If Ux r- ~ = 0, then U x r = ~ or r2 = ~
21tr 21tr 21tU
or r= ✓ 21tU
µ = a constant as µ and U are constant.
Let this constant is equal to R.
r= ✓2:u =R
This gives that the closed body profile is a circular cylinder of radius R with centre on doublet. The
dividing stream line corresponds to 'I'= 0. This stream line is a circle of radius R. The stream line 'I'= 0 has
two stagnation points S 1 and S2• At S 1, the uniform flow splits into two streams that flow along the
circle with radius R = ✓ 21tU

µ , the two branches meet again at the stagnation point S2 and the flow
continues in the downward direction. The uniform flow occurs outside the circle whereas the flow
field due to doublet lies entirely within the circle. The stream function for the composite flow is given
by equation (5.67) as
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'If = (u Xr - __l:__) sin 0 = U (r - _µ_) sin 0

21tr 21tUr
=U (r - ~ 2
) sin 0 (-: 2:U = R2 ) ••• (5.69)
Velocity Components (ur and u 0)

The velocity components at any point in the flow field are given by,
ur = .!. 0'1' =.!. ~

roe roe
[u (r - ~)sine]
r
=.!. U (r -~)
r r
cos 0
... (5.70)
and Ua = - -aw = - -o [ U (r - -R
2
) • 0]
Stn = - U ( 1 + -R22 ) Stn
• 0
or or r r
= - U ( 1 + :: ) sin e ... (5.71)
Resultant velocity, V= .Ju; + u~ ... (5.72)

On the surface of the cylinder, r = R
ur = U [ 1- ~:] cos 0 [·: In equation (5.70), r = R]
=0
and u0 =- U [ 1 + ~: ] sin 0 =- 2U sin 0 ... (5.73)
-ve sign shows the clockwise direction of tangential velocity at that point. The value of u 0 is
maximum, when 0 = 90° and 270°.
At 0 = 0° or 180°, the value of u0 = 0. Hence on the surface of the cylinder, the resultant velocity
is zero, when 0 = 0° or 180°. These two points on the surface of cylinder [i.e., at 0 = 0° and 180°]
where resultant velocity is zero, are known as stagnation points. They are denoted by S 1 and S2 •
Stagnation point S 1 corresponds to 0 = 180° and S2 corresponds to 0 = 0°.
Pressure distribution on the surface of the cylinder
Let p 0 = pressure at a point in the uniform flow far away from the cylinder and towards the
left of the cylinder [i.e., approaching uniform flow]
U = velocity of uniform flow at that point
p = pressure at a point on the surface of the cylinder
V = resultant velocity at that point on the surface of the cylinder. This velocity is equal to
u0 as ur is zero on the surface of the cylinder.
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V = Ua = - 2U sin 0
Applying Bernoulli's equation at the above two points,
Po U 2 p V2
-+-=-+-
pg 2g pg 2g
p u 2 p [-2Usin0]2
_o + - = -+~--~~
or [ ·: V = u0 =- 2U sin 0]
pg 2g pg 2g
Po U 2 p 4U 2 sin 2 0
or -+-=-+----
p 2 p 2
p- Po U2 4U2 sin2 0 = _!_ U2 (1 - 4 sin2 0)

or ---=
p 2 2 2
or p - Po = 1 - 4 sin2 0
1 u2
-p
2
But f- Po is a dimensionless term and is known as dimensionless pressure co-efficient and is

-pU2
2
denoted by CP.
= -p- Po 1 4 . 20
Cp 1- - = - Sln
-pU2
2
Value of pressure co-efficient for different values of 0
Value of 0 Value of CP
0 1 - 4 sin2 0 =1 - 0 =1
30° 1 - 4 sin2 30° = 1 - 4 x (21) 2
= 1- 44= 1 - 1=0
90° 1 - 4 sin2 90° = 1 - 4 x 1 = 1 - 4 = - 3
150° 1 - 4 sin2 150° = 1 - 4 x _!_= 1 - 1 = 0

4
180° 1 - 4 sin2 180° = 1 - 0 = 1
At 0 = 0 and 180°, there are stagnation points S2 and S 1 respectively.
At 0 = 30° and 150°, the pressure co-efficient is zero.
At 0 = 90°, the pressure co-efficient is - 3 (i.e., least pressure)
The variation of pressure co-efficient along the surface of the cylinder for different values of 0 are
shown in Fig. 5.54.
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The positive pressure is acting normal to the surface and towards the surface of the cylinder
whereas the negative pressure is acting normal to the surface and away from the surface of the
cylinder as shown in Fig. 5.55.
r 1--
+~--+-~-+-~-+--~---t-~----f--~
oo 60° goo 120°
e
+-+----
180°
- 1
-2
- 3 - ' - - - - - - - - =_,_~
Fig. 5.54
~e
+ve
u pressure
Fig. 5.55
Problem 5.43 A uniform flow of 12 mis is flowing over a doublet of strength 18 m2Is. The doublet
is in the line of the uniform flow. Determine :
(i) shape of the Rankine oval (ii) radius of the Rankine circle
(iii) value of stream line function at Rankine circle
(iv) resultant velocity at a point on the Rankine circle at an angle of 30° from x-axis
( v) value of maximum velocity on the Rankine circle and location of the point where velocity is max.
Solution. Given : U = 12 mis ; µ = 18 m 2/s
(i) Shape of the Rankine oval
When a uniform flow is flowing over a doublet and doublet and uniform flow are in line, then the
shape of the Rankine oval will be a circle of radius = ✓ 21tU

µ . Ans.
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(ii) Radius of the Rankine circle
R= r= ~ µ = ~ = 0.488 m. Ans.
2rcU V27o<12
(iii) Value of stream line function at the Rankine circle
The value of stream line function ('If) at the Rankine circle is zero i.e., 'I'= 0.
(iv) Resultant velocity on the surface of the circle, when 0 = 30°
On the surface of the cylinder, the radial velocity (u,) is zero. The tangential velocity (u 0) is given
by equation (5.73) as
Ue = - 2U sine= - 2 X 12 X sin 30° = - 12 mis. Ans.
-ve sign shows the clockwise direction of tangential velocity at that point.
Resultant velocity, V= .Ju; +u~ =.Jo 2 +(-12) 2 =12 mis. Ans.

(v) Maximum velocity and its location
The resultant velocity at any point on the surface of the cylinder is equal to u 0 • But u 0 is given by,
Ue = - 2U sin 0
This velocity will be maximum, when 0 = 90°.
Max. velocity = - 2U = - 2 x 12 = - 24 mis. Ans.
Problem 5.44 A uniform flow of 10 mis is flowing over a doublet of strength 15 m2/s. The doublet
is in the line of the uniform flow. The polar co-ordinates of a point P in the flow field are 0.9 m and 30°.
Find : (i) stream line function and (ii) the resultant velocity at the point.
Solution. Given : U = 10 mis; µ = 15 m 2/s; r = 0.9 m and 0 = 30°.
Let us first find the radius (R) of the Rankine circle. This is given by
R = ~ = ~ = 0.488 m
v27ct! V21o<10
The polar co-ordinates of the point P are 0.9 m and 30°.
Hence r = 0.9 m and 0 = 30°.
As the value of r is more than the radius of the Rankine circle, hence point P lies outside the
cylinder.
(i) Value of stream line function at the point P
The stream line function for the composite flow at any point is given by equation (5.69) as
P(0 .9 m, 30° )
p
-
-
Fig. 5.56
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2
= 10 ( 0.9 - 0.488
- -) sin 30°( ·: r = 0.9 m, R = 0.488 and 0 = 30°)
0.9
1
= 10(0.9 - 0.2646) x - = 3.177 m 2/s. Ans.
2
(ii) Resultant velocity at the point P
The radial velocity and tangential velocity at any point in the flow field are given by equations (5.70)
and (5.71) respectively.
R 2 ) cos 0
ur = U ( 1 - 7 = 10 ( 0.488 2 ) cos 30°
1- ~ = 611 mis
+ve sign shows the radial velocity is outward.
and u0 =- U ( 1 + ~:) sin 0 =- 10 ( 1 + O ;:r ) sin 30° =- 6.4 7 mis

-ve sign shows the clockwise direction of tangential velocity.
Resultant velocity,
V=.Ju;+u~
= .J6.11 2 +(-6.47) 2 =.J37.33+44.86

= 8.89 mis. Ans.
HIGHLIGHTS
1. If the fluid characteristics like veloc.ity, pressure, density etc. do not change at a point w ith respect to
time, the fluid flow is called steady flow. If they change w.r.t. time, the fluid flow is called unsteady
flow.
Or (!~) = 0 for steady flow and (!~) 1'- 0 for unsteady flow .
2. If the velocity in a fluid flow does not change with respect to space (length of d irection of flow) , the
fl ow is said uniform otherwise non-uniform . Thus,
( :: ) = 0 for uniform flow and ( :: ) 1'- 0 for non-uniform flow.
3. If the Reynolds number in a p ipe is less th an 2000, the flow is said to be laminar and if Reynold number
is more than 4000, the flow is said to be turbulent.
4. For compressible flow, p 1'- constant
For incompressib le flow , p = constant.
5. Rate of discharge for incompressible fluid (liquid), Q = A x v.
6. Continuity equation is written as A 1v 1 = A 2 v 2 = A3 v3 .
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7. Continuity equation in differential form,
au av aw
- + - + - = 0 for three-dimensional flow
ax dy dz
au av . .
- + - = 0 for two-d11nens1onal flow.
ax dy
8. The components of acceleration in x, y and z direction are
du du du du
a =u - +v - +w - +-
x ax dy dz dt
dv dv dv dv
a =u - +v -+ w - +-
Y ax dy dz dt
aw aw aw aw
a =u - +v - +w - +- .
z ax dy dz dt
9. The components of ve locity in x, y an d z direction in terms of velocity potential (<!>) are
d<)> d<)> d<)>
u =- - ,v=- - an d w = - - .
ax dy dz
10. The stream function (\jf) is defined on ly for two-dimensional flow . The velocity components in x and
. . . f f .
y directions m terms o stream unct10n are u = - -d'V and v = -d\jf .
dy ax
11. Angular deformation or shear strain rate is given as
Shear stra in rate = _!_ [ dv +

2 ax dy
du]
12. Rotational components of a fluid particle are
coz =
1
2
[avax - au] [aw av] 1 [au aw]
dy ; cox= 2 ay - dz ; coy= 2 az - ih
1
13. Vorticity is two times the value of rotation .

14. Flow of a fluid along a curved path is known as vortex flow . If the particles are moving round in curved
path with the help of some external torque the flow is called fo rced vortex flow. And if no external
torque is required to rotate the fluid particles, the flow is call ed free-vortex flow.
15. The rel ation between tangential velocity and radius :
for forced vortex, v = co x r,
for free vortex, v x r = constant.
16. The pressure variation along the radial direction for vortex flow along a horizontal plane, dp =p ~
dr r
and pressure variation in the vertical plane dp = - pg.

dz
v2 co 2 r2 co 2 R2
1 7. For the forced vortex flow, Z = - = --= --
2g 2g 2g
where Z = hei ght of paraboloid formed
co= ang ular velocity .
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18. For a forced vortex flow in a open tank.

Fall of liquid level at centre = Rise of liquid level at the ends.
19 . In case of closed cylinder, the volume of air before ro tation is equal to the volume of air after rotation.
20. If a close cylindrical vessel completely filled with water is rotated about its vertical axis, the total
pressure forces acting on the top and bottom are
FT = £_ o:lrrR4
4
and F8 = Fr+ weight of water in cylinder
where Fr= Pressure force on top of cyl inder
F8 = Pressure fo rce on the bottom of cylinder
co = Angular velocity
R= Radius of the vessel
w
p = Density of fluid = - .
g
2 2
21. For a free vortex flow the equation is ..!!.J... + i + z1 =El..+ 1 + z2 .
pg 2g pg 2g
EXERCISE
(A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS

1. What are the methods of describing fluid flow ?
2. Explain the terms :
( i) Path line, (ii) Streak line,
(iii) Stream line, and (iv) Stream tube.
3. Distinguish between :
(i) Steady flow and un-steady flow, (ii) Uniform and non-uniform flow,
(iii) Compressible and incompressible flow,
(iv) Rotational and irrotational flow, (v) Laminar and turbulent flow.
4. Define the following and give one practical example for each :
(i) Laminar flow, (ii) Turbulent flow,
(iii) Steady flow, and (iv) Uniform flow.
5. Define the equation of continuity. Obtain an expression for continuity equation for a three-dimensional
flow. (R.G.P. V, S 2002)
6. What do you understand by the terms : (i ) Total acceleration, (ii) Convective acceleration, and
(iii ) Local acceleration ? (Delhi University, Dec. 2002)
7. (a) Define the terms :
(i ) Velocity potential function, and (ii) Stream function.
(b) What are the conditions for flow to be irrotational ?
8. What do you mean by equipotential line and a line of constant stream function ?
9. (a) Describe the use and limitations of the flow nets.
(b) Under what conditions can one draw flow net ?
10. Define the terms :
(i) Vortex flow, (ii) Forced vortex flow, and ( iii) Free vortex flow.
11. Differentiate between forced vortex and free vortex flow.
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Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 671 I

SEPARATION
POINT
':) ~
------- u
PLATE
'to ______.,-1
UPSTREAM DOWN STREAM
~ ~:) WAKE
------- _)
-------
Fig. 14. 7 Flat plate perpendicular to flow .
14.3.3 Stream-lined Body. A stream-lined body is defined as that body whose surface
coincides with the stream-lines, when the body is placed in a flow. In that case the separation of flow
will take place only at the trailing edge (or rearmost part of the body). Though the boundary layer will
start at the leading edge, will become turbulent from laminar, yet it does not separate upto the rearmost
part of the body in the case of stream-lined body. Thus behind a stream-lined body, wake formation
zone will be very small and consequently the pressure drag will be very small. Then the total drag on
the stream-lined body will be due to friction (shear) only. A body may be stream-lined :
1. at low velocities but may not be so at higher velocities.
2. when placed in a particular position in the flow but may not be so when placed in another
position.
14.3,4 Bluff Body. A bluff body is defined as that body whose surface does not coincide with
the streamlines, when placed in a flow. Then the flow is separated from the surface of the body much
ahead of its trailing edge with the result of a very large wake formation zone. Then the drag due to
pressure will be very large as compared to the drag due to friction on the body. Thus the bodies of such
a shape in which the pressure drag is very large as compared to friction drag are called bluff bodies.
• 14.4 DRAG ON A SPHERE
Consider the flow of a real fluid past a sphere.

Let U = Velocity of the flow of fluid over sphere,
D = Diameter of sphere,
p = Mass density of fluid, and
µ = Viscosity of fluid.
If the Reynolds number of the flow is very small less than 0.2 (i.e., Re = U~p < 0.2), the viscous
forces are much more important than the inertial forces as in this case viscous forces are much more
predominate than the inertial forces, which may be assumed negligible. G.G. Stokes, developed a
mathematical equation for the total drag on a sphere immersed in a flowing fluid for which Reynolds
number is upto 0.2, so that inertia forces may be assumed negligible. According to his solution, total
drag is
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CHAPTER
• 6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, we studied the velocity and acceleration at a point in a fluid flow, without
taking into consideration the forces causing the flow. This chapter includes the study of forces causing
fluid flow. Thus dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion with the forces causing flow. The
dynamic behaviour of the fluid flow is analysed by the Newton's second law of motion, which relates
the acceleration with the forces. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non-viscous.
• 6.2 EQUATIONS OF MOTION
According to Newton's second law of motion, the net force Fx acting on a fluid element in the
direction of xis equal to mass m of the fluid element multiplied by the acceleration ax in the x-direction.
Thus mathematically,
Fx = m.ax ... (6.1)
In the fluid flow, the following forces are present :
(i) Fg, gravity force.
(ii) FP, the pressure force.
(iii) Fv, force due to viscosity.
(iv) F 1, force due to turbulence.
(v) Fe, force due to compressibility.
Thus in equation (6.1), the net force
Fx = (Fg\ + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fe)x.
(i) If the force due to compressibility, Fe is negligible, the resulting net force
Fx = (Fg\ + (Fp)x + (Fv\ + (F 1)x
and equation of motions are called Reynold's equations of motion.
(ii) For flow, where (F1) is negligible, the resulting equations of motion are known as
Navier-Stokes Equation.
(iii) If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force (Fv) is zero and equation of motions are
known as Euler's equation of motion.
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• 6.3 EULER'S EQUATION OF MOTION

This is equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken into considera-
tion. This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a stream-line as :
Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place ins-direction as shown in Fig. 6.1. Consider a
cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length ds. The forces acting on the cylindrical element are:
1. Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow.
2. Pressure force (p + t ds) dA opposite to the direction of flow.
3. Weight of element pgdAds.

Let 0 is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight of element.
The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of s must be equal to the mass of fluid
element x acceleration in the directions.
pdA - (p + t ds) dA - pgdAds cos 0

s
= pdAds x as ... (6.2)

where as is the acceleration in the direction of s.
Now a. = dv , where v is a function of s and t.

., dt
= dv ds + dv = vdv + dv {·: ddst = v}

as dt at as at
.
If the flow ts steady,
av
at =0 _0J
vdv Z Jdz
a=-
s as
Substituting the value of as in equation (6.2) and simplify-
ing the equation, we get pgdAds
- asdp dV
dsdA - pg dAds cos 0 = pdAds x ds
Fig. 6.1
(a) (b)
Forces on a fluid element.
dp vdv
Dividing by pdsdA, - - - g cos 0 = -
pds ds
dp dV
or :I + g COS 0+ V -;-- =0
pos os
But from Fig. 6.1 (b), we have cos 0 = dz

ds
1 dp dz vdv dp
- - + g - + - = 0 or - + gdz + vdv =0
pds ds ds p
or dp + gdz + vdv = 0 ... (6.3)
p
Equation (6.3) is known as Euler's equation of motion.
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Dynamics of Fluid Flow 261 I

• 6.4 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION FROM EULER'S EQUATION
Bernoulli's equation is obtained by integrating the Euler's equation of motion (6.3) as
fdpp + fgdz + fvdv = constant

If flow is incompressible, p is constant and
p v2
- + gz + - = constant
p 2
p v2
or -+z+- = constant
pg 2g
p v2
or - +- + z = constant ... (6.4)
pg 2g
Equation (6.4) is a Bernoulli's equation in which
_E_ = pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head.

pg
v2!2g = kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head.
z = potential energy per unit weight or potential head.
• 6.S ASSUMPTIONS
The following are the assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoulli's equation:
(i) The fluid is ideal, i.e., viscosity is zero (ii) The flow is steady
(iii) The flow is incompressible (iv) The flow is irrotational.
Problem 6.1 Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 cm diameter under a pressure of 29.43 N/cm 2
(gauge) and with mean velocity of 2.0 mis. Find the total head or total energy per unit weight of the
water at a cross-section, which is 5 m above the datum line.
Solution. Given :
Diameter of pipe = 5 cm= 0.5m
Pressure, p = 29.43 N/cm 2 = 29.43 x 104 N/m 2
Velocity, V = 2.0 mfs
Datum head, z= 5m
Total head = pressure head + kinetic head + datum head
Pressure head = p = 29.43 X 10 4 = 30 m

{ p for water = 1000 :~ }
pg 1000 x9.81
v2 2x2
Kinetic head = = - - - = 0.204m
2g 2 X 9.81
p v2
Total head = - + - + z = 30 + 0.204 + 5 = 35.204 m. Ans.
pg 2g
Problem 6.2 A pipe, through which water is flowing, is having diameters, 20 cm and 10 cm at the
cross-sections I and 2 respectively. The velocity of water at section I is given 4.0 mis. Find the velocity
head at sections I and 2 and also rate of discharge.
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Solution. Given :
D 1 = 20 cm= 0.2 m G)
1t 21t 2 2
Area, A 1 = - D 1 = - (.2) = 0.0314 m
4 4
D 2 = 10 cm
V 1 = 4.0 mis
D 2 = 0.1 m
A2 = -1t (.1)
2
= .00785 m2
4 Fig. 6.2
( i) Velocity head at section 1
V. 2 4.0 x4.0
= - 1- = - - - = 0.815 m. Ans.
2g 2 x9.81
(ii) Velocity head at section 2 = V/12g
To find V2, apply continuity equation at 1 and 2
A1Vj .0314
A 1 V 1 = A 2 V2 or V2 = - - = - - - x 4.0 = 16.0 mis
A2 .00785
2
. 2 = -Vz = -
. h ead at section
V e loc1ty 16.0
-x-16.0
- -- 83 .047 m. A ns.
2g 2 x9.81
(iii) Rate of discharge = A 1V 1 or A 2 V2
=0.0314 x 4.0 =0.1256 m3ls
= 125.6 litres/s. Ans. { ·: 1 m 3 = 1000 litres}
Problem 6.3 State Bernoulli's theorem for steady flow of an incompressible fluid. Derive an
expression for Bernoulli's equation from first principle and state the assumptions made for such a
derivation.
Solution. Statement of Bernoulli's Theorem. It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incom-
pressible fluid, the total energy at any point of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of
pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy or datum energy. These energies per unit weight
of the fluid are :
Pressure energy = _!!_

pg
2
. .
Kmet1c V
energy = -
2g
Datum energy = z
Thus mathematically, Bernoulli's theorem is written as
p v2
- +- + z = Constant.
pg 2g
Derivation of Bernoulli's theorem. For derivation of Bernoulli's theorem, Articles 6.3 and 6.4
should be written.
Assumptions are given in Article 6.5.
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Problem 6.4 The water is flowing through a
pipe having diameters 20 cm and JO cm at sections 1
and 2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe
is 35 litres/s. The section 1 is 6 m above datum and
section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure at sec-
tion 1 is 39.24 N/cm 2, find the intensity of pressure
at section 2.
Solution. Given :
At section 1, Di = 20 cm = 0.2 m Fig. 6.3

7t 2 2
Ai= - (.2) = .0314 m
4
Pi = 39.24 N/cm 2
= 39.24 X 104 N/m 2
Zi = 6.0 m
At section 2, D2 = 0.10 m
A2 = 47t (0.1) 2 = .00785 m2

z2 =4 m
P2 =?
Rate of flow, Q = 35 lit/s = ~ = .035 m 3/s
1000
Now Q = Ai Vi =A2 V2
Q .035
Vi = - = - - = 1.114 m/s
A1 .0314
Q .035
and V2 = - = - - = 4.456 mis
A2 .00785
Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections 1 and 2, we get
v,2 vz
.E.!_ +_I_+ Z1 = f!.J:._ + _Z_ + Z2
pg 2g pg 2g
4 2 2
_39_.2_4_x_l_0_ + _(1_.1_14_)_ + 6 _0 = __p_2_ _ + _(4_.4_5_6)_ + 4 _0
or
1000 X 9.81 2 X 9.81 1000 X 9.81 2 X 9.81
or 40 + 0.063 + 6.0 = --1!..2:_ + 1.012 + 4.0

9810
or 46.063 = --1!..2:_ + 5.012

9810
--1!..2:_ =46.063 - 5.012 =41.051

9810
p 2 = 41.051 X 9810 N/m 2
= 41.051 X4 9810 N/cm

2
=40.27 N/cm 2. Ans.
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Problem 6.5 Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300 mm and 200 mm at the bottom
and upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 24.525 Nlcm 2 and the
pressure at the upper end is 9.81 Nlcm 2. Determine the difference in datum head if the rate of flow
through pipe is 40 lit/s.
Solution. Given : D 2 = 200 mm
Section 1, Di= 300 mm= 0.3 m P2 = 9 .8 1 N/cm2
Pi = 24.525 Nlcm 2 = 24.525 x 104 Nlm 2

Section 2, D 2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
G)
p 2 = 9.81 Nlcm 2 = 9.81 x 104 Nlm 2
Rate of flow = 40 lit/s
or Q = -40- =0.04 m3Is DATUM LINE

1000
Now Ai Vi = A2 V2 = rate of flow= 0.04 Fig. 6.4
.04 .04 0.04

Vi = - = - - = - - - = 0.5658 mis
Ai ~ D2 ~(0.3)2
4 i 4
=- 0.566 mis
.04 .04 0.04
V2 = - = - - - = - - - = 1.274 mis
A2 ¾<D2)2 ¾(0.2)2
Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and (2), we get

v,2 v2
.E.!_ + _i_ + Zi = .f!J:_ + _2_ + Z2
pg 2g pg 2g
24.525 X 10 4 .566 X .566 9.81 X 10 4 (1.274) 2

or
1000 X 9.81 + 2 X 9.81 + Zi = 1000 X 9.81 + 2 X 9.81 + z2
or 25 + .32 + Zi = 10 + 1.623 + Z2
or 25.32 + Zi = 11.623 + Z2
Z2 - Zi = 25.32 - 11.623 = 13.697 = 13.70 m
Difference in datum head = z2 - Zi = 13.70 m. Ans.
Problem 6.6 The water is flowing through a taper pipe of length JOO m having diameters 600 mm
at the upper end and 300 mm at the lower end, at the rate of 50 litres/s. The pipe has a slope of 1 in 30.
Find the pressure at the lower end if the pressure at the higher level is 19.62 Nlcm 2 .
Solution. Given :
Length of pipe, L = 100 m
Dia. at the upper end, Di = 600 mm= 0.6 m
7t 2 7t 2
Area, Ai= - Di = - x (.6)
4 4
= 0.2827 m 2 {0{0
pi = pressure at upper end ~30~ -
0'2-
= 19.62 Nlcm 2 Fig. 6.5
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= 19.62 X 104 N/m 2
Dia. at lower end, D2 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
1t 2 1t 2
:. Area, A 2 = - D 2 = - (.3) = 0.07068 m
4 4
Q = rate of flow= 50 litres/s = --22.._ = 0.05 m3/s

1000
Let the datum line passes through the centre of the lower end.
T~n ½=0
1 10
As slope is 1 in 30 means z1 = - x 100 = - m
30 3
Also we know Q = A1V1 = A2V2
Q 0.05
V 1 = - = - - = 0.1768 m/sec = 0.177 mis
A .2827
Q 0.5
and V2 = - = - - = 0.7074 m/sec = 0.707 mis
A2 .07068
v;2 v2
ll+ _1_+ Z1 = f!.2:.._+ _2_+ Z2
pg 2g pg 2g
4 2 2
19.62 X 10 .177 10 P2 .707 O
or +---+- = -+--- +
1000 X 9.81 2 X 9.81 3 pg 2 X 9.81
or 20 + 0.001596 + 3.334 = f!.2:.._ + 0.0254

pg
or 23.335 - 0.0254 = P2
1000 x9.81
or Pi = 23.3 x 9810 N/m 2 = 228573 N/m 2 = 22.857 N/cm 2• Ans.
• 6.6 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION FOR REAL FLUID
The Bernoulli's equation was derived on the assumption that fluid is inviscid (non-viscous) and
therefore frictionless. But all the real fluids are viscous and hence offer resistance to flow. Thus there
are always some losses in fluid flows and hence in the application of Bernoulli's equation, these losses
have to be taken into consideration. Thus the Bernoulli's equation for real fluids between points 1 and
2 is given as
2 2
.£!_ + 2'.!_ + Z1 = f!.2:.._ + 2l_ + Z2 + hL ... (6.5)
pg 2g pg 2g
where hL is loss of energy between points 1 and 2.
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Problem 6.7 A pipe of diameter 400 mm carries water at a velocity of 25 mis. The pressures at the
points A and Bare given as 29.43 N/cm 2 and 22.563 Nlcm 2 respectively while the datum head at A and
B are 28 m and 30 m. Find the loss of head between A and B.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, D = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Velocity, V= 25 mis
At point A,
ZA = 28 m
VA= v = 25 mis
P v2
Total energy at A, EA= ~+~+zA
pg 2g
Fig. 6.6
29.43 X 10 4 25 2
= +---+28
1000 X 9.81 2 X 9.81
= 30 + 31.85 + 28 = 89.85 m
At point B, Ps = 22.563 Nlcm 2 = 22.563 x 104 Nlm 2
Zs= 30 m
Vs= v = VA= 25 mis
P v2
Total energy at B, Es= ___!!_+_!!_+Zs
pg 2g
22.563 X 10 4 25 2
= + - - - + 30 = 23 + 31.85 + 30 = 84.85 m
1000 X 9.81 2 X 9.81
Loss of energy =EA - Es= 89.85 - 84.85 = 5.0 m. Ans.
Problem 6.8 A conical tube of length 2.0 m is fixed vertically with its smaller end upwards. The
velocity of flow at the smaller end is 5 mis while at the lower end it is 2 mis. The pressure head at the
smaller end is 2.5 m of liquid. The loss of head in the tube is 0·35( v1 - Vz )2 , where v 1 is the velocity at
2g
the smaller end and v2 at the lower end respectively. Determine the pressure head at the lower end.
Flow takes place in the downward direction.
Solution. Let the smaller end is represented by (1) and lower end by (2)
Given:
Length of tube, L= 2.0 m
v 1 = 5 mis
pifpg = 2.5 m of liquid
v 2 = 2 mis
0.35(v -v
1 2 )2
Loss of head =hL = ----'----'-- '-----+----J @
2g
Fig. 6.7
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= 0.35 [5 - 2)2 = 0.35 X 9 = 0.l 6 m

2g 2x9.81
Pressure head, 12 = ?
pg
2 2
.E!_ + ~ + Z1 = l2 + ~ + Z2 + hL
pg 2g pg 2g
Let the datum line passes through section (2). Then z2 = 0, z 1 = 2.0
52 p 22
2.5+ - - - + 2.0= - 2 + - - - + 0+ 0.16
2x9.81 pg 2x9.81
2.5 + 1.27 + 2.0 = 12 + 0.203 + .16

pg
or 12 = (2.5 + 1.27 + 2.0) - (.203 + .16)

pg
= 5.77 - .363 = 5.407 m of fluid. Ans.
Problem 6.9 A pipeline carrying oil of specific gravity 0.87, changes in diameter from 200 mm
diameter at a position A to 500 mm diameter at a position B which is 4 metres at a higher level. If the
pressures at A and B are 9.8/ Nlcm 2 and 5.886 Nlcm 2 respectively and the discharge is 200 litres/s
determine the loss of head and direction of flow.
Solution. Discharge, Q = 200 lit/s = 0.2 m 3/s
Sp. gr. of oil = 0.87
kg
p for oil = .871000 = 870 - 3
X
m
Given : At section A, DA = 200 mm= 0.2 m
T
4m
Area,
7t 2
AA= - (DA) = - (.2)
4
7t
4
2
_ __l
DATUM LINE
= 0.0314 m 2
PA= 9.81 N/cm 2
= 9.81 X 104 N/m 2
If datum line is passing through A, then Fig. 6.8
ZA =0
VA = JL = 0 ·2 = 6.369 mis
AA 0.0314
At section B, D 8 = 500 mm= 0.50 m
7t 27t 2 2
Area, As= - DB = - (.5) = 0.1963 m
4 4
p B = 5.886 N/cm 2 = 5.886 X 104 N/m 2
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Z 8 = 4.0 m
Q 0.2
V8 = - - = - - = 1.018 mis
Area .1963
2
Total energy at A PA VA
=EA=-+-+ZA
pg 2g
9.81 X 10 4 (6.369) 2
= - - - - + - - - + 0 = 11.49 + 2.067 = 13.557 m
870 x9.81 2 x9.81
Total energy at B =En=-+-+Zn

PB Vi
pg 2g
5.886 X 10 4 (1.018) 2
= - - - - + - - - + 4.0 = 6.896 + 0.052 + 4.0 = 10.948 m
870 X 9.81 2 X 9.81
(i) Direction of flow. As EA is more than E8 and hence flow is taking place from A to B. Ans.
(ii) Loss of head= hL = EA - E8 = 13.557 - 10.948 = 2.609 m. Ans.
• 6. 7 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION
Bernoulli's equation is applied in all problems of incompressible fluid flow where energy consid-
erations are involved. But we shall consider its application to the following measuring devices :
1. Venturimeter.
2. Orifice meter.
3. Pi tot-tube.
6. 7.1 Venturimeter. A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid
flowing through a pipe. It consists of three parts :
(i) A short converging part, (ii) Throat, and (iii) Diverging part. It is based on the Principle of
Bernoulli's equation.
Expression for rate of flow through venturimeter
Consider a venturimeter fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is flowing (say water), as
shown in Fig. 6.9.
Let di = diameter at inlet or at section (1), 1
pi = pressure at section (1) h
Vi = velocity of fluid at section (1),
a= area at section (1) = ~ di 2

4
and d 2 , p 2 , v2, a 2 are corresponding values at section (2).
Fig. 6.9 Venturimeter.
2 2
.E!_ + ~ + Zi = 12_ + ~ + Z2
pg 2g pg 2g
As pipe is horizontal, hence Zi = z2
2 2
.E!_+~ = 12.+~ Pi - P2
or
pg 2g pg 2g pg 2g 2g
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But Pt - P2 is the difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 and it is equal to h or Pt - P2 = h

M M
Substituting this value of Pt - P2 in the above equation, we get
pg
2 2
h=~-~ ... (6.6)
2g 2g
Now applying continuity equation at sections 1 and 2
a2V2
Vi=--
al
Substituting this value of v1 in equation (6.6)
h = _v2_2
2g
__(_a:_~_2
2g
_)_' = vi
2g
[i- al] = vi [af -al]
af 2g af
or
Discharge,
=a2 al X .J2gh = a1a2 X .J2gh ... (6.7)

✓af - al ✓af - ai
Equation (6.7) gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is called, theoretical discharge. Actual
discharge will be less than theoretical discharge.
a1 a2 r,,::;:
Qact = Cdx ✓ X v2gh ... (6.8)
a21 - a22
where Cd= Co-efficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1.
Value of 'h' given by differential U-tube manometer
Case I. Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the liquid flowing
through the pipe. Let
Sh= Sp. gravity of the heavier liquid
S0 =Sp.gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe
x = Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube
Then ... (6.9)
Case II. If the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing
through the pipe, the value of h is given by
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... (6.10)
where S1 = Sp. gr. of lighter liquid in U-tube

S0 = Sp. gr. of fluid flowing through pipe
x = Difference of the lighter liquid columns in U-tube.
Case III. Inclined Venturimeter with Differential U-tube manometer. The above two cases are
given for a horizontal venturimeter. This case is related to inclined venturimeter having differential
U-tube manometer. Let the differential manometer contains heavier liquid then his given as
h=(:~+z )-(:;+z =x [~:-1]

1 2)
... (6.11)
Case IV. Similarly, for inclined venturimeter in which differential manometer contains a liquid
which is lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe, the value of h is given as
h = (:~ + Z1 ) - ( : ; + Z2) =X [1- ::] ... (6.12)
Problem 6.10 A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30 cm and 15 cm respec-
tively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential manometer connected to the
inlet and the throat is 20 cm of mercury. Determine the rate offlow. Take Cd= 0.98.
Solution. Given :
Dia. at inlet, d 1 = 30 cm
1t21t 2 2
Area at inlet, a1 = - d 1 = - (30) = 706.85 cm
4 4
Dia. at throat, d2 = 15 cm
a2 =-1t x 152 = 176.7 cm 2

4
Cd= 0.98
Reading of differential manometer = x = 20 cm of mercury.
Difference of pressure head is given by (6.9)
or h=x [ !: - 1]
where Sh= Sp. gravity of mercury= 13.6, S0 =Sp.gravity of water= 1
[13.6 1] = 20 x 12.6 cm= 252.0 cm of water.

= 20 - 1- -
The discharge through venturimeter is given by eqn. (6.8)
Q = Cd a1a2 X .J2gh
-Ja~ -a;
= 0.98 X 706.85 X 176.7 X .J2 X 9.81 X 252
✓(706.85) -(176.7)
2 2
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86067593.36 86067593.36
=-;:========-----
..J499636.9 - 31222.9 684.4
= 125756 cm 3/s = 125756 lit/s = 125.756 lit/s. Ans.

1000
Problem 6.11 An oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is flowing through a venturimeter having inlet diameter 20 cm
and throat diameter 10 cm. The oil-mercury differential manometer shows a reading of 25 cm. Calcu-
late the discharge of oil through the horizontal venturimeter. Take Cd= 0.98.
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of oil,
Sp. gr. of mercury,
Reading of differential manometer, x = 25 cm
:. Difference of pressure head, h = x [ !: -1]
= 25 [ 13·6 -1] cm of oil= 25 [17 - l] = 400 cm of oil.

0.8
1t21t 2 2
a 1 = - d 1 = - x 20 = 314.16 cm
4 4
d2 = 10 cm
1t 2
a2 = - x 10 = 78.54 cm2
4
Cd= 0.98
The discharge Q is given by equation (6.8)
or a,a2 X ..J2gh
Q = Cd f 2 2
..;a, - a2
= 0.98 X 314.1 6 X 7854 X _,J2 X 981 X 400

.J(314.16) 2 - (78.54 )2
= 21421375.68 = 21421375.68 cm3/s

..J98696 - 6168 304
= 70465 cm3/s = 70.465 litres/s. Ans.
Problem 6.12 A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 20 cm and throat diameter 10 cm is
used to measure the flow of oil of sp. gr. 0.8. The discharge of oil through venturimeter is 60 litres/s.
Find the reading of the oil-mercury differential manometer. Take Cd= 0.98.
Solution. Given : d 1 = 20 cm
1t 2
a 1 = - 20 = 314.16 cm2
4
d2 = 10 cm
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1t 2 2
a2 = - x 10 = 78.54 cm
4
Cd= 0.98
Q = 60 litres/s = 60 x 1000 cm 3/s
a a r,:;-;:;:
Using the equation (6.8), Q=Cd i 2 xv2gh
.Ja2I - a22
or 60 X 1000 = 9.81 X 314.1 6 X 78·54 X ...j2 X 981 X h = 1071068 ·78 ✓h

✓(314.16) 2 -(78.54) 2 304
or ✓h = 304x60000 = 17 _029
1071068.78
h = (17.029)2 = 289.98 cm of oil
But h= x[ ~: -1]
where Sh= Sp. gr. of mercury = 13.6
S0 = Sp. gr. of oil = 0.8
x = Reading of manometer
289.98 = X [13.0.86 -1] = 16x

x = 289 ·98 = 18.12 cm.
16
Reading of oil-mercury differential manometer= 18.12 cm. Ans.
Problem 6.13 A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 20 cm and throat diameter 10 cm is
used to measure the flow of water. The pressure at inlet is 17.658 N/cm 2 and the vacuum pressure at
the throat is 30 cm of mercury. Find the discharge of water through venturimeter. Take Cd= 0.98.
Solution. Given :
1t 2 2
a1 = - x (20) = 314.16 cm
4
1t 2 2
a2 = - x 10 = 78.74 cm
4
p 1 = 17.658 N/cm 2 = 17.658 x 104 N/m 2
p for water = 1000 kg and:. l!.l_= 17 ·658 x 104 = 18mofwater

m3 pg 9.81 X 1000
l!..J:... = - 30 cm of mercury
pg
= - 0.30 m of mercury = - 0.30 x 13.6 = - 4.08 m of water
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Differential head = h = l!l_ - J!2 = 18 - (- 4.08)

pg pg
= 18 + 4.08 = 22.08 m of water= 2208 cm of water
The discharge Q is given by equation (6.8)
a a r,,::;:
Q = Cd i 2 x v2gh
.Ja2I - a22
= 0.98 X 314 .1 6 X 78·54 X .J2 X 981 X 2208

✓(314.16) 2 -(78.74) 2
= 50328837·21 x 165555 cm 3/s = 165.555 lit/s. Ans.

304
Problem 6.14 The inlet and throat diameters of a horizontal venturimeter are 30 cm and
10 cm respectively. The liquid flowing through the meter is water. The pressure intensity at inlet is
13.734 N/cm 2 while the vacuum pressure head at the throat is 37 cm of mercury. Find the rate offlow.
Assume that 4% of the differential head is lost between the inlet and throat. Find also the value of Cd
for the venturimeter.
Solution. Given :
a1 = 41t (30) 2 =706.85 cm2

Dia. at throat, d 2 = 10 cm
a2 = 41t (10) 2 =78.54 cm 2

Pressure, p 1 = 13.734 N/cm 2 = 13.734 x 104 N/m 2
13.734 X 10 4 14
-Pt = - f
Pressure head, ---- = mo water
pg 1000 X 9.81
l!2 = - 37 cm of mercury
pg
-37 X 13.6
= - - - - m of water = - 5.032 m of water
100
Differential head, h = p 1/pg - Pilpg
= 14.0 - (- 5.032) = 14.0 + 5.032
= 19.032 m of water= 1903.2 cm
4
Head lost, h1= 4% of h = 100 x 19.032 = 0.7613 m
19.032 - .7613 = 0.98

19.032
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Discharge
_ 0.98 X 706.85 X 78.54 X ,.j2 X 981 X 1903.2

- ✓(706.85) 2 - (78.54) 2
= 105132247·8 =149692.8 cm3/s =0.14969 m 3/s. Ans.

,.j499636.9 - 6168
PROBLEMS ON INCLINED VENTURIMETER
Problem 6.15 A 30 cm x 15 cm venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying water, flowing

in the upward direction. A differential mercury manometer connected to the inlet and throat gives a
reading of 20 cm. Find the discharge. Take Cd = 0.98.
Solution. Given :
a1 = -1t (30)
2
=706.85 cm2
4
a2 = 41t (15) 2 = 176.7 cm 2
h =x [ ___!!:._
s - 1] =20 [13.6
-- - 1.0 ] =20 x 12.6 =252.0 cm of water
so 1.0
Cd= 0.98
aa r,,::;:
Discharge, Q = Cd i 2 x v2gh
.Ja2I - a22
= 0.98 X 706.85 X 176.7 X ,.j2 X 981 X 252

✓(706.85) 2 - (176.7) 2
86067593.36 86067593.36
=---;:::========-----
,.j499636.3 - 31222.9 684.4
= 125756 cm3/s = 125.756 lit/s. Ans.
Problem 6.16 A 20 cm x 10 cm venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying oil of sp. gr. 0.8,
the flow of oil is in upward direction. The difference of levels between the throat and inlet section is
50 cm. The oil mercury differential manometer gives a reading of 30 cm of mercury. Find the
discharge of oil. Neglect losses.
Solution. Dia. at inlet, d 1 = 20 cm
a1 = -1t (20)
2
= 314.16 cm 2
4
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1t 2 2
a 2 = - (10) = 78.54 cm
4
Sp. gr. of oil, so=0.8
Sp. gr. of mercury, sg= 13.6
Differential manometer reading, x = 30 cm
= 30 - [13.0.86 - 1] = 30 [17 - l] = 30 x 16 = 480 cm of otl.

Cd= 1.0
The discharge, Q = Cd a,a2 x .J2gh

✓a~ - a;
1.0 X 314.16 X 78.54

= --;=======x.J2x981x480 cm 3/s
✓(314.16) 2 - (78.54 )2
= 23932630 ·7 = 78725.75 cm 3/s = 78.725 litres/s. Ans.

304
Problem 6.17 In a vertical pipe conveying oil of specific gravity 0.8, two pressure gauges have
been installed at A and B where the diameters are 16 cm and 8 cm respectively. A is 2 metres above B.
The pressure gauge readings have shown that the pressure at B is greater than at A by 0.981 Nlcm 2•
Neglecting all losses, calculate the flow rate. If the gauges at A and Bare replaced by tubes filled with
the same liquid and connected to a U-tube containing mercury, calculate the difference of level of
mercury in the two limbs of the U-tube.
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of oil, so=0.8
kg
Density, p = 0.8 X 1000 = 800 - 3 16 cm
m
Dia. at A, DA=l6cm=0.16m
® I----+-----!
1t 2 2
Area at A, A1 = -(.16) = 0.0201 m
4
Dia. at B, D 8 = 8 cm= 0.08 m
Area at B, A2 = ~ (.08)2 = 0.005026 m 2
(i) Difference of pressures, p 8 - PA = 0.981 N/cm 2 ®

= 0.981 X 104 N/m 2 = 98 l~N
m
Difference of pressure head Fig. 6.9 (a)
Pa - PA = _9_8_10_ = 12
. 5 p = 800 kg/m 3)
pg 800 X 9.81
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Applying Bernoulli's theorem at A and B and taking the reference line passing through section B,
we get
2 2
or ~_Pa -ZA-ZB= Va - VA
pg Pg 2g 2g
or ( PA - PB )
pg
+2_0 _ 0.0 = Vi2g _ V;2g
v2 v2
or - 1.25 + 2.0 = ---1!.... - ~
2g 2g
2 2
0.75 = Va - VA ... (i)
2g 2g
Now applying continuity equation at A and B, we get
VA xA 1 = VBxA 2
7t 2
VAX A I VA X - (.16)
4
or VB=~-~=---'---- = 4VA
A2 ~(.08)2
4
Substituting the value of VB in equation (i), we get
0 _75 = 16V] _ V] = 15V]

2g 2g 2g
VA- ✓- _
0.75-X-2 X-9.81
- -_ 0 .99 ms
/
15
Rate of flow, Q = VA XA1 Fig . 6.9 (b)
=0.99 x 0.0201 = 0.01989 m 3/s. Ans.
(ii) Difference of level of mercury in the U-tube.
Let h = Difference of mercury level.
Then
where h= (~+zA)-(l!.!L+z
pg pg
8) = PA-Pa
pg
+ZA-ZB
= - 1.25 + 2.0 - 0
pB pA = 1.25)
= 0.75
(-.- -
pg
0.75 = X
13.6
[- - -1
]
=XX 16
0.8
0.75
x = -- = 0.04687 m = 4.687 cm. Ans.
16
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Problem 6.18 Find the discharge of water flowing through a pipe 30 cm diameter placed in an
inclined position where a venturimeter is inserted, having a throat diameter of 15 cm. The difference of
pressure between the main and throat is measured by a liquid of sp. gr. 0.6 in an inverted U-tube which
gives a reading of 30 cm. The loss of head between the main and throat is 0.2 times the kinetic head of
the pipe.
Solution. Dia. at inlet, d 1 = 30 cm
a1 = -n (30)
2
= 706.85 cm 2
4
Dia. at throat, d 2 = 15 cm
a2 = -n (15)
2
= 176.7 cm 2
4
Reading of differential manometer, x = 30 cm
Difference of pressure head, his given by
(:~ +z1)-(;; +z 2) =h
Also
where S1 = 0.6 and S0 = 1.0
= 30 [1- 0 ·6 ] = 30 x .4 = 12.0 cm of water

LO
Fig. 6.10
2
Loss of head, hL = 0.2 x kinetic head of pipe= 0.2 x ~
2g
Now applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and (2), we get
2 2
.pgE.!_+Z1 +~
2g
= .!!.J:..+Z2 +~+hL
pg 2g
or (.E.!_+z1)-(.!!.J:..+z2)+~-v;
pg pg 2g 2g
=hL
But (:~ + z 1) - ( ; ; + z2 ) = h = 12.0 cm of water

and hL = 0.2 X v/!2g
2 2 2
12.0 + ~ - ~ = 0.2 X ~
2g 2g 2g
2 2
12.0 + 0.8 ~-~ = 0 ... (1)
2g 2g
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Applying continuity equation at sections (1) and (2), we get
a1v1=a2v2
~(15) 2 v2
=~
~(30) 2 4
4
Substituting this value of v 1 in equation (1), we get
12.0 + - -( )2- - 2=0

0.8 V 2 V2
or 12.0 + -
2[
v2 0.8
- -1
]= 0
2g 4 2g 2g 16
2 2
or ~ [.05 -1] =- 12.0 or 0·95 v2 = 12.0
2g 2g
2X 981 X 12.0
• - - - - - = 157.4 cm/s
0.95
Discharge = a2V2
= 176.7 x
157.4 cm 3/s = 27800 cm 3/s = 27.8 litres/s. Ans.
Problem 6.19 A 30 cm x 15 cm venturimeter is provided in a vertical pipe line carrying oil of
specific gravity 0.9, the flow being upwards. The difference in elevation of the throat section and
entrance section of the venturimeter is 30 cm. The differential U-tube mercury manometer shows a
gauge deflection of 25 cm. Calculate :
(i) the discharge of oil, and
(ii) the pressure difference between the entrance section and the throat section. Take the
co-efficient of discharge as 0.98 and specific gravity of mercury as 13.6.
Solution. Given :
Area, a1 = -1t (30)

2
= 706.85 cm 2
4
Area, a2 = 41t (15) 2 = 176.7 cm 2

Let section (1) represents inlet and section (2) represents throat. Then z2 - z1 = 30 cm
Sp. gr. of oil, S0 = 0.9
Sp. gr. of mercury, Sg = 13.6
Reading of diff. manometer, x = 25 cm
The differential head, his given by
h= (:~ +z1)-(;; +z2)

=x [ __!_
so
l
s -1 = 25 [13.6
- - -1 J = 352.77 cm of 011
0.9
.
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a a r,;;-;:;:
(i) The discharge, Q of oil =Cd i 2 xv2gh
.Ja2I - a22
0.98 X 706.85 X 176.7

= ----;======= .J2x 981 x352.77
✓(706.85) 2 - (176.7) 2
= 101832219.9 = 148790.5 cm3/s

684.4
= 148. 79 litres/s. Ans.
(ii) Pressure difference between entrance and throat section
h = (:~ + Z1 ) - ( : ; + Z2) = 352.77 T

30
l_
or ( .f!J_ -
pg
fr)
pg
+ Z1 - Z2 = 352.77
But z2 -z 1 = 30 cm
( .!!J...
pg pg
fr) -
- 30 = 352. 77
ttt
Fig. 6.11
fr =
l!.!_ _
pg pg
352.77 + 30 = 382.77 cm of oil = 3.8277 m of oil. Ans.
or (p 1 - p 2) = 3.8277 X pg
But density of oil = Sp. gr. of oil x 1000 kg/m 3
= 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/cm 3
N
(pl - P2) = 3.8277 X 900 X 9.81 - 2
m
33795 2 2
=- -4-
N/cm = 3.3795 N/cm . Ans.
10
Problem 6.20 Crude oil of specific gravity 0.85 flows upwards at a volume rate of flow of 60 litre
per second through a vertical venturimeter with an inlet diameter of 200 mm and a throat diameter of
JOO mm. The co-efficient of discharge of the venturimeter is 0.98. The vertical distance between the
pressure tappings is 300 mm.
(i) If two pressure gauges are connected at the tappings such that they are positioned at the levels
of their corresponding tapping points, determine the difference of readings in N/cm 2 of the two pres-
sure gauges.
(ii) If a mercury differential manometer is connected, in place of pressure gauges, to the tappings
such that the connecting tube upto mercury are filled with oil, determine the difference in the level of
the mercury column.
Solution. Given :
Specific gravity of oil, so= 0.85
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Density, p = 0.85 X 1000 = 850 kg/m 3
Discharge, Q = 60 litre/s
= ~ =0.06 m 3/s
1000
Inlet dia, di = 200 mm= 0.2 m
:. Area, a1 =4n (.2) 2 =0.0314 m 2

Throat dia., d 2 = 100 mm = 0.1 m
a2 =
n 2 2
:. Area, 4 (0.1) = 0.00785 m
Value of Cd = 0.98
Let section (1) represents inlet and section (2)
represents throat. Then
z2 - Zi = 300 mm= 0.3 m
(i) Difference of readings in N/cm 2 of the two pressure gauges
The discharge Q is given by,
a a r,::,::;:
Q = Cd z x v2gh
i Fig. 6.11 (a)
.Jazi - a22
or 0.0 6 = 0.98 X 0.0314 X 0.00785 X .J2 X 9_81 X h

.Jo.0314 2 - 0.00785 2
= 0.98 X 0.00024649 X 4 .4 29 ./ii,

0.0304
0.06 X 0.0304
./ii, =- - - - - - - - = 1.705
0.98 X 0.00024649 X 4.429
h = 1. 705 2 =2.908 m
But for a vertical venturimeter, h = (:~ + Zi ) - ( : ; + z2 )
2.908 = (.!!.!_
pg
+ )-(fr+
Zi
pg
Z2) = (.!!.!_
pg
- fr) +
pg
Zi - Z2
Pi - Pz =2.908 + z2 - Zi = 2.908 + 0.3

pg
= 3.208 m of oil
Pi - p 2 = pg X 3.208
= 850 X 9.81 X 3.208 N/m2 = 850 X 9.8~ X 3.208 N/cm2

10
= 2.675 N/cm 2 • Ans.
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(ii) Difference in the levels of mercury columns (i.e., x)
The value of his given by, h = x [ ;: - 1]
2.908 = x -
0.85
-[13.6 1] = x [16 - l] = 15 x
2·908
x=- - = 0 . 1938 m = 19.38 cm of oil.
. Ans.
15
Problem 6.21 In a JOO mm diameter horizontal pipe a venturimeter of 0.5 contraction ratio has
been fixed. The head of water on the metre when there is no flow is 3 m (gauge). Find the rate offlow
for which the throat pressure will be 2 metres of water absolute. The co-efficient of discharge is 0.97.
Take atmospheric pressure head= 10.3 m of water.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, d 1 = 100 mm= 10 cm
1t21t 2 2
Area, a1 = - d 1 = - (10) = 78.54 cm
4 4
Dia. at throat, d2 =0.5 X di= 0.5 X 10 =5 cm
Area, a2 = -1t (5)
2
= 19.635 cm 2
4
Head of water for no flow = .f?J_ = 3 m (gauge)= 3 + 10.3 = 13.3 m (abs.)

pg
Throat pressure head = l?.1_ = 2 m of water absolute.

pg
Difference of pressure head, h = .f?J_ - l?.1_ = 13.3 - 2.0 = 11.3 m = 1130 cm

pg pg
= 0.97 x 78.54xl9.635 x.J2x981x1130

2
✓(78.54) - (19.635) 2
2227318.17 3 •
= - - - - = 29306.8 cm Is = 29.306 htres/s. Ans.
76
6. 7 .2 Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate. It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a
fluid through a pipe. It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. It also works on the same
principle as that of venturimeter. It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged
hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times
the diameter of the pipe, though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.
A differential manometer is connected at section (1), which is at a distance of about 1.5 to 2.0 times
the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate, and at section (2), which is at a distance of about half
the diameter of the orifice on the downstream side from the orifice plate.
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Let p 1 = pressure at section (1),
v 1 = velocity at section (1),
a 1 = area of pipe at section (1), and
PIPE ,;,::: ORIFICE METER
G) / ¥ @
----
DIRECTION OF FLOW
_i - DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
X
Fig. 6.12. Orifice meter.

p 2, v 2, a 2 are corresponding values at section (2). Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and
(2), we get
or ( .!!.!_ + Z1
pg
)-(f!.1_
pg
+ Z2) = v; - ~
2g 2g
But (:~ + Z1) - ( : ; + z2 ) =h = Differential head

2 2
2
h=~-~ or 2gh = v2 - v12
2g 2g
or v2 = .J2gh + v~ ... (i)

Now section (2) is at the vena-contracta and a 2 represents the area at the vena-contracta. If a0 is
the area of orifice then, we have
C C =~
ao
where Cc = Co-efficient of contraction
a 2 = a 0 x Cc ... (ii)
By continuity equation, we have
a 1v 1 =a 2v 2 or v1 =-az v2 = ao Cc v2 ... ( iii)

al a1
Substituting the value of v1 in equation (i), we get
a2C2v2
Vz = 2gh + o ~ z
al
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Assistant Professor
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or
.J2gh
1-(:~Jc;
V2=----;======
The discharge Q = v2 x a 2 = v2 x a0 Cc
a0 Cc.J2gh
=----;:===== ... (iv)
1-( :~ Jcf
The above expression is simplified by using
m
1-(~Jc;
1-(~Jc;
m
Substituting this value of Cc in equation (iv), we get
... (6.13)
where Cd= Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.

The co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter is much smaller than that for a venturimeter.
Problem 6.22 An orifice meter with orifice diameter JO cm is inserted in a pipe of 20 cm diameter.
The pressure gauges fitted upstream and downstream of the orifice meter gives readings of
19.62 N/cm 2 and 9.81 N/cm 2 respectively. Co-efficient of discharge for the orifice meter is given as
0.6. Find the discharge of water through pipe.
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Assistant Professor
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Solution. Given :
Dia. of orifice, d0 = 10 cm
Area, a0 = 41t (10) 2 = 78.54 cm 2

Dia. of pipe, d 1 = 20 cm
Area, a1 = -1t (20)

2
= 314.16 cm 2
4
Pi = 19.62 N/cm 2 = 19.62 x 104 N/m2
p 19.62 X 10 4
- 1 =- - - - = 20 m of water
pg 1000 X 9.81
4
Similarly
p
____1._ = -9.81
-X-10- = 10 m of water
pg 1000 X 9.81
h = Pl_ - l?.1_ = 20.0 - 10.0 = 10 m of water = 1000 cm of water

pg pg
Cd= 0.6
The discharge, Q is given by equation (6.13)
= 0.6 X 78.54 X 314.16 X ...j2 X 981 X 1000

✓(314.16) 2 -(78.54) 2
20736838.09
=- - - - - = 68213.28 cm 3Is= 68.21 htres/s. Ans.
•
304
Problem 6.23 An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15 cm is inserted in a pipe of 30 cm diameter.
The pressure difference measured by a mercury oil differential manometer on the two sides of the
orifice meter gives a reading of 50 cm of mercury. Find the rate offlow of oil of sp. gr. 0.9 when the co-
efficient of discharge of the orifice meter = 0.64.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of orifice, d0 = 15 cm
Area, a0 = -1t (15)

2
= 176.7 cm 2
4
Dia. of pipe, d 1 = 30 cm
Area, a1 = 41t (30) 2 =706.85 cm2

Sp. gr. of oil, S0 = 0.9
Reading of diff. manometer, x = 50 cm of mercury
Differential head, h =x [ Sg - 1] = 50 [ 13.6 - 1] cm of oil

so 0.9
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= =
50 x 14.11 705.5 cm of oil
Cd= 0.64
The rate of the flow, Q is given by equation (6.13)
= 0.64 X 176. 7 X 706.85 X .J2 X 981 X 705.5

✓(706.85) 2 - (176.7) 2
= 94046317·78 = 137414.25 cm 3/s = 137.414 litres/s. Ans.

684.4
6. 7 .3 Pitot-tube. It is a device used for measuring the
velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel. It is based on
the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero,
the pressure there is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic
energy into pressure energy. In its simplest form, the pitot-tube
consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles as shown in Fig. 6.13.
The lower end, which is bent through 90° is directed in the up-
stream direction as shown in Fig. 6.13. The liquid rises up in the
tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy.
The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube. Fig. G.13 Pitot-tube.
Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is just as the inlet of
the pitot-tube and point (1) is far away from the tube.
Let p 1 = intensity of pressure at point ( 1)
v 1 = velocity of flow at ( 1)
p 2 = pressure at point (2)
v2 = velocity at point (2), which is zero
H = depth of tube in the liquid
h = rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface.
Applying Bernoulli's equation at points (1) and (2), we get
2 2
l!.!_ + 2 + Z1 = .f!.1_ + ~+ Z2
pg 2g pg 2g
But z1 = z2 as points (1) and (2) are on the same line and v2 =0.
l!.!_ =pressure head at (1) = H

pg
.f!.1_ =pressure head at (2) = (h + H)

pg
Substituting these values, we get
2 2
H+ ~ = (h+ H) h =~ or v 1 = .J2gh
2g 2g
This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by
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(v1)act = Cv .J2gh
where Cv = Co-efficient of pitot-tube
Velocity at any point ... (6.14)
Velocity of flow in a pipe by pitot-tube. For finding the velocity at any point in a pipe by pitot-
tube, the following arrangements are adopted :
l. Pitot-tube along with a vertical piezometer tube as shown in Fig. 6.14.
2. Pitot-tube connected with piezometer tube as shown in Fig. 6.15.
3. Pitot-tube and vertical piezometer tube connected with a differential U-tube manometer as
shown in Fig. 6.16.
PIEZOMET ER
T UBE
-- -
Fig . 6.14 Fig . 6.15
-----------
Fig. 6.16 Fig . 6.17
4. Pitot-static tube, which consists of two circular concentric tubes one inside the other with some
annular space in between as shown in Fig. 6.17. The outlet of these two tubes are connected to the
differential manometer where the difference of pressure head 'h' is measured by knowing the
difference of the levels of the manometer liquid say x. Then h = x [ ~: - 1 l

Problem 6.24 A pitot-static tube placed in the centre of a 300 mm pipe line has one orifice pointing
upstream and other perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.80 of the central velocity.
Find the discharge through the pipe if the pressure difference between the two orifices is
60 mm of water. Take the co-efficient of pitot tube as Cv = 0.98.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Diff. of pressure head, h = 60 mm of water = .06 m of water
CV= 0.98
Mean velocity, V = 0.80 x Central velocity
Central velocity is given by equation (6.14)
= Cv .J2gh =0.98 x .J2 x 9.81 x .06 = 1.063 mis
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V = 0.80 X 1.063 = 0.8504 mis

Discharge, Q = Area of pipe x V
1t 2 - 1t 2 3
= -d x V = - (.30) x 0.8504 = 0.06 m Is. Ans.
4 4
Problem 6.25 Find the velocity of the flow of an oil through a pipe, when the difference of mercury
level in a differential U-tube manometer connected to the two tappings of the pitot-tube is JOO mm.
Take co-efficient of pitot-tube 0.98 and sp. gr. of oil = 0.8.
Solution. Given :
Diff. of mercury level, x = 100 mm= 0.1 m
Sp. gr. of oil, so= 0.8
Sp. gr. of mercury, sg = 13.6
CV= 0.98
Diff. of pressure head, h=x [ sg - 1] = .1 [ 13·6 - 1] = 1.6 m of oil

so 0.8
Velocity of flow = Cv ..j2gh = 0.98 ..J2 x 9.81 x 1.6 = 5.49 mis. Ans.
Problem 6.26 A pitot-static tube is used to measure the velocity of water in a pipe. The stagnation
pressure head is 6 m and static pressure head is 5 m. Calculate the velocity of flow assuming the co-
efficient of tube equal to 0.98.
Solution. Given :
Stagnation pressure head, hs=6m
Static pressure head, hi= 5m
h=6-5=1m
Velocity of flow, V = Cv ..j2gh = 0.98 ..J2 x 9.81 x 1 = 4.34 mis. Ans.
Problem 6.27 A sub-marine moves horizontally in sea and has its axis 15 m below the surface of
water. A pitot-tube properly placed just in front of the sub-marine and along its axis is connected to the
two limbs of a U-tube containing mercury. The difference of mercury level is found to be 170 mm. Find
the speed of the sub-marine knowing that the sp. gr. of mercury is 13.6 and that of sea-water is 1.026
with respect of fresh water.
Solution. Given :
Diff. of mercury level, x = 170 mm = 0.17 m
Sp. gr. of mercury, sg = 13.6
Sp. gr. of sea-water, so= 1.026
sg- 1 =0.17 -13.6
h=x [-
so
l [
- - 1 =2.0834m
1.026
J
V = ..j2gh = ..j2 X 9.81 X 2.0834 = 6.393 mis
= 6393 X 60 X 60 km/hr = 23.01 km/hr. Ans.

1000
Problem 6.28 A pitot-tube is inserted in a pipe of 300 mm diameter. The static pressure in pipe is
JOO mm of mercury (vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the centre of the pipe, recorded by the
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pitot-tube is 0.981 N/cm 2• Calculate the rate of flow of water through pipe, if the mean velocity of
flow is 0.85 times the central velocity. Take Cv = 0.98.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Area, a= : d 2 = : (.3) 2 = 0.07068 m 2

Static pressure head = 100 mm of mercury (vacuum)
=- -100- x 13.6 =- 1.36 m of water

1000
Stagnation pressure = .981 N/cm2 = .981 x 104 N/m2
.981 X 10 4 = .981 X 10 4 = l m
Stagnation pressure head =
pg 1000 X 9.81
h = Stagnation pressure head - Static pressure head
= 1.0 - (- 1.36) = 1.0 + 1.36 =2.36 m of water
Velocity at centre = CV ..j2gh
=0.98 X ..j2 X 9.81 X 2.36 =6.668 mis
Mean velocity, V =0.85 X 6.668 = 5.6678 mis
Rate of flow of water = V x area of pipe
=5.6678 x 0.07068 m 3/s =0.4006 m 3/s. Ans.
• 6.8 THE MOMENTUM EQUATION
It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on the momentum principle, which states
that the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the change in momentum of flow per unit time in
that direction. The force acting on a fluid mass 'm' is given by the Newton's second law of motion,
F=mxa
where a is the acceleration acting in the same direction as force F.
dv
B~ a=-
dt
F=m dv
dt
d(mv)
= { m is constant and can be taken inside the differential}
dt
F = d(mv) ... (6.15)
dt
Equation (6.15) is known as the momentum principle.
Equation (6.15) can be written as F.dt = d(mv) ... (6.16)
which is known as the impulse-momentum equation and states that the impulse of a force F acting on a
fluid of mass min a short interval of time dt is equal to the change of momentum d(mv) in the direction
of force.
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Force exerted by a flowing fluid on a pipe bend
The impulse-momentum equation (6.16) is used to determine the resultant force exerted by a
flowing fluid on a pipe bend.
Consider two sections (1) and (2), as shown in Fig. 6.18.
Let v1 = velocity of flow at section (1 ),
p1= pressure intensity at section (1 ),
A1 = area of cross-section of pipe at section (1) and
A2 =
v2 , p 2, corresponding values of velocity, pressure and area at section (2).
Let Fx and FY be the components of the forces exerted by the flowing fluid on the bend in x-and
y-directions respectively. Then the force exerted by the bend on the fluid in the directions of x and y
will be equal to Fx and FY but in the opposite directions. Hence component of the force exerted by
bend on the fluid in the x-direction = - Fx and in the direction of y = - FY. The other external forces
acting on the fluid are p 1A 1 and P0 2 on the sections (1) and (2) respectively. Then momentum
equation in x-direction is given by
CD
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.18 Forces on bend.
Net force acting on fluid in the direction of x = Rate of change of momentum in x-direction
p 1A 1 - P0 2 cos 0 - Fx = (Mass per sec) (change of velocity)
= pQ (Final velocity in the direction of x
- Initial velocity in the direction of x)
= pQ (V2 cos 0- V1) ... (6.17)
Fx = pQ (V1 - V2 cos 0) + p 1A 1 - P0 2 cos 0 ... (6.18)
Similarly the momentum equation in y-direction gives
0 - P0 2 sin 0 - FY = pQ (V2 sin 0 - 0) ... (6.19)
FY= pQ (- V2 sin 0) - P0 2 sin 0 ... (6.20)
Now the resultant force (FR) acting on the bend
= ✓Fz
X
+ Fzy ... (6.21)
And the angle made by the resultant force with horizontal direction is given by
F
tan 0 = _Y ... (6.22)
Fx
Problem 6.29 A 45° reducing bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters at the inlet and outlet
of the bend being 600 mm and 300 mm respectively. Find the force exerted by water on the bend if the
intensity of pressure at inlet to bend is 8.829 N/cm 2 and rate of flow of water is 600 litre sis.
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Solution. Given :
Angle of bend, 0= 45°
Dia. at inlet, D 1 = 600 mm = 0.6 m G)
:. Area,
G)
Dia. at outlet, D 2 = 300 mm = 0.30 m F ig . 6.19
7t
:. Area, A2 =- (.3)
2
= 0.07068 m 2
4
Pressure at inlet, Pi = 8.829 N/cm 2 = 8.829 x 104 N/m 2
Q = 600 lit/s = 0.6 m 3/s
0.6
V1 = -AQ = - - = 2.122 mis
.2827
1
V2 = -
Q
= -0.6- = 8.488 m/s.
A2 .07068
v,2 v2
.E.!_ + _I_ + Z1 = .f!1._ + _2_ + Z2
pg 2g pg 2g
But Z1 = Z2
+Vj2
Pi 8.829 X 10 4 2.122 2 p2 8.488 2
- - +V/- or
- =P2 +---=-+---
pg 2g pg 2g 1000 X 9.81 2 X 9.81 pg 2 X 9.81
9 + .2295 = pifpg + 3.672
l!1_ = 9.2295 - 3.672 = 5.5575 m of water

pg
P2 = 5.5575 x
1000 x 9.81 N/m 2 = 5.45 x 104 N/m 2
Forces on the bend in x- and y-directions are given by equations (6.18) and (6.20) as
Fx = pQ [V1 - V2 cos 01 + p 1A 1 - p 2A 2 cos 0
= 1000 X 0.6 [2.122 - 8.488 COS 45°1
+ 8.829 X 104 X .2827 - 5.45 X 104 X .07068 X COS 45°
= - 2327.9 + 24959.6 - 2720.3 = 24959.6 - 5048.2
= 19911.4 N
and FY = pQ [- V2 sin 01 - p 2A2 sin 0
= 1000 x 0.6 [- 8.488 sin 45°1 - 5.45 x 104 x .07068 x sin 45°
= - 3601.1 - 2721.1 = - 6322.2 N
-ve sign means FY is acting in the downward direction
:. Resultant force, FR = .J F} + E;,2
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= ✓(19911.4) 2 +( -6322.2) 2 Z F x = 19911.4 N
~>~
= 20890.9 N. Ans.
The angle made by resultant force with x-axis is given by
equation (6.22) or
tan 0 = FY = 6322 ·2 = 0.3175 Fig. 6.20

Fx 19911.4
e = tan- 1 .3175 = 17° 36'. Ans.
Problem 6.30 250 litre sis of water is flowing in a pipe having a diameter of 300 mm. If the pipe is
bent by 135° (that is change from initial to final direction is 135°),find the magnitude and direction of
the resultant force on the bend. The pressure of water flowing is 39.24 N/cm 2 .
Solution. Given :
Pressure, p 1 =p 2 = 39.24 Nlcm 2 = 39.24 x 104 Nlm 2
Discharge, Q = 250 litresls = 0.25 m 3ls
Dia. of bend at inlet and outlet, D 1 =D 2 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
7t z7t 2
Area, A 1 =A2 = - D 1 =- x .3 =0.07068 m 2
4 4
Velocity of water at sections (1) and (2), V = V1 = V2 = _g_ = ~ = 3.537 mis.
Area .07068
v,, r :45•
V2 ~
(b)
(a)
- V
Fig. 6.21
Lx
Force along x-axis
= Fx = pQ[Vlx - VzxJ + P1xA1 + P2xA2
where, V 1x = initial velocity in the direction of x = 3.537 mis
V2x =final velocity in the direction of x =- V2 cos 45° =- 3.537 x .7071
Pix = pressure at section (1) in x-direction
= 39.24 Nlcm 2 = 39.24 x 104 Nlm 2
P2x = pressure at section (2) in x-direction
=P2 cos 45° = 39.24 X 104 X .7071
Fx = 1000 X .25[3.537 - (- 3.537 X .7071)] + 39.24 X 104 X .07068 + 39.24
X 104 X .07068 X .7071
= 1000 X .25[3.537 + 3.537 X .7071] + 39.24 X 104 X .07068 [l + .7071]
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= 1509.4 + 47346 = 48855.4 N
Force along y-axis
=FY= pQ[V,y - V2y] + (p,A,)y + (p02\
where V,y = initial velocity in y-direction = 0
V2Y = final velocity in y-direction = - V2 sin 45° = 3.537 x .7071
(p 1A 1)y = pressure force in y-direction = 0
(p 2A 2 )y = pressure force at (2) in y-direction
= - p 2A 2 sin 45° = - 39 .24 X 104 X .07068 X •7071
FY= 1000 X .25[0 - 3.537 X .7071] + 0 + (- 39.24 X 104 X .07068 X .7071)
=- 625.2 - 19611.1 = - 20236.3 N
-ve sign means FY is acting in the downward direction
Resultant force, FR = .J F} + F;,2
= ✓48855.4 2 + 20236.3 2
= 52880.6 N. Ans.
The direction of the resultant force FR• with the x-axis is given as
tan 0 = FY = 20236.3 = 0.4142

Fx 48855.4 Fig. 6.22
0 = 22° 30'. Ans.
Problem 6.31 A 300 mm diameter pipe carries water under a head of 20 metres with a velocity of
3.5 mis. If the axis of the pipe turns through 45°,find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
at the bend.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of bend, D = D 1 = D 2 = 300 mm= 0.30 m
7t27t 2 2
Area, A = A 1 = A 2 = - D = - x .3 = 0.07068 m
4 4
Velocity, V = V1 = V2 = 3.5 mis
0 = 45°
Discharge, Q = A x V = 0.07068 x 3.5 = 0.2475 m 3ls
Pressure head = 20 m of water or ..!!_ = 20 m of water

pg
p = 20 x pg= 20 x 1000 x 9.81 Nlm 2 = 196200 Nlm 2
Pressure intensity, p = p 1 = p 2 = 196200 Nlm 2
Now v,x = 3.5 mis, V2x = V2 cos 45° = 3.5 x .7071
v, y = 0, V2y = V2 sin 45° = 3.5 X .7071
(p 1A 1)x = p 1A 1 = 196200 x .07068, (p 1A 1)y = 0
(p2A2)x = - P0 2 cos 45°, (p0 2)y = - p 2A2 sin 45°
Force along x-axis, Fx = pQ[V,x - V2x] + (p,Ai)x + (p02)x
= 1000 X .2475[3.5 - 3.5 X .7071] + 196200 X .07068- P0 2 X COS 45°
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= 253.68 + 196200 X .07068 - 196200 X .07068 X 0.7071
= 253.68 + 13871.34 - 9808.04 = 4316.98 N
Force along y-axis, FY= pQ [Vly - V2.}'] + (p1A1)y + (p2A2)y
= 1000 X .2475[0 - 3.5 X .7071] + 0 + [- P02 sin 45°]
= - 612.44 - 196200 X .07068 X .7071
= - 612.44 - 9808 = - 10420.44 N
Resultant force FR= .JF} + Fy2 = ✓(4316.98) 2 + (10420.44) 2 = 11279 N. Ans.
Fig. 6.23
The angle made by FR with x-axis
tan 0 = FY = 10420.44 = 2.411

Fx 4316.98
0 = tan- 1 2.411 = 67° 28'. Ans.
Problem 6.32 In a 45° bend a rectangular air duct of 1 m 2 cross-sectional area is gradually
reduced to 0.5 m 2 area. Find the magnitude and direction of the force required to hold the duct in
position if the velocity offlow at the 1 m 2 section is JO mis, and pressure is 2.943 Nlcm 2• Take density
of air as 1.16 kg/m 3•
Solution. Given :
Area at section (1), A 1 = 1 m2
Area at section (2), A 2 = 0.5 m 2
Velocity at section (1), V 1 = 10 mis
Pressure at section (1), p 1 = 2.943 Nlcm 2 = 2.943 x 104 Nlm 2 = 29430 Nlm 2
Density of air, p = 1.16 kglm 3
Applying continuity equation at sections (1) and (2)

A1V1 = A2V2
V2 = Ai Vi = - 1- x 10 = 20 mis
A2 0.5
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Discharge
V 2 sin 45 °
G)
Fig . 6.24
Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and (2)
2 2
P, Vj P2 V2
-+-=-+-
pg 2g pg 2g
2.943 X 10 4 10 2 p2 20 2
or +---=-+
1.16 X 9.81 2 X 9.81 pg 2 X 9.81
p2 2.943 X 10 4 10 2 202
=----+---
pg 1.16 X 9.81 2 X 9.81 2 X 9.81
= 2586.2 + 5.0968 - 20.387 = 2570.90 m
P2 = 2570.90 X 1.16 X 9.81 = 29255.8 N
Force along x-axis, Fx = pQ [V1x - V2x] + (p 1A1)x + (pzA2\

where A,x = 10 mis, V2x = V2 cos 45° = 20 x .7071,
(p 1A 1)x = p 1A 1 = 29430 x 1 = 29430 N
and (pzA 2)x = - p 2A2 cos 45° = - 29255.8 X 0.5 X .7071
Fx = 1.16 X 10[10 - 20 X .7071] + 29430 X 1 - 29255.8 X .5 X .7071
=- 48.04 + 29430 - 10343.37 =0 - 19038.59 N
Similarly force along y-axis, FY= pQ[V1y - V2y] + (p 1A1)y + (p 2A2)y
where V 1Y = 0, V2Y = V2 sin 45° = 20 x .7071 = 14.142
(p 1A 1)y = 0 and (pzA 2)y = - p 2A2 sin 45° = - 29255.8 x .5 x .7071 = - 10343.37
FY= 1.16 X 10 [0 - 14.142] + 0 - 10343.37
=- 164.05 - 10343.37 =- 10507.42 N
Resultant force, FR= .JF} + Fy2 = ✓(19038.6) 2 + (10507.42) 2 = 21746.6 N. Ans.

The direction of FR with x-axis is given as
tan 0 = FY = 10507.4 2 = 0.5519

Fx 19038.6
0 = tan- 1 .5519 = 28° 53'. Ans.
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FR is the force exerted on bend. Hence the force required to hold the duct in position is equal to
217 46.6 N but it is acting in the opposite direction of FR· Ans.
Problem 6.33 A pipe of 300 mm diameter conveying 0.30 m3/s of water has a right angled bend in
a horizontal plane. Find the resultant force exerted on the bend if the pressure at inlet and outlet of the
bend are 24.525 Nlcm 2 and 23.544 Nlcm 2•
Solution. Given :
Dia. of bend, D = 300 mm = 0.3 m
7t 2 2
Area, A = A1 = A2 = - (.3) = 0.07068 m
4
Discharge, Q = 0.30 m 3ls
Q 0.30
Velocity, V = V1 = V2 = - = - - = 4.244 mis
A .07068
- -@
G)
Lx
Fig . 6.25
Angle of bend, 0= 90°
p 1 = 24.525 Nlcm 2 = 24.525 x 104 Nlm 2 = 245250 Nlm 2
p 2 = 23.544 Nlcm 2 = 23.544 x 104 Nlm 2 = 235440 Nlm 2
Force on bend along x-axis Fx = pQ [V1x - V2x] + (p 1A 1)x + (pzAz\
where p = 1000, V 1x = V1 = 4.244 mis, V2x = 0
(p1A1)x = P1A 1 = 245250 x .07068
(pzAz)x = 0
Fx = 1000 X 0.30 [4.244 - 0] + 245250 X .07068 + 0
= 1273.2 + 17334.3 = 18607.5 N
Force on bend along y-axis, FY= pQ [V1y - V2y] + (p 1A 1)y + (pzAz)y
where V 1Y = 0, V2Y = V2 = 4.244 mis
(p 1A 1)y = 0, (p 2A 2)y = - p 2A2 = - 235440 x .07068 = - 16640.9
FY= 1000 X 0.30[0 - 4.244] + 0 - 16640.9
= - 1273.2 - 16640.9 = - 17914.1 N
Resultant force, FR= .JF}+F;,2 = ✓(18607.5) 2 +(17914.1) 2 =-25829.3N
and tan 0 = FY= 17914 .l = 0.9627

Fx 18607.5
0 = 43° 54'. Ans.
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Problem 6.34 A nozzle of diameter 20 mm is fitted to a pipe of diameter 40 mm. Find the force
exerted by the nozzle on the water which is flowing through the pipe at the rate of 1.2 m 3/minute.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, D 1 = 40 mm= 40 x 10- 3 m = .04 m
1t 2 1t 2 2
Area, A 1 = - D 1 = - (.04) = 0.001256 m
4 4
Dia. of nozzle, D 2 = 20 mm= 0.02 m
Area, A2 = -1t (.02)

2
= .000314 m2
4
Discharge, Q = 1.2 m 3lminute = ~ m 3ls = 0.02 m 3ls

60
G)
@
I
i @
G)
Fig. 6.26
Applying continuity equation at sections (1) and (2),
A1V1 =A2V2 = Q
V1 = fl = 0 ·2 = 15.92 mis
A1 .001256
Q 0.2
and V2 = - = - - - = 63.69 mis
A2 .000314
v,2 v2
.E.!_ + _I_ + Z1 = .f!1._ + _2_ + Z2
pg 2g pg 2g
Now z1 = z2, .f!1._ = atmospheric pressure = 0

pg
Pi
-+-=-
vj2 v/
pg 2g 2g
2 2 (63.69 2 ) (15.92 2 )
.E.!_ = 5-_ - ~ = - - - - - - - = 206.749-12.917
pg 2g 2g 2x9.81 2x9.81
= 193.83 m of water
N
p 1 = 193.83 X 1000 X 9.81 - 2 = 1901472 - N2
m m
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Let the force exerted by the nozzle on water = Fx
Net force in the direction of x = rate of change of momentum in the direction of x
P1A1 - P02 + Fx = pQ(V2 - V1)
where p 2 = atmospheric pressure = 0 and p = 1000
:. 1901472 X .001256 - 0 + Fx = 1000 x 0.02(63.69 - 15.92) or 2388.24 + Fx = 916.15
Fx = - 2388.24 + 916.15 = - 1472.09. Ans.
-ve sign indicates that the force exerted by the nozzle on water is acting from right to left.
Problem 6.35 The diameter of a pipe gradually reduces from 1 m to 0. 7 m as shown in Fig. 6.27.
The pressure intensity at the centre-line of 1 m section 7.848 kN/m 2 and rate of flow of water through
the pipe is 600 litres/s. Find the intensity of pressure at the centre-line of0.7 m section. Also determine
the force exerted by flowing water on transition of the pipe.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe at section 1, D1 = 1 m
7t 2 2
Area, A 1 = - (1) = 0.7854 m
4
G)
I
G) 0
Fig. 6.27
Dia. of pipe at section 2, D 2 =0.7m
7t 2 2
Area, A 2 = - (0.7) = 0.3848 m
4
Pressure at section 1, p 1 = 7.848 kNlm 2 = 7848 Nlm 2
Discharge, Q = 600 litresls = 600 = 0.6 m 3ls

1000
Applying continuity equation,
Ai Vi =A2 V2 = Q
Q 0.6
V1 = - = - - = 0.764 mis
A2 0.7854
Q0.6
V2 = -= - - = 1.55 mis
A2 .3854
Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and (2),
Pi Vj2
-+-=-+-
Pz V/
{ ·: pipe is horizontal,
pg 2g pg 2g
7848 ( .764 )2 p (l.55) 2

or - - - - + ---'-- = - 2 + - - -
1000 X 9.81 2 X 9.81 pg 2 X 9.81
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.f!..1_ = 0.8 + (.764)2 - (1.55)2

pg 2x9.81 2x9.81
= 0.8 + 0.0297 - 0.122 = 0.7077 m of water
P2 = 0.7077 X 9.81 X 1000
= 6942.54 N/m 2 or 6.942 kN/m 2• Ans.
Let Fx = the force exerted by pipe transition on the flowing water in the direction of flow
Then net force in the direction of flow = rate of change of momentum in the direction of flow
or PiAi - P-iA-2 + Fx = P<V2 - Vi)
7848 X .7854 - 6942.54 X .3848 + Fx = 1000 X 0.6[1.55 - .764]
or 6163.8 - 2671.5 + Fx = 471.56
Fx = 471.56 - 6163.8 + 2671.5 = - 3020.74 N
The force exerted by water on pipe transition
= - Fx = - (- 3020.74) = 3020.74 N. Ans.
• 6.9 MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION
Moment of momentum equation is derived from moment of momentum principle which states that
the resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal to the rate of change of moment of momentum.
Let Vi= velocity of fluid at section 1,
ri = radius of curvature at section 1,
Q = rate of flow of fluid,
p = density of fluid,
and V2 and r2 = velocity and radius of curvature at section 2
Momentum of fluid at section 1 = mass x velocity= pQ x Vils
Moment of momentum per second at section 1,
= pQ x Vix ri
Similarly moment of momentum per second of fluid at section 2
= pQ x V2 x r2
Rate of change of moment of momentum
= pQV2r2 - pQViri = pQ[V2r2 - Viril
According to moment of momentum principle
Resultant torque = rate of change of moment of momentum
or T = pQ[V2r2 - Viril ... (6.23)
Equation (6.23) is known as moment of momentum equation. This equation is applied:
1. For analysis of flow problems in turbines and centrifugal pumps.
2. For finding torque exerted by water on sprinkler.
Problem 6.36 A lawn sprinkler with two nozzles of diameter 4 mm each is connected across a tap
of water as shown in Fig. 6.28. The nozzles are at a distance of 30 cm and 20 cm from the centre of the
tap. The rate offlow of water through tap is 120 cm 3/s. The nozzles discharge water in the downward
direction. Determine the angular speed at which the sprinkler will rotate free.
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Solution. Given : l-20cm---!-30cm--J
Dia. of nozzles A and B, -16-
D =DA= DB= 4 mm= .004 m
Area, A = 1t
(.004) 2 = .00001256 m 2
4 Fig. 6.28
Discharge Q = 120 cm 3ls
Assuming the discharge to be equally divided between the two nozzles, we have
Q 120 3 -6 3
QA = QB = 2 = 2 = 60 cm Is = 60 x 10 m Is
Velocity of water at the outlet of each nozzle,
V - V - QA - 60 X 10-6 4 777 ml
A - B - A - .00001256 . s.
The jet of water coming out from nozzles A and Bis having velocity 4.777 mis. These jets of water
will exert force in the opposite direction, i.e., force exerted by the jets will be in the upward direction.
The torque exerted will also be in the opposite direction. Hence torque at B will be in the anti-clockwise
direction and at A in the clockwise direction. But torque at B is more than the torque at A and hence
sprinkle, if free, will rotate in the anti-clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 6.28.
Let ro = angular velocity of the sprinkler.
Then absolute velocity of water at A,
Vi = VA+ ro x rA
where rA = distance of nozzle A from the centre of tap
= 20 cm = 0.2 m {ro x rA = tangential velocity due to rotation}
Vi = (4.777 + ro X 0.2) mis
Here ro x rA is added to VA as VA and tangential velocity due to rotation (ro x rA) are in the same
direction as shown in Fig. 6.28.
Similarly, absolute velocity of water at B,
V 2 = VB - tangential velocity due to rotation
= 4.777 - ro x rB {where rB = 30 cm= 0.3 m}
= (4.777 - 00 X 0.3)
Now applying equation (6.23), we get
T = pQ[V2r2 - Viril I Here r2 = rB, ri = rA
= pQA[V2rB - VirA] Q = QA= QB
= 1000 x 60 x 10- [(4.777 x 0.3 ro) x .3 - (4.777 + 0.2 ro) x .2]
6
The moment of momentum of the fluid entering sprinkler is given zero and also there is no external
torque applied on the sprinkler. Hence resultant external torque is zero, i.e., T = 0
1000 x 60 x 10-6 [(4.777 - 0.3 ro) x .3 - (4.777 + 0.2 ro) x .2] = 0
or (4.777 - 0.3 ro) x 0.3 - (4.777 + 0.2 ro) x .2 = 0
or 4.777 X .3 - .09 0)- 4.777 X .2 - .04 0) = 0
or 0.1 X 4.777 = (.09 + .04)00 = .13 0)
.4777
ro = - - = 3.6746 rad/s. Ans.
0.13
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Problem 6.37 A lawn sprinkler shown in Fig. 6.29 has 0.8 cm diameter nozzle at the end of a
rotating arm and discharges water at the rate of JO mis velocity. Determine the torque required to hold
the rotating arm stationary. Also determine the constant speed of rotation of the arm, if free to
rotate.
Solution. Dia. of each nozzle = 0.8 cm = .008 m 20 25 cm
f10 m/sec
I" cm .,I• •1l1A
Area of each nozzle = ~ (.008) 2 = .00005026 m2 <Q ..
Velocity of flow at each nozzle = ~
m/s. I ls w
Discharge through each nozzle, I
Q = Area x Velocity ~ 10 m/sec
Fig. 6.29
= .00005026 x 10 = .0005026 m 3/s
Torque exerted by water coming through nozzle A on the sprinkler = moment of momentum of
water through A
= rA x p x Q x VA= 0.25 x 1000 x .0005026 x 10 clockwise
Torque exerted by water coming through nozzle B on the sprinkler
= rB x p x Q x VB= 0.20 x 1000 x .0005026 x 10 clockwise
Total torque exerted by water on sprinkler
= .25 X 1000 X .0005026 X 10 + .20 X 1000 X .0005026 X 10
= 1.2565 + 1.0052 = 2.26 Nm
Torque required to hold the rotating arm stationary = Torque exerted by water on sprinkler
= 2.26 Nm. Ans.
Speed of rotation of arm, if free to rotate
Let ro = speed of rotation of the sprinkler
The absolute velocity of flow of water at the nozzles A and B are
Vi = 10.0 - 0.25 X ro and V2 = 10.0 - 0.20 X ro
Torque exerted by water coming out at A, on sprinkler
= rA x p x Q x Vi = 0.25 x 1000 x .0005026 x (10 - 0.25 ro)
= 0.12565 (10 - 0.25 ro)
Torque exerted by water coming out at B, on sprinkler
= rB x p x Q x V2 = 0.20 x 1000 x .0005026 x (10.0 - 0.2 ro)
= 0.10052 (10.0 - 0.2 ro)
:. Total torque exerted by water= 0.12565 (10.0 - 0.25 ro) + 0.10052 (10.0 - 0.2 ro)
Since moment of momentum of the flow entering is zero and no external torque is applied on
sprinkler, so the resultant torque on the sprinkler must be zero.
0.12565 (10.0 - 0.25 ro) + 0.10052(10.0 - 0.2 ro) = 0
1.2565 - 0.0314 ro + 1.0052 - 0.0201 ro = 0
1.2565 + 1.0052 = ro (0.0314 + 0.0201)
2.2617 = 0.0515 ro
2.2617
ro = --- = 43.9 rad/s. Ans.
0.0515
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and N = 60 X = _6O_X_4_3._9
(l)
= 4 19 . 2 r.p.m. Ans.
21t 21t
• 6.1 O FREE LIQUID JETS
Free liquid jet is defined as the jet of water coming out from the nozzle in atmosphere. The path
travelled by the free jet is parabolic.
Consider a jet coming from the nozzle as shown in Fig. 6.30. Let the jet at A, makes an angle 0 with
the horizontal direction. If U is the velocity of jet of water, then the horizontal component and vertical
component of this velocity at A are U cos 0 and U sin 0.
Consider another point P(x, y) on the centre line of the jet. The co-ordinates of P from A are x and y.
Let the velocity of jet at Pin the x- and y-directions are u and v. Let a liquid particle takes time 't' to reach
from A to P. Then the horizontal and vertical distances travelled by the liquid particle in time ' t' are :
TRAJECTORY
/ PATH
0co~ :
x -I
-
4
y I
Fig . 6.30 Free liquid jet.

x = velocity component in x-direction x t
= U COS 0 X t ... (i)
and y = (vertical component in y-direction x time - .!.. gt2)

2
= U sin 0 X t - .!_ g,2 ... (ii)
2
{ ·: Horizontal component of velocity is constant while the vertical distance is affected by gravity}
From equation (i), the value oft is given as t = x
u cose
Substituting this value in equation (ii)
2 2
.
y=Usm0 1 gx (- -
x - -X- - - x X
-) = sin
x- 0 - - -gx
---
Ucos0 2 Ucos0 cos0 2U 2 cos 2 0
2
= X tan 0 - gx 2 sec 2 0 { •: - 1-2 - =Sec 2 e} .. .(6.24)
2U cos 0
Equation (6.24) gives the variation of y with the square of x. Hence this is the equation of a parabola.
Thus the path travelled by the free jet in atmosphere is parabolic.
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(i) Maximum height attained by the jet. Using the relation v/ - v/ = - 2gS, we get in this
case Vi = 0 at the highest point
Vi = Initial vertical component
= U sin 0
-ve sign on right hand side is taken as g is acting in the downward direction but particles is moving up.
0 - (U sin 0) 2 = - 2g x S
where S is the maximum vertical height attained by the particle.
or - U 2 sin20 = - 2gS
S = U 2 sin 2 0 ... (6.25)

2g
(ii) Time of flight. It is the time taken by the fluid particle in reaching from A to Bas shown in
Fig. 6.30. Let Tis the time of flight.
Using equation (ii), we have y = U sin 0 x t- _!_
2
gr
when the particle reaches at B, y = 0 and t = T
.·. Above equation becomes as O = U sin 0 x T - _!_ g x fl
2
or 0 = U sin 0 - _!_ gT {Cancelling T}
2
T= 2U sin0
or ... (6.26)
g
(iii) Time to reach highest point. The time to reach highest point is half the time of flight. Let 'P
is the time to reach highest point, then
'P = T = 2U sin 0 = U sin 0 ... (6.27)
2 gx2 g
(iv) Horizontal range of the jet. The total horizontal distance travelled by the fluid particle is
called horizontal range of the jet, i.e., the horizontal distance AB in Fig. 6.30 is called horizontal range
of the jet. Let this range is denoted by x*.
Then x* = velocity component in x-direction
x time taken by the particle to reach from A to B
= U cos 0 x Time of flight
2U sin0
= U cos 0 x - - -
g
u2 u2
=- 2 cos 0 sin 0 = -sin 20 ... (6.28)
g g
(v) Value of 0 for maximum range. The range x* will be maximum for a given velocity of
projection (U), when sin 20 is maximum
or when sin 20 = 1 or sin 20 = sin 90° =1
20 = 90° or 0 =45°
u2 u2
Then maximum range, x* max = -g sin2 0 = -g { ·: sin 90° = 1} ... (6.29)
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Assistant Professor
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Problem 6.38 A vertical wall is of 8 m in height. A jet of water is coming out from a nozzle with
a velocity of 20 mis. The nozzle is situated at a distance of 20 m from the vertical wall. Find the angle
of projection of the nozzle to the horizontal so that the jet of water just clears the top of the wall.
Solution. Given :
Height of wall
Velocity of jet,
=8m
U = 20 mis 8m
T
Distance of jet from wall,
Let the required angle
x= 20 m
=0
WAL ~
l
Using equation (6.24), we have
2
Y= X tan 0 - gx 2 sec 2 0
2U Fig. 6.31
where y = 8 m, x = 20 m, U = 20 mis
2
0 9.81 X 202 sec 2 0
8 = 20 tan-
2 x20
= 20 tan 0 - 4.905 sec 2 0
= 20 tan 0 - 4.905 [l + tan 2 0] {·: sec 2 0 = 1 + tan 2 0}
= 20 tan 0 - 4.905 - 4.905 tan 2 0
or 4.905 tan 0 - 20 tan 0 + 8 + 4.905 = 0
2
or 4.905 tan 2 0 - 20 tan 0 + 12.905 = 0
20 ± ✓20 2 - 4 X 12.905 X 4.905 20 ± .j400- 253.19

tan 0 = - - - - - - - - - - - =
2 X 4.905 9.81
20 ± .Ji46.8T 20±12.116 32.116 7.889

= = = or
9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81
= 3.273 or 0.8036
0 = 73° 0.8' or 38° 37'. Ans.
Problem 6.39 A fire-brigade man is holding a fire stream nozzle of 50 mm diameter as shown in
Fig. 6.32. The jet issues out with a velocity of 13 mis and strikes the window. Find the angle or angles
of inclination with which the jet issues from the nozzle. What will be the amount of water falling on the
window ?
Solution. Given :
Dia. of nozzle, d = 50 mm = .05 m
Area,
Velocity of jet,
7t 2
A= -(.05) = 0.001963 m
4
U = 13 mis.
2
f
7.5m
The jet is coming out from nozzle at A. It strikes the window
and let the angle made by the jet at A with horizontal is equal to 0.
The co-ordinates of window, with respect to origin at A.
1
x = 5 m, y = 7 .5 - 1.5 = 6.0 m 1- sm -1
The equation of the jet is given by (6.24) as Fig. 6.32
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Assistant Professor
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gx2
y = x tan 0 - - - 2
2 sec 0
2U
9.81 X 5
2 [1 + tan 0]
or 6.0 = 5 x tan 0 - 2
2 x13
or 6.0 = 5 tan 0 - .7256 (1 + tan 2 0)
= 5 tan 0 - .7256 - .7256 tan 2 0
or 0.7256 tan 2 0 - 5 tan 0 + 6 + .7256 = 0
or 0.7256 tan 2 0 - 5 tan 0 + 6.7256 = 0
This is a quadratic equation in tan 0. Hence solution is
5 ± ✓5 2 - 4 X .7256 X 6.7256
tan 0 = ------'----------
2 X .7256
5 ± .J25 -19.52 5 + 2.341

= - - - - - = - - - = 5.058 or 1.8322
1.4512 1.4512
0 = tan- 1 5.058 or tan- 1 1.8322 = 78.8° or 61.37°. Ans.
Amount of water falling on window = Discharge from nozzle
= Area of nozzle x Velocity of jet at nozzle
= 0.001963 x U = 0.001963 x 13.0 = 0.0255 m 3/s. Ans.
Problem 6.40 A nozzle is situated at a distance of 1 m above the ground level and is inclined at an
Distance of nozzle above ground= 1 m

Angle of inclination, 0 = 45°
c:4
angle of 45° to the horizontal. The diameter of the nozzle is 50 mm and the jet of water from the nozzle
strikes the ground at a horizontal distance of 4 m. Find the rate of flow of water.
Solution. Given : m
-----~--- JET
Dia. of nozzle, d = 50 mm = .05 m A 45°
Area, A= ~(.05)2 = .001963 m 2

4 B
The horizontal distance x=4m Fig. 6.33
The co-ordinates of the point B, which is on the centre-line of the jet of water and is situated on the
ground, with respect to A (origin) are
x = 4 m and y = - 1.0 m {From A, point Bis vertically down by 1 m}
2
The equation of the jet is given by (6.24) as y = x tan 0 - gx 2 sec 2 0
2U
Substituting the known values as
2
- 1.0 = 4 tan 45° - 9 ·81 x/ x sec 2 45°
2U
= 4 - 7~;8 x ( J2)2 {sec 450 = cosl450 = + J2}

J2
=
I~
Assistant Professor
~I IL
_ 1.0 = 4 _ 78.48/ 2 78 .4 8 X 2 -
u
or u2 - + 4 .0 + 1.0 -- 5 .0
U2 = 78.48 X 2.0 = 31 _39
5.0
= .J3L39 = 5.60 mis
U
Now the rate of flow of fluid = Area x Velocity of jet
= A x U = .001963 x 5.6 m 3/sec
= 0.01099 "" .011 m 3/s. Ans.
Problem 6.41 A window, in a vertical wall, is at a distance of 30 m above the ground level. A jet of
water, issuing from a nozzle of diameter 50 mm is to strike the window. The rate offlow of water through
the nozzle is 3.5 m 3/minute and nozzle is situated at a distance of 1 m above ground level. Find the
greatest horizontal distance from the wall of the nozzle so that jet of water strikes the window.
Solution. Given :
Distance of window from ground level = 30 m
B
Dia. of nozzle, d = 50 mm= 0.05 m
Area A= ~(.05)2 = 0.001963 m2

4 3 0 cm
The discharge, Q = 3.5 m 3/minute X
= 3·5 =0.0583 m 3/s

60
Distance of nozzle from ground= 1 m. Fig. 6.34
Let the greatest horizontal distance of the nozzle from the wall = x and let angle of inclination = 0.
If the jet reaches the window, then the point Bon the window is on the centre-line of the jet. The
co-ordinates of B with respect to A are
X = X, y = 30 - 1.0 = 29 m
The velocity of jet, U -_ -Discharge _ Q _ .0583 _ 29 69 1

---- - - - - - . msec
Area A .001963
Using the equation (6.34), which is the equation of jet,
gx2
y= tan 0 - - - 2
X 2 sec 0
2U
9.81x 2
or 29.0 = X tan 0 - 2 Sec 2 0
2 X (29.69)
= X tan 0 - 0.0055 sec 2 0 X x2
=xtan e- .0055 x 2
2
cos e
x tan 0 - .0055 x 2/cos 20 - 29 = 0 ... (i)
The maximum value of x with respect to 0 is obtained, by differentiating the above equation w.r.t.
dx
0 and substituting the value of - = 0. Hence differentiating the equation (i) w.r.t. 0, we have
d0
[ X sec e + tan e X dx]
2
de
- 0.0055 [x 2 X ( (-;) ) ( - sin0) + -1-2- X 2x
cos e cos e de
dxl
-11
Assistant Professor
~I IL
d
{ ·:-(xtan0 dx d ( -x 2-) =x 2 - d ( -1-) + -
) =xsec 2 0+tan0-and- 1 -- d ( x 2 )}
d0 d0 d0 cos 2 0 d0 cos 2 0 cos 2 0 d0
2 dx [2x 2 sin 0 + ~ dx ]-
x sec 0 + tan 0d0
- - .0055
cos
3e
cos
2 e de - 0
For maximum value of x, w.r.t. 0, we have dx = O

d0
Substituting this value in the above equation, we have
2
x sec 2 0 - .0055 [ 2 x ~ine] = 0
cos e
or _x_ _ .0055 x 2x 2 sin0 _ 0 or x _ .0l1 x x2 sin0 = 0

cos 2 e cos 3 e - cos0
or X- .011 x2 tan 0 = 0 or 1 - .011 X tan 0 =0
1
or X tan 0 = -- = 90.9 ... (ii)
.011
90.9
or x=-- ... (iii)
tan0
Substituting this value of x in equation (i), we get
90 ·9 2
X tan 0 - .0055 X ( 90, 9 ) X _l_ - 29 = 0
tan0 tan 2 0 cos 2 0
90.9 - 45·445 - 29 =0 or 61.9 - 45·445 =0

sin 2 0 sin 2 0
or 61 9 - 45.445 . 2 e- 45.445 - o 7341

. - sin 2 0 or Slll - 61.90 - .
sin 0 = .J0.7341 = 0.8568

0 = tan- 1 .8568 = 58° 57.8'
Substituting this value of 0 in equation (iii), we get
X = _9_0._9 = 90.9 = 90.9 = 90.9 = 54 _759 m
tan0 tan 58° 57.8' tan 58.95 1.66
= 54.76 m. Ans.
-11
Assistant Professor
~I IL
HIGHLIGHTS
1. The study of fluid motion with the forces causing flow is called dynamics of fluid flow, which is
analysed by the Newton 's second law of motion.
2. Bernoulli ' s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler's equation of motion. Bernoulli's equation states
"For a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy which consists of pressure energy,
kinetic energy and datum energy, at any point of the fluid is constant" . Mathematically,
v2 v2
.El_+ _ I + Z 1 = J!..2:...+ _ 2_ +z2
pg 2g pg 2g
where .EL = pressure energy per unit weight= pressure head

pg
2
l = kinetic energy per unit weight= kinetic head
2g
z1 = datum energy per unit weight= datum head.
3. Bernoulli 's equation for real fluids
2 2
P1 Vi P2 V2
- + - + Z 1 = - + - +Z2 +hl
pg 2g pg 2g
where hL = loss of energy between sections 1 and 2.
4. The discharge, Q, through a venturimeter or an orifice meter is g iven by
a1 a2 r;:;--::;:
Q = Cd ~ X v 2 g h
a I2 - a2
2
where a 1 = area at the inlet of venturimeter,

a2 = area at the throat of venturimeter,
Cc1 = co-effic ient of venturimeter,
h = difference of pressure head in terms of fluid head flowing through venturimeter.
S. The value of his given by differential U-tube manometer
... (when differential manometer contains heavier liquid)
... (when differential manometer contain s lighter liquid)
... (for inclined venturimeter in which differential manometer
contains heavier liquid)
... (for inclined venturimeter in which differentia l manometer
contains lighter liquid)

where x = difference in the readings of differentia l manometer,
s,, = sp. gr. of heavier liq uid
S0 = sp . gr. of fluid flowing through venturimeter
S1 = sp. gr. of lighter liquid .
-11
Assistant Professor
~I IL
1308 Fluid Mechanics

6. Pitot-tube is used to find the velocity of a flowing fluid at any point in a pipe or a channel. The velocity
is given by the relation
V = C., .J2gh
where C,, = co-efficient of Pitot-tube
h = rise of liquid in the tube above free surface of liquid
= x[ :: -1] (for pipes or channels).
7. The momentum equation states that the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the change in momen-
d
tum per second in that direction . This is given as F = - (mv)
dt
The impul se-momentum equation is given by F . dt = d(mv).
8. The force exerted by a fluid on a pipe bend in the directions of x and y are g iven by
Fx = mass (Initial velocity in the direction of x - Final velocity in x-direction)

sec
+ Initia l pressure force in x-direction + Fina l pressure force in x-direction
= pQ[Vl x - V2.J + CP1A 1)x + CP2A2)x
and FY = pQ[Vl y - V2y ] + (p 1A I)y + CP2A2)y
Resultant force,
F
and the direction of the resultant with horizontal is tan 0 = --1... .
F.r
9. The force exerted by the nozzle on the water is g iven by Fx = pQ[V2x -V 1x]
and force exerted by the water on the nozzle is = - Fx = pQ[V 1x - V2x].
10. Moment of momentum equation states that the resultant torque actin g on a rotating fluid is equal to the
rate of change of moment of momentum. Mathematically, it is given by T = pQ[V2r 2 - V1r 1 ].
11. Free liquid jet is the jet of water issuing from a nozzle in atmosphere . The path travelled by the free jet is
parabolic. The equation of the jet is given by
gx2
y = x tan 0 - - - 2
2 sec 0
2U
where x, y = co-ordinates of any po int on jet w.r.t. to the nozzle
U = velocity of jet of water issuing from nozzle
0 = inclin ation of jet issuing from nozzle with horizontal.
U 2 sin 2 0
12. (i) Maximum height attained by jet= - - - -
2U sin0
(ii) Time of flight, T
g
(m . T'" = -T = -
...) T.1me to reac h h.1g hest pomt, U-sin0
-
2 2g
2
(iv) Horizonta l range of the jet, x* = !!_sin 20
g
(v) Value of 0 for maximum range, 0 = 45 °
(vi) Maximum range, x*max = U2/g.
-11
Assistant Professor

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SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 1

• 5.2 METHODS OF DESCRIBING FLUID MOTION

• 5.3 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

The fluid flow is classified as :

I t64 Fluid Mechanics

(~~) Xo,Y0 ,Zo

where av= Change of velocity

Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 165 I

• S.4 RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE (Q)

• S.S CONTINUITY EQUATION

I 166 Fluid Mechanics

Rate of flow at section 2-2 = p2A 2 V 2

Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 167 I

I t68 Fluid Mechanics

Ve? 2.5 m/sec

CD= Q 1 = g_ = 3393 = 1.131 m 3/s

Q 2 = VCE X Area of pipe CE= VCE~ (DCE)2

Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 169 I

I t70 Fluid Mechanics

V2 =.J12 2 - 2 x 9.81 x 4.5 = .,J144 - 88.29 = 7.46 mis

• 5.6 CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE-DIMENSIONS

Similarly, the net gain of mass in y-direction D 1-------,,,H

Net gain of masses = -[__i_

Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 171 I

or -[j__ax (pu) + j__ay (pv) + j_az (pw )] dxdydz = aapt . dxdydz

For steady flow,: = 0 and hence equation (5.3A) becomes as

I t72 Fluid Mechanics

= p x(u, + a;; .dr) x (CD x 1) (·:Area= CD x 1)

=p x(u, + a;; dr) x(r + dr)de [·: CD= (r + dr) de]

= p x[u, x r + u,dr + r au, dr + au, (dr) 2 ] de

= p. ur rde- p[ u,.r+u,.dr+r au,

= p. ur rde- p. Ur r. de-p [ u,.dr+r au,

=-p [ u,.dr+r au,

Now consider the flow in e-direction

= [p.u 8 .drxl-p(u8 + aau: .de)xdrxl]

= - p(aa~ .de) dr x 1 ( ·: Area= dr x 1)

Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 173 I

(·: rd0 . dr. 1 is the volume of element and is a constant quantity)

or - P[ ~ +au, ]- paua . _!_ -- ap [Cancelling rdr . d0 from both sides]

For steady flow ap = 0 and hence equation (5.5 C) reduces to

:r (ru,) + aae (u 8) =0 should be satisfied.

I t74 Fluid Mechanics

j_ (rur) = j_ (r2 sin 0)

= 2r (- sin 0) (·: 2r is constant w.r.t. 0)

• S. 7 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

and Resultant velocity, V = ui + vj + wk= ,Ju 2 + v 2 + w 2

Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 175 I

by (5.6), the expression au, av or aw is known as local acceleration.

=-b2 2 + (-40) 2 + 2 2 = .J1024 + 1600 + 4 = 51.26 units. Ans.

I t76 Fluid Mechanics

av = _ 20xy, av = _ 10x2, av= O av= O

or Resultant A = ✓(1536) 2 + (320) 2 + (2) 2 units

=.J2359296 + 102400 + 4 = 1568.9 units. Ans.

Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 177 I

Integration of both sides gives Jdw = J(- 3x - 2.xy + z 2 ) dz

or w = (- 3xz - 2.xyz + ~ ) + Constant of integration,

w =(-3xz - 2xyz + z:) + f(x, y). Ans.

Case II. V = 2y2 av= 4y

or -[jax (pu) + jay (pv) + j_az (pw )] dxdydz = aapt . dxdydz