Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Technology William D. Stanley John R. Hackworth Richard L. Jones=Transient Circuits Neve else} il l | | | The first two chapters were devoted to basic circuit Iaws and the analysis of de circuits with resistance as the only passive circuit parameter, In this chapter, we introduce the ad ditional passive parameters of inductance_and capacitance. Whereas the voltage-current relationship fora resistance is algebraic in form, we will sce thatthe voltage-current rela- tionships for inductance and capacitance involve the caleulus operations of differentiation and integration, Objectives [Aer completing ths chapter, the reader should beable © 1. Discus he form and notation fora time-varying voltage and/or current. State Ohm's law for a esstance in terms of time-varying voltage and current 3. Define the three passive circuit parameters and discus issipation or energy storage. 4, State and apply the different forms of the voltage-current relationships for an induc- % tance and a capacitance. ch one in terms of energy 5. For piecewise linear voltage or current functions, calculate and plot the waveforms of voltage, current, and power for inductance and capacitance 6. Determine the energy stored in an inductance and a capacitance 7. Draw the initial equivalent circuits for an inductance and a capacitance for the case of no initial energy and for when there is initial energy stored. 8. Solve for the initial values of voltage and current in a cizcuit with inductance and capacitance 9. Draw the final steady-state equivalent circuits for inductance and capacitance when all excitations are de 10. Solve for the final values of voltage and current in a circuit with inductance and capacitance and when all excitations are de 11, Determine the Voltage or current eesponse ofa first-order circuit with de sources and 51i | ) | 10) FIGURE 3-1 Revstance with instantaneous ‘ime-varying volnge and 52 CHAPTER 3 + Transient Circuits 3-1 Basic Circuit Parameters ‘Thee are three types of passive circuit parameters. By passive, we mean they are inca- pable of ereating energy. The three parameters are resistance, inductance, and capacitance. ‘We have already studied resistance, and we know that it dissipates power and energy and satisfies Ohm's law. The other two parameters ar. inductance and capacitance, Both of these parameters in ther ideal pure form.do.uol dissipate power and energy, but instead_ _store energy and are capable of releasing itat a later time. Inductance and capacitance are “energy storage parameters. For reasons that will not be clear until we study ac circuits, inductance and capacitance art also referred to as reactive parameters. ‘There are two forms of inductance: self-induetance and mutual inductance. We will study muteal inductance in Chapter 14, where we also wilt study tue major application of mutual inductance, the transformer. Here we will emphasize the circuit medals of induc- tance, and all inductance that we consider will be self-inductance, in which case we will drop the prefix “self” for the sake of brevity __—>Time-Varying Variables [As we begin the study of energy storage parameters, we must consider the circuit variables of voltage, current, power, and energy to be functions ofthe time variable . To that end, we will use lower-case symbols such as v(t), i(¢), p(2), and w(). In some eases, we will r= tain the (f) © emphasize the time-varying nature of the variable, However, o simplify many of the expressions, we will often employ v, i, p, and w without explicitly showing the time dependency. Just remember that the use of lower-case symbols means that a function ‘could vary with time. Resistance ‘We have already studied resistance extensively in the fist two chapters, Refering to Fig- ure 3-1, it is meaningful now to extend Ohm's law to the case where both the voltage and ‘current are varying with time. Hence, we have oy 2 oa v(t) = Ri) ‘We have retained the time-varying symbols here to make a poiat. Ohm's law for time- varying quantities reads just as it does for de, except that both the voltage and current are now functions of time. Because the constant of proportionality between them is either 1/R ‘or R, which in either case isa positive real constant, waveforms ofthe voltage and current associated with an ideal resistance have the same form. ‘The preceding property can be exploited in practical measnrement systems. AS men- tioned in Chapter 1, it usualy is more convenient to measure Voltage than eurrent. There- fore, the nature of @ current waveform can often be deduced from the observation of the voltage across a knowa resistance. In fact, even if there is no resistance available for this pparpose it might be convenient in some cases to insert « small sampling resistor in a cie- cuit so that an oseilloscopic measurement of current can be made indirectly. Take care ‘when doing this, because most oscilloscopic measurements must be made with respect toa common cixcut ground. Moreover, the resistance must be sufficiently small chat it does not change the nature of the circuit, Inductance Inductance is @ property that results from magnetic Sux generated in a circuit by current flow, Although all circuit configurations possess stray inductance, here we will emphasize ‘lumped quantity of inductance, which is called an Inductor, A jumped inductor typically is composed of many turns of wire often placed on a ferromagnetic core (tobe discussedwo } 200 FIGURE 3-2 Inductance with instantaneous time-varying voltage and 4 EE FIGURE 3-3 Capacitance with instantaneous time-varying voige and 3-1 + Basic Circuit Parameters 53 Jater) that strengthens the magnetic flux. A descriptive word for some inductors is col. ‘Some older references use the term choke for large inductors used in power supplies "The schematic symbol for inductance is shown in Figure 3-2. It displays a shape that is descriptive ofits nature. The symbol for inductance is L. The unit of inductance is the henry. Its abbreviation is H. Inductive Voltage-Current Relationships ‘The voltage across an inductance is proportional tothe rate of change of curent with r- spect to time Iecan be expressed as aie ao 6) at ‘The inverse relationship for current expressed in terms of voltage is ve = w=bf woe os In many analysis situation, the time ¢ = will be used as a starting point for analysis. In that ease, an alternate expression for the current is 1 ro) Lfamaeety os where Jy isthe inital current flowing in the inductance at = Capacitance CCapecitance is « property based on the presence of an electric field between conducting ‘media resulting from charge. Although all circuit configurations possess stray capacitance, ‘our emphasis here will b on a lumped quantity of capacitance, which is called a capacitor. ‘An older term that might be found in some references is that of a condenser. ‘A popular schematic symbol fora capacitor, and the one that we will use inthis text, is shown in Figure 3-3, In an alterate symbol, one of the sides is curved like an arc of a circle. The symbol with the parallel lines isthe same as that of the contact points in a pro- ‘grammable controller (which we will consider in Chapter 17) but there is little likelinood of confusion, ‘The “gap” between the two lines or conductors inthe capacitor schematic symbolizes that there is no conducting medium between them. The unit of capacitance is the farad, ‘which is abbreviated as FA farad is a very large unit. Most practical capacitors have ca- pacitance values in the range of microfarads, nanofarads, and even picofarads. Capacitive Voltage-Current Relationships ‘The current flow in a capacitance is proportional to the rate of change of voltage with respect to time, It cam be expressed as duit) Wace v eo ‘The inverse relationship for voltage expressed in terms of current is fica on ‘In many analysis situations, the time 1 = O will be used as a starting point for analysis. In that case, an alternate expression for the voltage is v= oat fuoatre / oe where Vo is te initial voltage across the capacitor at ¢54 CHAPTER 3 Transient Circuits Energy Storage thas been tte tha both inductance and capacitance store gneray rather than dissipate it ‘The manner in which the energy is stored is diffrent for the two components. Enerey ‘stored in an inductance results from current flowing in the inductance. It is a form of Kinetic neray. Conversely, energy stored in a capacitance results froma voltage existing, across the capacitance, [tis a form of, energy. A different point of view is thaten- ergy in an inductance results from charge in motion and energy in a capacitance results from charge at rest. Inductive Energy Let w, represent the energy stored in an inductance. Its a function ofthe inductance Land the current i lowing in it ata given time. Its given by qt ) 6%) Capacitive Energy Let we represent the energy stored in a capacitance, Its a function of the capacitance C ‘and the voltage v across it at a given time. Itis given by ) G10) Instantaneous Power ‘The instantaneous power will be denoted as p(). Ibis the product of the instantaneous volt- ‘age and the instantaneous current, pi) =v —~ Gt ‘Based on the assumed power conventions established in Chapter 1, a positive value ofthe power means that the power i being absorbed and a negative value means thatthe power {s being delivered. As we will see shordy, power can be delivered by an energy storage element based on energy stored in the device at an earlier time, Energy “The total energy absorbed by a device at anytime ¢ willbe denoted as w(). tis the ite- ‘gral over Lime of the power. It can be stated analytically as wee [ro = [vei a oy Conversely, the instantaneous power is the rate of change of energy with respect to time du) ) a= G3) |W EEXAMPLE 3-1 ‘The 0.5-pF capacitor of Figure 3-4 bas the waveform of voltage shown across it. Calculate and plot as instantaneous functions of time (a) the current and (b) the power SOLUTION The current flow in a capacitance is proportional to the rate of change of voltage as given by Equation 3.6, The waveform of voltage is « piecewise linear (PWL)| | | i i Bel + Basic circuit Parameters 55 10 sy! as Tia 7 40 6ma 7 ss Has 05 uF wo Tan ay a ozs w av. 4s 1am im mt -o1sew FIGURE 3-4 FIGURE 3-5 Capacitor and voltage of Example 3-1. ‘Waveforms of Example 3-1. function, which is one composed of straight-line segments. The derivative or rate of change ofa panicolar segment can be determined by evaluating its slope, which can be performed ‘with simple arithmetic. The slope is obtained by dividing the change inthe dependent variable by the change in the independent variable, and the result may either be positive or negative ae Refer to the waveforms of Figure 3-5 forthe analysis that Follows. The waveform of ‘voltage is repeated at the top ofthe figure fr convenience. Tis PWL function is composed of wo straight-line segments, one with a positive slope and one with a negative slope. For cach segment, we need to ealeulate the derivative or slope and multiply that value bythe capacitance of 05 wF = 0.5 x 10°F, @ Osrs4ms ‘The derivative (or slope) in this interval is positive. It is calculated by Forming the cchange in voltage divided by the change in current. 12x 10" Vis G4) ‘The current is sunita iinntea, /” on 4si< ios56 CHAPTER 3 Transient Circuits In this interval, the change in voltage is negative and the slope is dy -8V & 7 x0 s CH = 05 x 0% x 6 x 10 6 x 108 Vis Gi) 3x 107 ama | 17) ‘The current waveform is shown below the voltage waveform on Figure 3-5. Note that as long asthe voltage is increasing, the current is positive, but when the voltage begins toddectease, the eurent reverses its direction ‘Nothing has been said thus far as to whether the voltage is causing the curren: or vice versa. It doesn’t make any difference as far as the waveforms are concerned. A. voltage source having the behavior of the top waveform of Figure 3-5 would cause a current to flow, as shown by the middle waveform, Likewise, a current source of the form shown in the middle would produce the voltage atthe top, (b) White the instantaneous power could be difficult to determine graphically for complex waveforms, the functions given here lend themselves toa simplified analysis. Consider fist the interval between O and 4 ms. The current bas a constant positive value inthis interval, so the power must necessarily have the shape of the voltage waveform. This ‘means thatthe power will be a triangular function. A key pointon the curve i the value of the power immediately tothe left ofthe discontinuity in the current. lis Sy xx a aomW ~ om For the interval between 4 ms and 12 ms, the current is a negative constant while the voltage isa decreasing positive triangular function. Therefore, the power isan inverted or negative triangular function. A key point on the curve is the value of the power im- mediately to the right of the discontinuity in the current. [tis p= (48V) x (-3 x 107 A) = -0.144 W G9) (Note thatthe power during the fist interval is positive, meaning tat the capacitance absorbing the eneray. However, during the second interval, the power is nezative,, ‘which means thatthe capacitor is delivering the energy back to some extemal cuit not shown, I EXAMPLE 3-2 Determine the peak value of the energy stored in the capacitance of Example 3-1. SOLUTION First, note that we could obtain the energy as a function of time by integrat- ing the power overtime, but our interest is the peak energy. From Equation 3-10, we ob- serve that the peak energy occurs when the value of voltage is at is peak. Let Vp represent the peak voltage, which is 48 V atthe time of 4 ms. We denote the Value ofthis energy as Wp, lis 4x05 x 10-6 x (48)? = 576 x 10-43 =576 pT (3-20) ‘The voltage retumns to a value of zero, s0 all of this stored energy is released back to the IM EXAMPLE 3:3 ‘The current waveform shown at the top of Figure 3-6 flows into an initially uncharged O.5-uF capacitance, Calculate and plot the voltage as a function of time. SOLUTION The pertinent relationship is that of Equation 3-8 with Vp = 0 because the capacitor is initially uncharged, ie i : ve -2f indi am tends a2 <0 [ wd G21) osx 10 J,i i at | I, | | FIGURE 3-6 ‘Waveforms of Example 3-3 34 + BasicCircuit Parameters 57 0 12ms_lome Tama wt) ‘The integration involves determining the area under the curve of current as time increases ‘and multiplying that area by the factor in front of the integral. In contrast to differentiation, integration is an accumulative process. Therefore, as the area is summed, the resulting function cannot change abruptly. It will remain at any level reached until Further area oc- ‘curs, Positive area will cause the integral to increase and negative area will cause the inte- gral to decrease, Let us consider four different intervals for this purpose. Osr<4ms In this ist interval, the current is a positive constant, so the area must increase at a linear rate. Akey value of time is 4 ms. The net area accumulated between 0 and 4 ms i the area of the rectangle shown. The area is (8 x 10? A) x (4 x 10 s) = 32x 10-6 A. 32 x 10-€C. (Note that | ampere «second = 1 coulomb) The voltage a this point i (4 ms) =2 x 10° x 32 10° = 64 V G2) ‘Thus, the voltage ramps from 0 to 64 V as shown in the bottom waveform of Figure 3-6 4ersi2ms Because the current is ero inthis interval, the voltage remains ata level of 64 Y. 1251s l6ms ‘The current isa negative constant inthis interval, so the area will decrease ata Tinear rate. ‘The net change in area is (-4 x 10-9 A) x (4x 107 s) = -16 x 10°C. The voltage cchange is obtained by multiplying this value by the constant in front ofthe integral. This change is then added algebraically tothe inital value at 12 ms and the voltage at 16 ms is v(16 ms) = 64 — 2x 10° x 16 x 10° =32V G23) £2 16ms ‘The capacitor is charged to 32 V and will remain at that level until further current flows I EXAMPLE 3-4 ‘The upper waveform of current shown in Figure 3-7 is Mowing in an inductance of value L. Ttean be deseribed by the equation i Determine the voltage across the inductance as a function of time. Ipsinat 24)58 CHAPTER 3. + Transient Circuits FIGURE 3-7 ‘Waveforms of Example 3-4 ‘| 4 SOLUTION The voltage across an inductance as a function of time is given by Equa- tion 33, ai a (3-25) The derivative ofthe curenis given by $ = (yeaa) xw = 0, cosor 6-26) “The voltage eros the inductance is Lwlycosar) = ol lpeosar oan “The waveform is shown as the bottom curve of Figure 3-7. This example represents sort of 4 preview of things to come in later chapters, In previous examples, we have seea that the ‘voltage and current associated with energy storage elements can have drastically different shapes. However, in the case of sinusoidal voltage or current, the shapes are the same, but they have different phase angles. Inthe case of the inductance, the voltage leads the ‘current by 90°. In the case of a capacitance, we will show later that the voltage lags the cur- rent by 90°. ‘7 Boundary Conditions for Energy Storage Elements ‘We have seen thatthe nature of the voltage and current relationships associated with energy storage elements follow the laws of calculus rather than algebra. Consequently the instan- taneous waveforms of voltage and current associated with these parameters might be quite different and, in some cases, might require the solution of differential equations to deter- mine the nature of the response functions. aa = Tt may be somewhat involved to determine the instantaneous behavior of voltage and current forall time in many circuits, but we may predict certain _ equivalent circuits. They are either of these types of conditions, say analyze sing the metas of eater chaps. fee (as Inductive Current and Capacitive Voltage Boundary Behavior Let ia represent the instantaneous current flow in an inductance and let vc represeat the instantaneous voltage across a capacitance. Let ¢ = O represent the beginning time for a cireuit analysis to be performed, Let ¢ = O- represent an infinitesimally small time beforeFIGURE 3-8 Initial equivalent circuits for un- floxed inductance and uncharged capacitance. 3.2 + Boundary Conditions for Energy Storage Elements 59 the beginning and ¢ = O* represent a similar time immediately after the beginning of the analysis. The following boundary conditions then deseribe the behavior ofthese elements: i,t) = 120") 28) ve(0*) = vert) 29) Stated in words, these equations state that the current flow in an inductance cannot change instantaneously and the voltage across a capacitance cannot change instantaneously. The ‘Variables involved are those that establish the energy stored in the respective components, ‘so from a different perspective, it takes some time to establish or reestablish a certain en- ‘ergy evel inthe components. “+ confuse you as far as substitution in any equation is concerned, ld be treated as 0, However, the signs convey the message of ‘As is often the case, there are possible exceptions to the rute (at less in theory). Situ- ations known as impulsive conditions theoretically can result in abrupt changes in the ‘variables indicated, but we will nt pursue them inthis text. ‘Note thatthe opposite terminal variables can experience sudden changes. The voltage across an inductance can change instantaneously and the current flow in a capacitance can, cchange instantaneously | - Anitial Equivalent Circuits with No Energy Storage _/ ‘We can use the preceding boundary conditions to infer some equivalent circuits that deseribe the behavior of inductance and capacitance immediately after any typeof switching action ‘curs, Consider frst the station in which there is no intial energy stored inthe elements, theaning that an inductor has no current flowing int and a capacitor has no voltage across it An inductor with no intial eurrect Rowing in its called an unfluxed inductor, and a a pacitor with no inital volageacros its referred to as an uncharged eapacitor. “The equivalent cizeait immediately following a switching action of an initially un- ftyxed inductors shown in Figure 3-8(2). Tis equivalent circuit apolies only for an nfine — itesimally shor time, but the model is that of an open cei The Comespording equivalent circuit of an initially unehaTged capacitor is shown in Figure 3-8(b), Inthe case ofthe capacitor, the models that ofa shor circuit Initial Equivalent Circuits with Energy Storage ‘fan inductor has initial energy stored in it, then there is current flowing atthe moment that switching occurs. The inductor will end to resist any change in current initially soit will act as a source of constant current. The equivalent circuit model a the instant of switching i shown in Figure 3-9(3), © eo60 CHAPTER 3 + TransientCircuits FIGURE 3-9 Initial equivalent circuits for faxed indoctance and charged capacitance. too" 4 L =) _a ® wto exp %C ve © If a capacitor has initial energy stored in it, then there is a voltage across it when switching occurs. The capacitor wil tend to resist any change in voltage initially, soit will act as a source of constant voltage, The equivalent circuit model in this case is shown in Figure 3-900). po Steady-State DC Conditions Consider next the situation in which a circuit contains inductance and /or capacitance along with eine, tin which ll henson a the ceo deg. As ong there is any resistance at all inthe circuit, eventually the circuit wil settle into a so-called steady-state behavior in which all voltages and ct sume constant values. This stu- ation will ed to ceustomary 10 use the symbol ‘even though, in many circuits, involved might represent only a small fraction of a second, Inthe de steady state, derivatives with respect to time of all currents and all voltages ave eset become 2x0 A review ofthe teninaleqatons then ea to he cone sion that and capacitive currents become ze inthe de steady state _JP Steady-State DC Models FIGURE 3-10 Steady-state de equivalent circuits for inductance and capacitance, Based on the logic of the preceding discussion, the equivalent circuits in the de steady state are shown in Figure 3-10. Assuming an ideal inductor, it acts as a short circuit, as shown in (@), (ln practice, all real inductors contain resistance, but we are ignoring it.) . = : sc ome f Tp UI ; ©‘The idea ofan ideal inductor becoming a short circuit to de is reasonable because itis actually composed ofa coil of wir. Fora voltage to exist actos it, thee must be a chang ing current, and the process reduces to the notion of changing magnetic ux inducing a voltage a ptenomenon that wil be studied later inthe book concerning transformers, gen- erator, and motors. = ‘he equivalent circuit of an ideal capacitor in the de steady state is shown in Fig- ‘re 3-10(0). Teacis as an opea circuit under those conditions. The idea ofan ideal capacitor becoming an open circuit to de is reasonable, because the two conducting media ae insulated from each other by a dielectrie material. Curent flow is actually the movement of charge from one side to the other via the external circuit, and fr this charge to flow, the voltage must be changing with me. In easual conversation, ic is customary to speak of eurent low rough a capecitor, but the actual movement is fiom one side tothe other va the external circuit The effect fom an exteaal point of view is the same as if the current were lowing through the capacitor. ‘As a general rule with some exceptions, capacitors can be made o be much more ideal than inductors. There might be some ery small leakage through the dielectric material in «capacitor, but except for some of the larger electrolytic types, they may be assumed for tmost practical purposes tobe ideal. Ip conuast, most real inductors have some resistance, and some of the larger inductors may have fairy large resistance values, Skin Effect ‘The resistance of most inductors cannot be determined from a de resistance measurement because the effective resistance for ac might be much greater than for de because of a phe- ‘nomenon called the skin effect. Because of the inductance within a wire, current flow tends to move toward the outer portion of a conductor as the frequency increases, which results in an effective increase in resistance. p Some Steady-State Applications Several applications for capacitance and inductance will appear throughout the text, but we will consider a few based on the de steady-state models now. Because a capacitance ap- pears as an open circuit for steady-state de, capacitors are widely used in numerous cieuits| to block de while passing the time-varying part of a signal (referred to casually as the “ac component”), In a contrasting sense, an inductance can be used to represent an open circuit for an ac component while allowing steady-state de current to fow through it. W EXAMPLE 3-5, Figure 3-11 Circuit of Example 3-5 and its intial equivalent creat. ‘The switch inthe eicuit of Figure 3-11(a) is closed at r = 0, and the storage. Construct an equivalent circuit at ¢ = 0* and determi varios sbowm on te diagram, be EY ‘ ete = na @ aa62 CHAPTER 3° © Transient Circuits SOLUTION There is no initial energy stored in the circuit; therefore the capacitor will be initially uncharged and the inductor will be initially unfluxed, Thus, the capacitor will act like a shor circuit and the inductor will set like an open circuit. Te initial equivalent cir- cuits in Figure 3-11(b). Because the capacitor acts as a short circuit and the inductor acts an open circuit, we can immediately say that ve(0") =0 G30) and LO" Gp [As fara the other variables specified, don’t let the dangling wires confuse you. The circuit reduces to a simple Ohm's law sitwation because the entire source voltage appears across the left-hand resistance and the initial curent flow in the capacitor is ic") = mA G32) 10 Although itis possible in general to have an initial voltage appearing across the open cir- ‘cuit represented by an inductance, in this cas, itis zero; that is, vy(0")=0 G33) Mm EXAMPLE3-6 For the creat of Example 3-5, determine es idetified in that example SOLUTION For convenience, the circuit is repeated in Figure 3-12(a) Because the cir cuit excitation isa de voltage, the steady-state circuit mode canbe created, and itis showa in Figure 3-12(0), Note thatthe capacitor is now represented as an open circuit and the ia- ductors represented asa short circuit. Thus, we ean immediately say that fe(oo) =0 oH) and v(00) =0 G35) |AS in the preceding example, we have some dangling connectors, but the circuit reduces ‘essentially toa single-loop circuit. The steady-state eurent (co) is eae OO) FID Fax 1 8x IO 7 G-36) eo Ey 5 Fr 6 | c an o oe oe 0 ain FIGURE 3-12 (Circuit of Example 36 and its seudy-state de equivalent+ nee Cate tel Re | i ‘The steady-state voltage across the capacitor is the same as the voltage across che right- | hhand resistance. It is determined by Ohm’s law as x10 «3x 10 =6V 37) ‘These results infer that after the circuit is settled into a steady-state de condition, the in~ ductanee will be fuxed to a current of 3 mA and the capacitor will be charged to a voltage 1) 0f6. i ve(Co) I EXAMPLE 3-7 2en 2K FIGURE 3-13 Circuit of Example 37 and its inital equivalent cizeuit. SOLUTION The initial equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3-13(b). [n contrast to Ex ample 3-5, the capacitor will initially act as a constant voltage of 8 V aad the inductor will actas a constant current of 1 mA. We can immediately state that I} we) =8V 338) I and i ig (Ot) = mA (39) ‘The circuit in this ease contains two loops, but simultaneous equations are aot requied. ‘The easiest way to solve the circuit is to recognize that the net voltage across the 6-KS? : ! ‘At the node in the middle, a current of 2.667 mA is entering from the left, and a current of | mu is leaving on the right. The initial current flow into the capacitor is then fc(07) = 2.667 — 1 = 1.667 mA ean ‘The inital voltage across the 2-K2 resistance is i vx(0*) =2 x 108 x1 x 1077 =2V a2) ii resistances 24-~ 8 = 16V, wit the postive terminal on the lef. Thus the intl eurent 4(0*) is ogee co)64 CHAPTER 3. + Transient Circuits ‘The initial inductive voltage is then determined from KVL applied to the right-hand loop, v0") =8-2=6V 43) Although the circuit begins with different initial conditions than inthe preceding two ex- amples, the final steady-state circuit will be the same as in Example 3-5, which was given in Figure 3-12(b). The initial voltage on the capacitor and the initial current in the induc tance affects te initial values and the magnitude of the wansient behavior, but the final re- sponse is dependent only on the 24-V actual source, Fa First-Order Circuits with DC Excitations We have introduced the voltage-current relationships forthe three basic ciscuit parameters and have covered exercises for dealing withthe terminal relationships. We are now ready to consider combinations of two or more of these elements and how the voltage and current will behave with these combinations. ‘The simplest type of circuit containing two or more types of elements isa first-order Gireuit form. A first-order form is one in which the voltage and current relationships involve a first-order differential equation. As it turas out, all circuits of this type are reducible to either one of the following forms: (1) a single resistance and a single induc- tance or (2) a single resistance and a single capacitance. Circuits in the first category are called RL circuits and circuits in the second category are called RC circuits, A combina tion that wil not be considered in this section is one containing both L and C. ‘We will further restrict our consideration bere to circuits having only de sources pre- sent, This could include initial currents in inductors or initial voltages on capacitors ‘Whereas all ofthe preceding statements may seem rather restrictive, many applications involve first-order circuits with de or “de-like” sources. The latter description includes ini- tial conditions and pulse waveforms. First-Order Differential Equation with DC Excitation Lety represent an arbitrary variable tobe determined from physical consideration, which for the present discussion will be either @ voltage or a current. Assuming that the independent variable is time ¢, the first-order differential equation with de sources will be of the form dyad art “The value K is @ constant that is dependent on the de voltage or current excitation. The quantity + is called the time constant. It plays a significant role in how long a circuit re- sponse reaches a steady-state condition. Without showing the details, it turns out thatthe solution ofthis differential equation is always ofthe form, =k oa) yeatBe® \ te G43) Thus, fst-oder cireuits with de sources Have voltages and current that display tis form. Therefore, we can determine any response in he circuit rom a knowiedge ofthe constants AsBeand ¢ Determining the Time Constant ‘The time constant forthe circuit depends on whether itis an RL. circuit or an RC circuit. As- suming that the circuit has been reduced to one containing a single value of R and a single value of C, ora single value of R and a single value of Z, the ime constants evaluated by ‘one or the other of the following two equations’ G46) G4733. + First-Order Circuits with DC Excitations 65 Determining A and B It turns out that 4 and B can be determined from the equivalent circuit models provided in the last section, First, the initial equivalent circuit model is constructed and the intial value +»(0*) is determined. Next the de steady-state equivalent circuit model is constructed and the final value y(co) is determined. From these two Values, we can determine the constants ‘A and B. Noting that y(co) = A, the constants may be expressed as A= y(00) G48) and B= y(0) ¥(e9) al 49) ‘An altemate form for the general solution can then be expressed —_& vl0) = 9100) + L900") - yom = (3-50) ‘This later form has the advantage that one need only “plug in” the initial value, the final value, and the time constant to determine the net response as a function of time. Sketching the Response ‘Any response of the form considered can be sketched easily. The function begins at the ini- til value y(0*) and eventually approaches the final value y(0). It is concave toward the final value, as we will demonstrate inthe examples that follow this section. Effect of Time Constant ‘The larger the value of the time constant, the longer it will take fora given response to set- tle into its final steady state, Some values of the exponential function at different multiples of the time constant are shown in the table that follows, ; ert Ae x i : si ‘We can interpret these result in terms of the fraction between the inital and final values at ifferent multiples ofthe time constant. For example, at one time constant, the remaining difference between inital and final values is about 36.8 percent of the difference between initial and final values. [Note that at five time constants, the difference is ess than 1 percent. This serves as a ‘useful rule of thumb for many applications. In other words, the circuit may be assumed to We reached a steady-state de condition in about five time constants. Remember, however, that this is only a reasonable estimate that must be tempered with other factors, EXAMPLE 3-8 ‘The switch in the circuit of Figure 3-14(a) is closed at ¢ = 0 and there is no initial enerey stored in the inductance, Determine the equations for the instantaneous voltage across the inductance and the current in the loop, and sketch the results SOLUTION ‘The initial equivalent circuit (¢ = 0*) is shown in Figure 3-14(b). Because both i(t) and vz (tare of interest, we need to evaluate both values at this tiie. We can see readily that v0) =12V G51) 6-52) i i i66 CHAPTER 3 FIGURE 3-14 Circuit forms of Example 3-8, < } ' FIGURE 3-15 (a) Inductor voltage of Example 3-8. (b) Loop curent of Example 3-4, — © Transient Circuits m, 40 4 < 0243 m0) @ wr, 40 Ww, 40 0) nv =) © ‘The de steady-state equivalent circuit (t = co) is shown in Figure 3-14(c). The voltage and current are vi(co) = OV 53) ey, oo =F G54) The time constant is L_02H a Ra py 70058 8-55) ‘The voltage is given by ult) = vz (00) + (v0) — v(eoyle** = 04 (12 je = 126 3-56) "The current is (0) = 1(c0) + (EO) — Hoople" =3-+ O= HEM = IU ™) GST) ‘We might sketch the two functions by placing the intial and final values ona graph and let ting the variable change from the initial to the final value in an exponential fashion gu ‘T a ia as er “ee ca @ 1 t i ba fo a a a as “me cn ra3-3 + FirstOrder Circuits with DC Excitations 67 ‘To obtain an intuitive sense about the effect of the time constant, the inductive voltage decreases to 368 percent of is inital value in 0.05 s, and the current increases to 63:2 per- cent of its final value in the same time interval. Using the rule of thumb mentioned in this section, final steady-state conditions will be reached for most practical purposes in about 5x 0.05 = 0.25. = i anne The svc accu of Figure 516 clea =O ad ors eau nL tine athe caasmon Decne spain fr tartan cama tse Inthe vlge coe apace sd catch ta ) nun 3-1 J Cra fame ot eng 39 ® @ SOLUTION The initial equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3-16(b). The intial values (of the two variables of interest are Rv = ae 0 G59) ‘The de steady-state equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3-164). The final values of the ‘current and capacitive voltage are x10 A=6mA 3-58) ve(0*) i(o0) = 0 G-60) ve(oo) = 12V G61 ‘The time constant is C= 2x 1x 1x 0% = 2x 10s =2 ms G62) The current is £0) = 00) + 110") = oon" = 0+ 6 10-9 = 6” 26 19-48 oss) The capacitive voltage is : ele) = sles) + oe") — veel 12+ (= De wae — ey 68) Plots of the current and capacitive voltage are shown in Figure 2-17. Based on the cule of thumb, this circuit will have settled into a de steady state in about 5 x 2 ms = L0 ms.mioURE3-17 (Lap arent Exanpe39.@Capcior | vonage of Beale 39, x10" SURE 3-19 6 i "Up caren Bye ample 310. z _ ‘ge of Exam: oe To-day cardbus “Timecode @ gas 5 io] 3 z 5] Sy Gar nn OR 0 UG DUNS HO HOT BOR HKD 01 Tine, eons © |W EXAMPLE 3-10, FIGURE 3-18 Circuit forms of Example 3-10 The circuit of Figure 3-18(a) is the same as that of Example 3-9 except for one difference. Inthis case, the capacitor is initially charged to 8 V with the positive terminal a the bottom as shown, Determine the equations forthe instantaneous current inthe loop and the voltage across the capacitance, and sketch the result. waa svG)xy nv o @ SOLUTION The initial equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3-18(b). The capacitor mo- ‘mentary acts as a constant voltage of 8 V with its positive terminal at the bottom. The fe- sult is single-loop circuit with the two voltages aiding each other as far as current flow is ‘concerned. The intial values of the two variables of interest are Vv i) = Byesy = 10x 107A G65) re(0r) =-8V 6-66) [Note that the two voltages aid each other to produce a larger value of current than in the previous problem, but the capacitive voltage is negative in terms of the assumed reference ‘The steady-state de equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3-18(c). We can assume that the initial voltage across the capacitor has now been dissipated in the ciecuit resistance, The(@) Loop current of Example 310, (6) Capacitor | yoltage of Example 3-10. os 3-4 + Inductance and Capacitance Combin: 69 io oc © oe ooo pom Z gor 02a ns Oe ws Gs GAT BOTH EOF BO Tine cis @ i: i; es io € 19ers coms ToD OES » foal values ar therefore the same asin Example 3-8. io) om) tele) = 12 6-68) ‘The time constant is unchanged T= RC=2x1P x1 x10 =2 x 107s om ‘The currentis i(¢) =H(00) + [6(0*) — (cope = 0+ (10 x 10 — De*197 = 10. 102 70) ‘The capacitive voltage is elt) = veloe) + fue(O") — ve (oo)]e“M* = 12 + (8 ~ 12,6410? = 12 — 206-9 en) ‘The two time functions are shown in Figure 3-19. The presence of the initial voltage onthe ‘capacitor does not affect the final result, but it does have a significant effect on both the ini- tial and intermediate behavior. a SS nn eG Inductance and Capacitance Combinations In all the developments considered thus far in the chapter, we have not considered more than one inductor or more than one capacitor ina given circuit. In general, the presence of ‘more than one inductor or capacitor could mean that the circuit is of a higher-order form than considered in this chapter, However, in some cases, the combination could reduce to a simple series or parallel configuration In Chapter 1, we introduced techniques for determining the equivalent resistance of a serie or parallel combination of more than one resistor. We can develop similar procedures for inductors or capacitors in series or parallel combinations. ‘We emphasize thet the rules for combining inductors assume that there is ne magnetic coupling between the different induetors Inductors in Series Refer to the cireut of Figure 3-20. Inductances without mutual coupling in series combine ‘exactly like resistances in series. The net inductance is Lg abit lite t he on,70 CHAPTER 3. © Transient Circuits at bh i {i ‘ | : | é gn yy tat ly ley | 2 I zg FIGURE 3-20 FIGURE 3-21 FIGURE 3-22 | i a Tductances in series and the equivalent single Inductances in parallel andthe equivalent Capacitances in series and the ie s inductance when there is no mutual inductance single inductance when there is no mutual equivalent single capacitance. I between them. indacane between he. | i Inductors in Parallel it Refer tothe circuit of Figure 3-21. Inductances without mutual coupling in parallel com- i bine exactly lke resistances in parallel. The net inductance is determined from the formula +ptest a7) i es 73) i a Capacitors in Series | Refer tothe circuit of Figure 3-22. Capacitances in series combine like resistances in par- i allel, and we determine the net capacitance from the formula, i & Gq CFG bat +e om) — Capacitors in Parallel I Refer to thereto Figure 3-23. apace in pr combine ike essanesne- fev The act copa FIGURE 3-23 Coq = C+ Cate Hy 75) CCapacitances in parallel : : and the equivalent single ‘To summarize, inductors without mutval coupling combine inthe same sense as resistors, ‘capacitance. but capacitors combine in the opposite sense. I | EXAMPLE 3-11 Determine the equivalent capacitance of the parallel combination of two capacitors with | the following values: I uF and 0.02 uF. SOLUTION Because the capacitances are given in microfarads, i is simpler to work di- rectly with those units. The net capacitance is eee $002 = 1.02 uF 676 CoProblems 74 1 EXAMPLE 3-12 Determine the equivalent capacitance ofthe series combination ofthe two capacitors of Example 311 SOLUTION. Working again with microfrads the capacitance is determined as follows: Tease sega) tet ely td nieces eG GT Too! ep Cop = 3 = 00196 HF 6-78) Note thatthe equivalent capacitance isnot much smaller than the smallest of the two ea ecitances a real ofthe widely different values ' PROBLEMS 31 The 02 capacitor of Figure Pi: has he wavefom of 3:3. ‘The 2 capacitor of Figure P33 hes the waveform of ‘oltage sown arose. Calculats and pot a inant: cnet shown Bowing init andthe capacitor is intally ‘eos fanetons of time (a) the exes) the power. unchanged. Calculate and plot tan instantaneous fe tion of ime the voltage across the capacitor. « © 2 Oza 1 0 : - oF 1 ia ov 7 A vce 4 a 12 16 20 ems rr Ret FIGURE P3-3 14 Texan baer open reared wien Pete poste Cucamenpereide 4 alas apbeare ae aetar Sane vere ee Seneca pre rigors72 CHAPTER 3. + Transient. Wf valued, Caleta and plots an instantaneous function S15, The switch nthe cic of Figure P3-1S ie cloted at. | oftime the exrent owing ito the inductor. _7” 120, and the inal value ofthe capacitor votages | 3.8. Forte copaitor and waveform of Problem 3-1, shown. Consrvt an equivalent cuit t= O° and | dann 3: peak uy ecco betes determine the inital values ofthe vcables shown oa the dagran. 346 For the inductor and waveform of Problem 32, determine the peak energy stored inthe inductor. 3-7 For the capacitor and waveform of Problem 3, an determine the peak energy stored inthe capacitor. 5 38 For the inductor and waveform of Problem 3-4, determine the peak energy stored in the inductor. 39° The voltage acros capacitor wit capacitance C is y a 3: an sven by es i 2 = Vpsinat Determine an expression forthe current flowing ico the FIGURE P3-15 capaci { 3:10. The current How ito an nally uncharged capacitor 316. The switch inthe cult of Figure P36; closed t with capactanoe Ci given by a 1 = 0, and he inal vale ofthe capacitor voltage and i Laanenerion eee eunae i) = Ipcosee circuit at = O° and determine the inital values ofthe ‘Determine an expression for the voltage across the ‘resiables ebtiya on te agra, penny at | SL4y,The sch io hci of Fg P31 coed at no ee “1 =0, and there is no intial energy storage. Construct it | “an equivalent circuit at ¢ = O* and determine the initial sev — &F qi ] ‘aie ofte vals hown onthe lagen to yf Bea so kee : Q it an e FIGURE P3-16 2 3, an (C317 Fhe switch inthe ctcic of Figure P3-17 is closed at | : OA iiad telson nal cy tania eine: | tance, Detenlne equations te sa \] ——csthicumenmie | | Tadatouh te el | Fiune P3-11 | w S12 The site in ect of Figure P32 coed at ea | (7 t = 0, and there is no initial energy storage. Construct +) = an equivalent circuit at r = O* and determine the initial > i] ‘values of the variables shown on the diagram, mv{. sa i mee ~~ = FIGURE P3~17 1 |} 3418. The switch in the circuit of Figure P3-18 is closed at | nv so | 8 efattestantsccaiot nomen | | {49,Forte cuit of Polen 311 Figure 3-1), eemine 7, ye an oft rab eed in bat . problem, 7 214 Forte it of Probie 3.12 (gu 3-12), eteioe | feasts raft salt prsten FIGURE P3-18shown, Determine the equations for the instantaneous voltage across the inductance and the eurtent in the loop and sketch the results. (3.19) The switch in the circ of igure P19 ia losed at and there is no initial energy stored in the capac- tance, Determine the equations forthe instantaneous voltage across the capacitance and the current inthe loop and sketch the result © 024F ti + veld = 00 son FIGURE P3-19 2a Te switch in he cic of Figure P3208 closed at 2 and there isan intial voltage stored onthe capacitance as shown, Determine the equation forthe Problems 73 FIGURE 3-20 instantaneous volage across the capacitance and the casreat in he loop abd sketch he ess ‘3.21, Determine the equivalent capaciance of the paral combination of tre capacitors with he following {alues: 2 and 0.1 uF, and 0.005 WF. 3:22, Detennie the equivalent capacitance of the parallel com- pination of five capacitors with equal values of 0.2 uP. 3423. Detemine the equvilen capacitance ofthe series ~ combination of te tre capacitors of Problem 3-2. 324 Determine the equivalent capacitance of the series combination ofthe Bve capacitors of Problem 3-22