Orientation Imaging: The Emergence of a New Microscopy

B R E N T L. ADAMS, STUART I. WRIGHT, and KARSTEN KUNZE

A new microscopy, called orientation imaging microscopy, is described. Imaging results from
precise measurements o f l o c a l lattice orientation facilitated by backscattered Kikuchi diffraction.
The hardware configuration o f the microscope is described, and a formal description o f image
formation is developed. Application o f the method to several cubic materials and material con-
ditions is described. Emphasis is given to those areas o f application where new insight into
polycrystalline microstructures has begun to e m e r g e .

I. INTRODUCTION are revealed, but it is not generally possible to discern

THIS article describes a new microscopy for probing
microstructure in polycrystalline materials. Polycrystal-
line microstructures are extremely rich in diversity, and
no single microscopy can resolve the entire spectrum o f
structures present. New forms o f microscopy inevitably
expose new features o f microstrncture and new insights
into structure-properties relationships.
The microscopy described here is called "orientation
imaging," owing to the fact that contrast is formed by
gradients o f local lattice orientation. More specifically,
backscattered Kikuchipatterns are analyzed to determine
lattice orientation in small localized regions. In its cur-
rent configuration, w h i c h is described in Section II, ori-
entation imaging microscopy utilizes a standard scanning
electron microscope in conjunction with high-gain t e l e -
vision technology to interrogate the flux o f backscattered
electrons emanating from crystalline regions of ~ 0 . 2 / ~ m
in size. Recently developed algorithms for rapidly in-
dexing patterns, coupled with stage (or beam) motion
automation, enable scanning o f the polycrystalline sur-
face with a probe which is extremely sensitive to the
precise lattice orientation at each scan point. The con-
trast obtained in such scanning results from precisely de-
fined spatial gradients in lattice orientation present in the
scanned surface.
At its current state o f development, it is evident that
orientation imaging offers a very attractive coupling o f
several disparate methods o f microstructural inquiry.
Standard optical or scanning electron microscopy relies
heavily upon various mechanisms o f contrast formation
which are related to lattice orientation gradients, but in
rather imprecise ways. T o cite an example, the effect o f
chemical etching o f metallographic surfaces is the for-
mation o f a surface topography w h i c h is dependent upon
crystal orientation. The disturbed l a y e r between grains
may be attacked at a different rate from the grain inte-
riors. Detailed knowledge o f lattice orientation or dis-
orientation effects on etching is rarely known, but
conventional microscopy often relies upon such topo-
graphic variation to form contrast. Thus, the size and
shapes o f grains or crystallites and their chemical phase
B R E N T L. A D A M S , Professor, and K A R S T E N K U N Z E ,
Postdoctoral Associate, are with the Department of Manufacturing
Engineering and Engineering of Technology, Brigham Y o u n g
University, P r o v o , UT 84602. STUART I. WRIGHT, Postdoctoral
Associate, is with Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM
87545.
Manuscript submitted June 4 , 1992.
the lattice orientation o f individual components. In con-
trast, the standard methods o f modern texture analysis,
w h i c h rely upon X-ray o r neutron diffraction, provide
information about volume fractions o f grains o f specified
lattice orientation but no information about grain size,
shape morphology, or spatial distribution. Orientation
imaging couples these two aspects o f microstructure to-
gether in a m a n n e r w h i c h provides exciting new insights.
W e shall first describe, in more detail, the configu-
ration o f the hardware. W e then define orientation im-
aging microscopy as a sequence o f mappings which reveal
contrast in gray scale o r c o l o r based upon precise knowl-
edge o f lattice orientation gradients in the polycrystal.
Examples o f orientation imaging o f several materials and
material conditions are used to illustrate the principal
microstructural features recovered from the microscopy.
Detailed connections to texture analysis are then de-
scribed. Finally, it is illustrated that there are natural
connections o f the orientation imaging technique to a more
recent emphasis on two-point statistical information and
powerful stereological methods, previously under-
exploited, w h i c h extract lattice-orientation- and
disorientation-dependent information about the physical
orientation distribution o f interfaces from several non-
parallel section planes.
I I . A B R I E F R E V I E W OF THE M E T H O D OF
B A C K S C A T T E R E D K I K U C H I DIFFRACTION
When a focused b e a m o f electrons enters a crystalline
material, a shower o f backscattered electrons emanates
in all directions within a small interaction volume ( o f
~ 0 . 2 / z m in diameter). The energy o f these electrons is
reduced only slightly from their initial value. Some o f
these electrons backscatter through the surface, where
the flux pattern they form clearly marks bands o f elec-
trons diffracted from planes in the crystal lattice. The
basic physics o f backscatter diffraction is well described
in an early article o f Blackham et al.,tl] who refer to the
patterns as "high-angle Kikuchi patterns." Reference to
"high-angle" comes from the fact that optimal efficiency
for the backscattering effect occurs when the outward
sample normal is at large angles from the incident b e a m
direction (typically 110 deg). W e shall refer to the pat-
terns as Backscattered Kikuchi Diffraction patterns, o r
BKD patterns, although we note that the term __Electron
B_B_ackScattered diffraction Patterns, o r EBSPs, is also
currently in widespread use.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993--819

 Backscattered Kikuchi diffraction patterns are be-
lieved to contain a wealth o f information about the l o c a l
structure o f the material, but only the lattice orientation
will be o f interest in this article. By "lattice orientation"
we refer to the rotation required to bring a reference lat-
tice into coincidence with the l o c a l lattice, ignoring any
small translations which may be required. The reference
lattice is selected f o r convenience. In cubic materials,
for example, it is easiest to select a reference lattice with
< 1 0 0 > directions fixed in coincidence with an ortho-
normal sample o r laboratory frame {el-e2-e3}. In general,
o 0
however, let the set o f basic vectors, {a~, a2, a3}, char-
acterize the reference lattice such that a°m• en is fixed for
all m, n E {1, 2, 3}. Let {al-a2-a3} denote the basis vec-
tors embedded in the local lattice. W e shall use the sym-
bol g to denote the second-order tensor, g = gij ei ® ej,
o o o
w h i c h takes a l --~ al, a2 ~ a2, and a3 --> a3 such that
0 o
am'a,=am'a~ (re, n = 1 , 2 , 3 ) ,
o o o
(ala2a3) = (ala2a3)
From these conditions, it follows that g-t = g r and det
(g) = + 1. In this article, we shall refer to g as the lattice
orientation.
The r e a d e r will note that the embedding o f a l o c a l lat-
tice frame {a~-a2-a3} is typically not unique. In f a c t , for
every element o f the point symmetry group o f the lattice,
a distinctive choice o f lattice frame related to an initial
choice by the rotation embodied in the symmetry ele-
ment will exist. (We shall deal here only with rotational
aspects o f symmetry w h i c h fully characterize point sym-
metries in centrosymmetric crystal lattices.) Since the
physically distinctive orientations o f the lattice are in-
variant under the action o f elements o f the point sym-
metry group ( i . e . , under different choices o f the l o c a l
lattice basis), we can restrict our attention to the ho-
mogeneous space o f distinctive lattice orientations, G.
Thus, all physically different g belong to G, where G =
S O ( 3 ) / F is the quotient space o f right cosets o f the group
o f special orthogonal rotations, SO(3), with elements o f
the point symmetry group F.
The reader will also note that g = g(x) in polycrystals.
Since we shall be interested in gradients o f g(x), we are
interested not only in G but also in the subspace o f SO(3)
which contains all physically distinctive disorientations
Of the lattice, w h i c h we shall denote as H. Let g and g '
denote two orientations in G. The disorientation between
g and g', Ag, is defined by g ' = A g . g . The subspace
o f physically distinctive disorientations, H, is defined as
the quotient space o f left and right cosets o f SO(3) with
F; i . e . , H = F / S O ( 3 ) / F .
For the reader who is not familiar with the group-
theoretical notion o f lattice orientation and disorienta-
tion, lattices with the cubic crystal symmetry have been
studied in detail and can be accessed in numerous pub-
lications ( c f . , f o r the space G, the specialized work o f
Pospiech et al.,tzJ Hansen et al.,[3~ and the general ref-
erences o f BungeE4~ and Matthies et al., TM a r e recom-
mended; for the disorientation space H, the work o f Zhao
and Adams t6] and Adams et al.t7J can be consulted).
Using an electron-sensitive photographic plate posi-
tioned inside the diffraction chamber, Venables and
Harland reported obtaining high-quality BKD patterns in
820--VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993
1973.tS~ In 1986, more than a decade later, Dingley and
Baba-Kishi described a system f o r interrogating BKD
patterns, formed on a phosphor screen located inside the
microscope chamber, with a high-gain television camera
located outside the chamber, t91 This novel advance led
to interactive computer systems w h i c h allowed the op-
erator to rapidly i n d e x BKD patterns f o r lattice orien-
tation, t9,1°'~1 In this m o d e , the operator is required to
identify two o r more known crystallographic zone axes
in the pattern. From this information, the lattice orien-
tation is easily computed. Another version o f this mode
o
requires the operator to identify several diffraction bands,
from which the interplanar angles and band widths are
obtained in o r d e r to i n d e x the pattern for lattice orien-
tation, t12~ When implemented on any garden-variety per-
sonal computer, a skilled operator can i n d e x about 100
patterns p e r h o u r . The process is very fatiguing, how-
ever, and therefore rather prone to indexing errors when
large data sets are needed.
When indexing is required from a very large n u m b e r
o f locations in the sample ( i . e . , from m a n y locations on
the section p l a n e exposing the microstructure), m a n u a l
indexing is rather impractical. Since 1990, progress has
been made toward the goal o f completely automating the
indexing procedure, and thereby eliminating h u m a n
intervention in the process.
The f i r s t work sought to identify prominent crystal-
lographic zone axes by convoluting the images with a
"Mexican hat" template whose function was to find areas
o f high intensity relative to the surrounding neighbor-
hood. tl3J Although some success was achieved, this
method was found to be overly sensitive to errors in cal-
ibration and to camera distortion.
T h r e e methods have been explored w h i c h attempt to
isolate individual diffraction bands in the BKD patterns.
Juul-Jensen and Schmidt detected bands with an algo-
rithm w h i c h scanned the BKD image line by line, find-
ing the l o c a l intensity maxima,f14~ A scheme was
developed whereby these l o c a l m a x i m a could be con-
nected together to identify the positions o f bands. Wright
and Adams°sj developed a scheme in w h i c h the Burns
algorithm ~j6J is used to extract edges from the l o c a l in-
tensity gradients present in the patterns. It was shown
that by examining long-distance spatial correlations o f
these gradients over the pattern, lines o f correlation are
obtained w h i c h coincide with the edges o f the bands,
thereby enabling a n indexing procedure. More recently,
the identification o f peaks in the Hough transform (which
correspond to lines in the BKD pattern) has been em-
ployed by Lassen et a t . [17] and Kunze e t a l . t~81 to find
bands.
As determined by careful comparisons, indexing via
the Burns and Hough algorithms seems to be equally ro-
bust and reliable, although each method has advantages
f o r certain materials and material conditions, t~81 The ear-
lier methods o f automated indexing °4"15J are no longer
competitive. In the system described in this article, the
indexing o f a single cubic BKD pattern requires, typi-
cally, 2 seconds o f computer time. This rate is quite sen-
sitive to the quality o f the images, w h i c h affects the
n u m b e r o f television frames w h i c h must be averaged to
reduce noise in the patterns. F o r very high-quality pat-
terns, where averaging is not an issue, the rate is also
limited by the speed o f the algorithm.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A
 The reliability and precision o f the Burns and Hough
approaches to automated indexing have been studied and
reported in a separate article. ~18~ Image quality p a r a m e -
ters have been developed for each algorithm, and index-
ing reliability is found to be a strong function o f image
quality. When BKD patterns o f l o w image quality are
eliminated from consideration, the reliability o f correct
indexing typically exceeds 99 pct for both algorithms. If
lower quality patterns are admitted, then this number will
decrease. The angular precision with which BKD pat-
terns can be indexed is more difficult to ascertain. Com-
parison o f automated indexing results with very carefully
(manually) indexed sets has shown that the typical mean
disorientation between the automated results and the
m a n u a l results is less than 1 deg. This result is at least
equivalent, and perhaps better, than similar comparisons
between sets which were manually indexed by more than
one operator.
Test calculations t191 have also demonstrated that the
established algorithms are able to correctly i n d e x sim-
ulated patterns from any possible orientation g ~ G in
the face-centered cubic (fcc) and body-centered cubic (bcc)
crystal structures. In other words, it has not been pos- Fig. 1 - - A typical BKD pattern for hot-rolled iron-1 pct silicon (doped
with 2 0 0 p p m phosphorus) obtained after frame averaging (eight pat-
sible to detect any "dark corners" where the indexing
terns) and background subtraction.
algorithms are not able to correctly i n d e x the simulated
patterns. Even with the inclusion o f simulated experi-
mental errors in the considered band parameters, the in-
dexing procedures remain stable. (We point out that
nonunique solutions can occur in cases where an insuf-
ficient number o f bands has been detected. This happens
with patterns o f low band contrast as well as when the
solid angle in the interrogated diffraction cone is not suf-
ficiently large. W e find a small region o f G in the case
o f bcc materials where this occurs f o r solid angles ac-
cessed in our experimental apparatus. Efforts are being
considered to eliminate this small zone o f confusion.)
Based upon these results, we have concluded that
automated indexing o f BKD patterns results in an im-
provement over manual indexing, in both reliability and
precision.
Figure 1 shows a typical BKD pattern obtained from
iron ( + 2 0 0 ppm phosphorus). The relatively high
Z-number f o r this material results in very high-quality
patterns. This particular image obtains from averaging
eight television frames, followed by subtracting a back-
ground image. Figure 2 illustrates this same pattern after
band detection via the Hough transform. The bands are
obtained from peaks in the transform, and the indexing
follows from detailed knowledge o f interplanar angles
and spacing. The fully indexed pattern is shown in Fig. 2--Illustration o f band identification for the pattern shown i n
Fig. 1 b y the Hough transform.
Figure 3.

III. ORIENTATION I M A G I N G A schematic o f the current hardware configuration o f

Although the concept o f orientation imaging was sug-
gested at least two decades ago by Haessner and co-
workers, t2°~ the potential o f orientation scanning as a new
form o f microscopy could not be realized until r a p i d ,
automated indexing o f diffraction patterns became a
reality. When rapid indexing is coupled with computer-
controlled stage (or beam) motion, orientation imaging
becomes a reality.
our orientation mapping microscope is shown in
Figure 4. High-quality BKD patterns are obtained using
an intensified silicon, integrated target (ISIT) fiber optic
camera. The fiber optic bundle is coated on one end with
a phosphor. Use o f a fiber optic removes image distor-
tions present in conventional camera lenses. The camera
control unit is capable o f averaging a variable n u m b e r
of video images (up to 128); the actual n u m b e r used is
based upon the typical quality o f the patterns and is a

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993 - - 821


Fig. 3--Illustration of the indexing of the pattern shown in Fig. 1
b a s e d upon bands detected by the Hough transform.
function o f Z-number, strain level in the sample, and the
quality o f the mechanical and electropolishing proce-
dure. A background image is obtained from a large num-
b e r o f grains when the scanning electron microscope
(SEM) is in scanning m o d e . This background image is
stored and then subtracted from each averaged image.
The sample holder is fixed upon a piezoelectric x-y stage,
w h i c h is mounted such that the outward sample normal
makes an angle o f 110 deg from the direction o f the e l e c -
tron beam. The flirt sample surface lies in the eucentric
I SEMI
Control
Unit
I ~ ~ ' J :~ F:~:v,b. er;pticsJ, Camera I
tvacou=\
|.~.h.amber ___~_.] \_ !i
n~n'
x-ystage
I ~
I I Camera
Control --~
Unit
Stage
Control
Unit
Fig. 4--Schematic description of hardware for the orientation imaging microscope.
822--VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993
plane such that its surface remains in focus with motions
o f the x-y stage. The stage is capable o f motions as small
as 0.1 /zm, with a total range o f travel o f 27 x 26 mm.
Reproducibility over the entire r a n g e o f travel is 0.25
[tm. The camera control unit and the stage control unit
are interfaced to a minisupercomputer w h i c h consists o f
four 25 MIPS processors. This computer provides cen-
tral control f o r both the stage and the video camera unit.
A frame capture board is installed in this computer to
facilitate capture o f the BKD patterns from the camera
control unit. Algorithms f o r indexing the patterns
take advantage o f the parallel architecture o f the
minisupercomputer.
A. Definition of Orientation Imaging Microscopy in
Terms of Mappings
Although it is possible to discuss orientation imaging
in very simple t e r m s , here we take a more formal ap-
proach w h i c h facilitates associations o f the m e t h o d with
other methods o f microstructural inquiry. It is worth
pointing out, however, that, at an elementary level, ori-
entation imaging microscopy is nothing more than as-
signing color o r gray scale to portions of the section plane
based upon l o c a l lattice orientation. The choice o f c o l o r
or gray scale is selected by the observer according to his
interest o r bias. In the following, we shall take a deeper
look at the process o f image formation in orientation im-
aging microscopy.
Orientation imaging microscopy results from a well-
defined sequence o f operations:
(1) Let P denote a subspace o f the two-dimensional sec-
tion p l a n e ~t2 in w h i c h microstructural inquiry is per-
formed. (We shall t h i n k o f P as a compact subset o f ~2.)
Embed in P a set o f points. Lattice orientation will be
Mini-
Supercornputer
movestage
Start Image
~.- PrCoacessing
pture
Image
Obtain Orientation
fromImage
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A
obtained from the crystallite lying in the neighborhood
o f each point belonging to the measurement set. For the
purposes o f this article, it is convenient to select a mea-
surement set M which represents a subset o f the two-
dimensional point lattice L, defined by basis vectors 11
and 12 and an origin x°. Thus, the measurement set M is
defined in terms o f a set o f pairs o f integers S --- {(ml,
nO, (m2, n2), •. . . . . (mrs, nr0} such that every point o f
M is expressed as x = x° + mi 11 + ni 12, where (mi, ni)
E S. Notice that x E M C P. The resolution o f orien-
tation imaging microscopy is defined by the length o f !1
and 12. Image contrast will result from gradients in g(x)
over distances no smaller than the lengths o f these basis
vectors.
W e require a partitioning o f P w h i c h arises from our
choice o f the set M . Consider an arbitrary point x E P.
Let Ix - x~] denote the distance between x ~ P and xi
E M C P. When such distances are considered for the
entire set M , it is evident that several possibilities exist:
(1) there exists a particular element o f M f o r w h i c h
Ix - x~{ is a minimum; (2) there exist two elements, say
x/ and xj, such that Ix - xiI = Ix - xj[ < Ix - x~[ for
any xk E M , i # j # k; and (3) there may exist three or
four elements o f M whose distance from x~ is equivalent
and whose common distance is less than the distance to
any other members o f M. The partitioning we define here
is particularly simple: an interior patch, Pi, and boundary
patches, OPo, aPok, and OPo,t are associated with each
element xi, xj, xk, xt E M (i ¢ j ~ k ~ 1). The value o f
Pg is defined to be {x [ x ~ P, and x satisfies condi-
tion (1) for xi E M}. The value o f OP0 is defined to be
{x [ x E P, and x satisfies condition (2) f o r x~, xj E M,
i # j}. The patches OP~jk and OPo,t are defined in an anal-
ogous m a n n e r when condition (3) is satisfied. W e shall
insist that the union o f all such interior and boundary
patches w h i c h can be created from P and M is equal to
P. Let the set o f all such patches o f the type P~ be de-
noted as 8"1. Similarly, let 8"2, 8"3, and 8"4 denote the
collections o f all boundary patches o f the type aPij, oPijk,
and OPijkt, respectively. W e shall refer to the union
o f the set o f all patches as 8"; thus, 8" = 8"1 U 8"2 U
8"3 U 8"4.
Having defined 8" to consist o f the partitioning o f P,
we note the existence o f a function qb~:p --~ 8" w h i c h
associates each x C P with an element o f the partition-
ing,A E 8". The function O1 is the first element o f the
sequence o f mappings defining orientation imaging
microscopy.
(2) A partitioning o f G is selected according to the
interest o f the microscopist. It is this partitioning w h i c h
will fix the contrast in orientation imaging. G can be
partitioned into a finite n u m b e r o f subspaces G~ C G
such that U Gi = G. Let G* denote the partitioning set
{Gil Gi C G and U Gi = G}. There are an infinite num-
ber o f ways o f partitioning. Each choice will facilitate
an interpretation w h i c h substantially depends upon the
details o f this choice. It is precisely this characteristic o f
manifold choices o f partitioning w h i c h distinguishes ori-
entation imaging microscopy from other forms o f
microscopy. The reader should note that establishment
o f G* fixes the resolution o f lattice orientation in the
problem. More precisely, it is the trace o f the largest
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A
disorientation Ag = g,g-1 where g , g ' ~ Gi, w h i c h es-
tablishes the resolution for orientations falling in the sub-
space Gi.
With a selected G* established, the second element o f
orientation imaging microscopy can be defined. F o r this
purpose we require the p o w e r set o f G*, here denoted
as P(G*), w h i c h is defined as P(G*) = {G*' I G*' C
G*}. The second element o f orientation imaging mi-
croscopy is embodied in the function 02:8" ----> P(G*),
w h i c h assigns to each element o f the partitioning set 8"
one element o f the p o w e r set o f G*, P(G*). The partic-
ular element o f the p o w e r set assigned to any particular
element o f the partitioning set is simply defined by the
set o f lattice orientations associated with points belong-
ing to the patch. Thus, if A E 8"1, an element o f the
p o w e r set consisting o f a single subspace Gi will be se-
lected on the basis o f the l o c a l lattice orientation g(x)
Gi for all x ~ 8". Similarly, if~ E 8"2, then an element
o f the p o w e r set consisting o f two subspaces, Gi and Gj
(i ~ j), will be selected on the basis that each p o i n t x
E,~ is associated with two lattice orientations gl(x) E G/
and gz(x) E Gj (i.e., at an intercrystalline interface). The
obvious extension o f this process to 8"3 and 8"4 is re-
quired to completely define the mapping ~2.
(3) Having partitioned the section plane and the orien-
tation space according to the resolution required by the
microscopist, the finalstep is to graphically represent the
contrast present in the p o w e r set P(G*). This follows
from the use o f gray scale o r color. Let the set C denote
the colors o r gray scales available to the investigator. C
will be a finite set; it must contain sufficient elements
that it becomes possible to construct a third function
qb3:P(G*) ----> C w h i c h assigns to each element o f the
p o w e r set a c o l o r o r gray scale. It is this aspect o f ori-
entation imaging w h i c h interfaces with h u m a n physiol-
ogy to form the impression o f contrast.
Orientation imaging can thus be formally defined by
the sequential operation o f these three functions. For any
x ~ P, we assign a c o l o r c E C according to the com-
posite function ~ ,
O ( x ) = ~3 (clh ( O l ( x ) ) ) = c
where, by way o f summary,
O1: P ~ 8" maps any point on the section p l a n e onto
the set o f patches derived from the chosen mea-
surement grid;
02 : g' --~ P(G*) assigns to any patch a n element o f
the p o w e r set formed from partitioning the space o f
lattice orientation;
~3 : P(G*) ~ C illustrates an element o f the p o w e r
set o f lattice orientation partitioning by a c o l o r or
l e v e l o f gray scale.
B . Examples o f Orientation Imaging Microscopy
W e shall now illustrate orientation imaging micros-
copy with several examples o f the defined procedure.
Figure 5 illustrates the role o f scaling in the measure-
ment set M as it determines the spatial resolution o f ori-
entation imaging. Illustrated in this figure are three scans
over hexagonal grids o f varying scale (2.5, 10, and 30
tzm) in an as-cast 1100 aluminum sample. The locations
VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1 9 9 3 - - 8 2 3
o f points belonging to the measurement sets M have been when they lie between 10 and 20 deg. This is to be com-
superimposed to illustrate effects arising from scaling. pared with Figure 7, where, in addition to boundary con-
The c o l o r set C in this example consists o f three scale trast (this time by disorientation exceeding 15 d e g ) , the
levels: C = {white, t h i n , thick}. Contrast in the image grain interiors (elements in ~1) are given a gray scale
was formed by assigning a t h i c k o r thin gray scale line according to image quality. The darkest l e v e l indicates
to boundaries (elements in ~2) for w h i c h the magnitude the poorest l e v e l o f image quality. Figures 6 and 7 are
o f lattice disorientation, Ag = g'. g-l, exceeds 10 deg to be further compared with the secondary electron im-
o r lies in the range of 5 to 10 deg, respectively. Here age for this same region, as shown in Figure 8. W e clearly
we define the magnitude o f disorientation, say to(g, g'), see consistently poorer image quality near grain bound-
tobe aries because o f overlap o f the diffraction images. It is
also seen that other defects on the surface, such as pits
to(g, g') = arcos [~ ~m_ax.strace (yjg'g-~) - 1 ) ] or debris, likewise yield a l o w e r image quality. Careful
examination suggests that image quality is affected by
lattice orientation and by local variations in the surface
where 7j E F and J is the order o f F. O t h e r elements o f condition, w h i c h may originate in the electropolishing
are assigned no line (white). procedure.
The reader will notice hexagonally shaped holes ap- Figure 9 illustrates a combination o f two forms o f con-
pearing in some boundaries. These often occur at points trast in orientation imaging microscopy applied to a sam-
in M sufficiently near interfaces such that the diffraction ple o f fully recrystallized high-purity aluminum. In this
pattern reflects an overlap of two o r three crystallites.
When such overlap occurs, poor-quality images form
which are particularly susceptible to incorrect indexing.
It is evident that such errors will occur more frequently
when the characteristic scale o f the microstructure (grain
dimension) approaches the resolution limit. These hex-
agonal defects can be eliminated by implementing an al-
gorithm w h i c h detects measurement points whose lattice
orientation differs from all o f its neighbors. (Such an
algorithm presumes that such points always represent in-
correctly indexed patterns.)
Figure 6 shows an imaging o f grain boundaries similar
to that described in the previous example. The material
is hot-rolled iron-3 pct silicon doped with 200 p p m phos-
phorus. The step size in M is 10 /zm, and boundaries
(elements in ~2) are highlighted with solid lines when
the disorientation exceeds 20 deg or with dashed lines 100.0 I,I ~ ~::'10 step~ bounda~ >20.00 (1O0°)

Fig. 6--Orientation i m a g i n g of hot-rolled iron-1 pct silicon (doped

with 200 p p m phosphorus). Highlighted b y the i m a g i n g are interfaces
,." i¸ . . . . . . . . .
with to > 2 0 deg m i n i m u m disorientation (black lines) and with
10 deg _< to _< 2 0 deg m i n i m u m disorientation (dashed lines). T h e

i
spatial resolution is 1 0 / z m .

.;"

/
// _
120Fro:
!
10
. _ .
5

o..-'

40ttm - 10° - 5*
iiii!iii
~
iiiiiiiiiiiiii
iii iiiiiii:il
10ttm 10"
- - 5* Fig. 7--Illustration of variable image quality i n orientation imaging
(to be compared with Fig. 6). Dark gray s c a l e denotes the poorest
Fig. 5 - Illustration of orientation imaging in as-cast 1100 aluminum image quality. Boundaries are shown in black lines when the m i n i -
at three different scales of inquiry ( 2 . 5 , 10, and 30/zm). mum disorientation to > 15 deg.

824--VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A


Fig. 8--Secondary electron image photograph corresponding t o the
region of orientation i m a g i n g shown in Figs. 6 and 7.
case, elements o f O, are given an intermediate gray scale
level if they associate with lattice orientations lying near
the {100}-(001) cube orientation. The d a r k e r gray scale
in grain interiors indicates lattice orientation lying within
10 deg o f the cube orientation, whereas the lighter gray
scale indicates orientations between 10 and 20 deg o f the
cube. Elements o f O2 are given a t h i c k line if they cor-
respond to disorientations exceeding 20 deg, and a thin
line if they exceed 10 deg, but less than o r equal to 20.
This second form o f contrast helps in visualizing the
grains. All other elements o f O are assigned an absence
o f gray scale.
From the same data set, other interesting forms o f the
function ~3 can be chosen. This is illustrated in
Figure 10, where darker, t h i c k lines have been used to
highlight all components o f O2 w h i c h satisfy Brandon's
criterion 121~ f o r coincident site lattice (CSL) boundaries
with E -< 29. Because o f the pronounced cube texture
in this material, these consist primarily o f boundaries with
rotations about the (100) axis; i.e., ~5, ~13a, ]~17a, 2~25a,
and E29a.
Fig. 9--Orientation i m a g i n g of cold-worked and fully recrystallized high-purity a l u m i n u m (rolling-normal-plane). Orientation imaging contrast
in the grain interiors is by proximity to the {100}(001) cube orientation (darker gray s c a l e indicates t0 < 10 d e g , and intermediate gray s c a l e
indicates 10 deg ~< ~o -< 2 0 deg m i n i m u m disorientation from the cube component). Imaging contrast in the boundaries is by absolute disorientation
(09 > 20 deg in t h i c k dark lines and 10 deg -< ~o _< 20 deg in thin dark lines).
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A
An interesting feature seen in both Figures 9 and 10
is the impression o f incomplete grain boundaries w h i c h
terminate in grain interiors. It should be evident that no
such terminations can exist; and in fact, more detailed
observation reveals that all boundaries are complete.
However, gradients in lattice disorientation along inter-
faces are observed, even in this fully recrystallized ma-
terial, giving rise to the observed discontinuities. In f a c t ,
some degree o f lattice bending is observed when the BKD
probe approaches some interfaces, which no doubt ac-
counts for some o f the observed gradients.
One o f the strengths o f orientation imaging micros-
copy is the ability to focus attention on the myriad de-
tails present in polycrystalline microstructures. When such
detail is observed, it is no longer a simple matter to de-
fine what is m e a n t by grain size. This point is also em-
phasized by comparing Figures 6 and 8, where it is seen
that many boundaries are not seen in the secondary e l e c -
tron photograph, presumably because the topographic
contrast does not have sufficient resolution in G.
As a final example, consider an interesting form o f
orientation imaging microscopy applied to commercially
pure (as-cast) 1100 aluminum w h i c h has endured a 40
pct height reduction by channel-die compression at am-
bient temperature. F o r the coloring set C, four colors
were selected, each with 16 different shadings. These
have been used to identify lattice orientations o f partic-
ular interest and their spread around their peak values in
the orientation distribution function. The space o f dis-
tinct orientations o f a cubic lattice, G, is contained within
the range o f Euler angles o f rotation (~0,, ~b, ~02) shown
in Figure 11. (Definitions o f these angles are given in
Bunge. t41) The contours indicate l e v e l values o f the ori-
entation distribution function in units o f times-random
occurrence. The blue and red colors have been assigned
elements o f P(G*) whose orientations are centered upon
the two variants o f the ideal copper orientation, {112}(1 li>
and {112}(iil), w h i c h are statistically equivalent under
the action o f orthorhombic specimen symmetry. Green
and y e l l o w have been assigned elements o f P(G*) whose
orientations are centered upon the two variants o f the
i d e a l brass orientation, {011}(21i) and {011}(2il), re-
spectively. The 16 shadings are arranged over the spread
VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993--825
Fig. 10--Orientation imaging of cold-worked and fully recrystallized high-purity aluminum. C o n t r a s t in the grain boundaries is b y proximity to
C S L disorientations, ]~ -< 29, for the wide lines and minimum disorientations of o~ > 15 deg for the narrow lines.
of lattice orientation lying within 20 deg of absolute dis-
orientation from the peak orientations. Darkest shadings
have the least disorientation, and lightest shadings have
the largest levels of disorientation. All other elements of
P(G*) are colored either black or gray. When elements
of P(G*) consist of two elements of G, associated w i t h
elements of 02, whose minimum disorientation exceeds
20 deg, that element is colored black. Thus, C consists
of 66 elements.
Figure 12 illustrates this particular orientation imaging
for a section parallel to the rolling plane (containing the
unconstrained (rolling) and transverse directions). The
breakup of grains into subgrains upon channel-die
compression is evident from the shading variation over
individual grains. A careful view of this figure also il-
lustrates the inherent problems associated with any color-
partitioning of a multiply connected and curved space
such as G. It is observed that an even higher incidence
of incomplete boundaries is present in this figure as com-
pared with Figure 10. This reflects an increase in intra-
granular disorientation gradients arising from plastic
deformation.
IV. CONNECTIONS OF
ORIENTATION I M A G I N G
WITH M O D E R N T E X T U R E ANALYSIS
It is instructive to consider the connections between
crystallographic texture analysis and orientation imaging
microscopy. The principal object of interest in the mod-
ern texture analysis is the function called the orientation
distribution function (ODF). (We have already shown an
example of the ODF in Figure 11) Formally, the ODF
is a function over the space of distinct orientations of the
lattice to the positive real line: i.e., f : G ~ ~ . It gives
the volume density of occurrence of lattice orientation g
E G in the polycrystal. Let dg denote the invariant mea-
sure of an infinitesimal neighborhood, N(g) C G sur-
rounding g. (Invariant measures ensure that any choice
of partitioning of G into neighborhoods always results
in an identical integrated measure over the whole space
G. 1221) We choose the normalization of the invariant
measure such that
fo dg 1 figures. It is now well known that this method obtains,
826--VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993
The ODF is then defined to be the volume density of the
polycrystal associated with crystallites of orientation g;
thus, for g E N(g) with invariant measure dg, w e have
d V / V = f (g) dg
So defined, the ODF has an obvious normalization
dg
fJ(g) = 1
The connection of the ODF t o orientation imaging
microscopy is straightforward. From Delesse's principle
of stereology, it is known that v o l u m e fractions can be
equated to area fractions in random sections cut from the
polycrystal. Thus, if the area fraction d A / A of crystal-
lites exposed in the section plane with lattice orientation
in the neighborhood N(g) is known, then
dA / A = f (g) dg
In the context of orientation imaging microscopy, let dA(T)
denote the area measure of the set of patches T = { ~
E @l, ~ ( / ~ ) E N(g)}. It follows that the ODF is
d A ( T ) / A = f (g) dg
where A = A(~) is the finite measure of area of the en-
tire set of patches, ~.
When a lattice is chosen for the measurement set M ,
the area measure of each individual e l e m e n t ~ E ~ l is
equal; thus, dA = dA(~) for all,~ E ~ . Note also that
A = A(P) = A ( ~ ) = A(~'), since the area measures A(~2)
= A ( ~ 3 ) = A ( ~ 4 ) = 0 . It follows that A = N(M)dA,
where N(M) is the number of measurements in M . (This
is actually an approximation in real measurement sets,
since a small fraction of points in the measurement set
will fall so near the boundary that their image quality
will be poor and their indexing not possible.) Now let
d N ( T ) denote the number of elements in set T. Thus,
d A / A = d N ( T ) / N ( M ) , and
dN(T)/N(M) = f ( g ) dg
It has been common, in the discipline of m o d e m tex-
ture analysis, t o estimate the ODF by solving an integral
equation connecting the ODF with crystallographic pole
not the complete ODF, but an "even" part of it due to
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A
 the ODF illustrated in Figure 11, w h i c h has been ob-
tained from a data set o f size N(M) > 105, contains no
55 ~ "ghost effect."
A further example is shown which relates to Figure 9.
The size o f M for this example was N(M) = 7544. From
the BKD measurements on M, a true ODF can be esti-
m a t e d according to the procedures just outlined.
Figure 13 shows a collection o f three pole figures ({111},
60 + {200}, and {220}) obtained directly from the individual
grain orientations. The strong {100}(001) cube compo-
nent o f the texture is immediately evident in this figure.
Also noted is a (001) fiber component, parallel to the
rolling direction, w h i c h is most evident in the spread o f
(100) axes in the ND-TD plane in the {200} pole figure.
65 °
Figure 14 shows the estimated true ODF f o r this data
set. (Here, the traditional method o f Fourier series ex-
pansion i4'5~ has been used with truncation at L = 47 and
a 5-deg Gaussian spread around each measurement point.)
!"II !- . " " = " Notice that the peak height in the ODF is 4 2 . 3 8 times
70 ~ random. The minimum negative level o f - 0 . 0 2 is ex-
tremely small and due to truncation errors. Using the
traditional method o f pole-figure analysis to obtain the
ODF can uniquely obtain only the even terms o f the se-
Is/~./tl/llttltl'l~$E~ ries expansion. I4,51 Shown in Figure 15 is the even part
o f the ODF obtained by setting to zero all o f the odd
75 + components in the series expansion. This estimates what
would naturally be obtained from ordinary pole-figure
texture analysis. The results are evident, with much higher
levels o f negative appearing (highlighted by g r a y , min-
imum l e v e l is - 1 . 5 8 times random), and l o w e r peak
heights o f 33.42 times random. The presence o f "phan-
80+ tom" o r "ghost" peaks are evident, particularly in the ~P2
= 0 section. The superiority o f the true ODF, as ob-
tained from the orientation imaging microscopy, is rather
evident in this example.

05+
~2i
• 90°
Contours: 1.0 2_0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Fig. 11--The ODF for as-cast and 4 0 pct channel-die compressed
1100 aluminum. C o n t o u r lines are in u n i t s of times r a n d o m . Euler
angles reside in the ranges 0 deg -< q~ -< 3 6 0 deg, 0 deg ~< ~P2 ~<
90 deg, 5 5 deg -< ~b _< 9 0 deg. Superimposed colors d e n o t e orien-
tations lying near the ideal copper orientation (blue and red) and the
ideal brass orientation (green and yellow). The spread in each color
represents spread in the minimum disorientation, about the ideal ori-
entation, of ~o < 20 deg.
an imposed centrosymmetry (Friedel's law) in the pole
figures. 145' 1 The absence o f part o f the ODF gives rise to
the so-called "ghost effect" o f texture analysis. It is im-
portant to note that the method for obtaining the ODF
by orientation imaging microscopy is not afflicted by
"ghost" effects. The true ODF is accessed directly. Thus,
V. CONNECTIONS OF ORIENTATION
I M A G I N G W I T H T E X T U R E S OF
INTERCRYSTALLINEINTERFACES
An interesting connection can be established between
orientation imaging microscopy and certain established
methods o f stereology w h i c h have the object o f discov-
ering the surface area per unit volume o f intercrystalline
interfaces which exhibit specified physical orientation and
lattice orientation on each side o f the interface. The con-
nections established by stereology include a connection
o f this function with the number o f intersections o f a
r a n d o m line p e r unit length o f line with boundaries o f
particular character or with the direct observation o f
interface intersections with the section plane. H e r e , a few
details o f these connections are stated, without proof.
The interested r e a d e r will need to consult the work o f
Hilliard,t231 Adams,~z41 and Adams and co-workers tz5-291
for technical details.
Let the function Sv(g, n, g') represent the surface area
per unit volume o f interface with interface normal n and
described by lattice orientation g in the direction o f the
tail o f n and lattice orientation g ' in the direction o f the
head o f n. Thus, Sv = G × S2 × G----> ~ , where S2
denotes the unit sphere o f possible directions o f the inter-
face normal vector n . Our focus shall be upon a "non

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993--827

Fig. 12--Orientation imaging of a section parallel to the rolling plane in as-cast and 4 0 pct channel-diecompressed 1100 aluminum. Boundaries
are highlighted with dark lines for m i n i m u m disorientations to > 20 deg. Coloring of the grains according t o t h e i r orientation corresponds to the
code given in Fig. 11.

sided" form of this function defined by Sv(g, n, g') =

[Sv(g, n, g') + Sv(g, - n, g ' ) ] / 2 .
The stereology of interest here is established between
~qv(g, n, g') and pairs of BKD measurements on the lat-
tice M. Define a new set M M ( r ) C M x M , which con- RecrystallizedAluminum (7544 datapoints)
sists of all pairs of points in M separated by the vector
r. It is evident that to every element m E M M ( r ) there
associates an element of the set G x G specifying the
lattice orientation at the tail of r and at its head. Define
the functionfz(g, g'lr),f2 : G x G --~ ~ to be the number
fraction density of points in M M ( r ) which have orien- TD TD
tation g at the tail of r and g' at its head. Let dN(g, g'lr)
be the number of pairs in M M ( r ) which have x E M
falling in an infinitesimal neighborhood N(g) C G of
measure dg surrounding g, and x + r E M falling in an
infinitesimal neighborhood N(g') C G of measure dg'
RD RD
surrounding g'. This number is given by f2(g, g'lr) ac-
cording t o

dN(g, g'lr) = N(MM(r))f2(g, g'lr) dgdg'

In the limit that the magnitude of r is small compared
to the characteristic size of the constituent crystallites 'ID
present in the polycrystal, there exists a formal connec-
tion between the "non sided" average off2(g, g'[r), de-
noted as f2(g, f l r) = [f2(g, g ' [ r ) + f2(g, g ' l r ) ] / 2 , and
Sv(g, n, g'). The fundamental stereological relation is1291
RD
limitf2(g, g ' l r ) = ~ ~¢v(g, n, g ' ) l r " nldn Fig. 13--[111], [200], and [220] pole figures obtained in 7 5 4 4 mea-
N~o 3s2 surements in fully recrystallized high-purity aluminum.

828--VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

 ¢~2=0 ~2=5 ~,2=ID ~2=15

~2=20 ¢~2=25 ~2=30 ¢2=35 ,~2:=20 qp2~2~ ~2~30 ip2=35

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

~2=40 (p2=45 ~2=50 %02=55

¢p2=60 q~2=65 ~p2=70 ¢p2=75

' o Maximum 42.37 Maximum33.42

Minimum -.02 Minimum -1.58
ContourLevels Contour Levels
1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 |0.0 1.0 2.0 5.0
20.0 30.0 40.0 ~I0.0 20.0 30.0
, .

~2=80 q~2=85 ~p2=90 ¢2~80 ¢2=g5 ¢2=90

F i g . 1 4 - - T h e true (even + o d d , l < 47) ODF o b t a i n e d from 7544 Fig. 1 5 - - T h e O D F (even only, I -< 47) obtained from 7544 orien-
orientation measurements i n fully recrystallized high-purity alumi- tation measurements in fully recrystallized high-purity aluminum. Level
num. Level contours are i n units of times random. c o n t o u r s are in units of times r a n d o m (areas with negative values are
shaded).

In this expression, d n is the measure o f surface area

for an infinitesimal patch o f surface on S2 surrounding function (MDF), since Ag E H (the space o f physically
direction n . distinctive disorientations between two lattices described
Although details cannot be provided h e r e , this integral in Section II).
equation can be solved if sufficient measurements have The M D F for hot-worked iron-1 pct silicon (doped with
been made in a sufficient number o f directions o f r to 200 p p m phosphorus) is shown in Figure 16. Although
adequately cover $2.[~3-281 The function Sv(g, n , g') con- the ODF f o r this material is quite r a n d o m (maximum
tains eight independent parameters (three f o r each o f the peak intensities o f about 3 times r a n d o m in the ODF),
orientation variables and two defining the direction o f the M D F clearly shows a non r a n d o m structure. Espe-
the interface normal). It is often o f interest to reduce this cially evident is the peak centered about the E3 dis-
function to simpler versions which capture a restricted orientation occurring with the intensity o f 21 times
portion o f the full information. random. This glaring difference emphasizes the fact that
Here we cite such an example, which is related to the the ODF and the M D F are measures o f separate aspects
set o f measurements associated with the ODF shown in o f microstructure.
Figure 9. Although only one section plane has been shown
(i.e., in Figure 10), measurements o f comparable extent
were performed on three orthogonal section planes. Thus, VI. S U M M A R Y A N D DISCUSSION
a set o f directions coarsely covering S2 was possible from
Orientation imaging microscopy presents views o f
w h i c h the aforementioned stereology was enabled. Here
polycrystalline microstructure o f unprecedented detail.
we show results obtained for the function Sv(Ag), w h i c h
Because the observer is required to precisely define spa-
is obtained from the full function Sv(g, n , g') by the
tial and orientational resolution, orientation imaging
expression
microscopy has a distinctively quantitative character as
compared to ordinary forms o f optical and scanning e l e c -
'v(Ag)=fG'f'v(g,n, Ag'g)dndg tron microscopy. W e have illustrated this quantitative
character by outlining connections of the microscopy with
the modern texture analysis and with stereological anal-
The function is known as the misorientation distribution ysis o f grain boundary textures.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1 9 9 3 - - 8 2 9


q~=90° = 88° = 86°
= 84° = 8 2° @ = 80°
q~= 78° q~= 76° = 74°
90°
Maximum 9.448
Minimum 0.008
~2
Contour Levels:
1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 5.0
cpl
8.0 0 °
q~= 72°
Fig. 1 6 - - T h e MDF obtained from measurements in hot-rolled
iron-1 pet silicon (doped with 200 ppm phosphoms).
From the examples given, it is evident that orientation
imaging microscopy will challenge some long-standing
views in the materials science community. It is no longer
clear, for example, what is meant by g r a i n size. Using
conventional microscopy, it is not easy to identify the
character of boundaries from which the observed con-
trast originates. Any particular technique no doubt ex-
cluded certain boundaries, but the character of those
excluded is not typically defined. With orientation im-
a g i n g microscopy, all boundaries exhibiting absolute
disorientations exceeding about 1 deg can be imaged.
The choice of parameters used to form the image will
substantially influence the apparent grain size. (We em-
phasize that minimum disorientation is only one way of
forming contrast by orientation imaging. Other choices
might emphasize particular axes of rotation or particular
CSL character.) This leads us t o wonder about the in-
fluence of g r a i n boundary structure distribution on yield
strength and other properties.
It is also evident that polycrystals show variations of
disorientation on a single facet of the interface. These
gradients are observed in fully recrystallized micro-
structures and seem t o increase in frequency and strength
with deformation. It is the impression of the authors that
the influence of this aspect of microstructure on ob-
served phenomena and properties has not been exten-
sively investigated.
830--VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993
Another interesting aspect of microstructures which
can be studied via orientation imaging microscopy is the
connectivity of microstructure. Connectivities of the grain
interior and interface components can be studied. For
example, Figure 10 illustrates two classes of grain
boundary disorientation character: one class is charac-
terized by absolute disorientations exceeding 15 deg, and
the other is characterized by satisfying Brandon's cri-
teflon for coincidence character w i t h X ~ 29. (Clearly,
the boundaries with near coincidence character are con-
tained in the first class, which is more inclusive.) It is
apparent that the distances over which the boundaries of
near coincidence character are connected are typically
small compared t o the more inclusive class. In fact, con-
nections over more than one boundary facet are quite
rare. The more extensive class (with oJ -> 15 deg) is ob-
viously connected over the entire height and breadth of
the sample plane. It is evident that intermediate defini-
tions would exist for which the connectivity distance
would vary up t o a percolation limit over l a r g e distances.
We shall defer further discussion and examples of these
interesting features to another article.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish t o acknowledge sponsorship of this
work by the National Science Foundation under a
Materials Research G r o u p s Award. The connections of
90° this work t o stereology, outlined in Section V, were
developed w i t h funding from the Office of Basic Energy
Sciences of the United States Department of Energy.
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VOLUME 24A, APRIL 1993--831