Topic 4&9 Waves

Wave Basics

𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 − 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑡!

Frequency: number of waves per second [Hertz, Hz]
Time period: time for one wave [Seconds, s]
1 1
𝑇= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 =
𝑓 𝑇
Longitudinal wave: the oscillations are parallel to the direction of propagation (or of energy
transfer) of the wave.
Example: Sound, some seismic, some mechanical waves.

Representing it as transverse

Transverse wave: oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of propagation (or energy
transfer) of the wave.
Example: light and most waves
**Determining the direction a point in the wave.

Imagine you are on a boat?

Phase: points are in phase in a wave or different waves if they are at the same point in their cycle.
Phase difference: this is how far apart two points are in a wave (the distance)
Can be expressed as:
Angle deg
Angle rads
Fraction of cycle
Fraction of 𝜆
Angle deg Angle rads Fraction of cycle Fraction of 𝝀
In phase 0 or 360nº 0 or 2𝜋n n or multiples n or multiples
Half a cycle Odd 𝑛(180), Odd coefficients 1 1
(𝑛 + ) 𝜆 (𝑛 + ) 𝜆
out of phase 180, 270, 540… (𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋 … ) 2 2

** I don’t think the last two columns are right

The principle of superposition
When two (or more) waves meet at a point, the resultant displacement is equal to the sum of the
individual displacements of the waves.
Constructive interference: occurs when two waves meet in phase.

Destructive interference: when two waves meet out of phase, they cancel out.

Path difference: the difference in the distance that two waves

have travelled to meet at a certain point.
For Constructive Interference to occur, the path difference
must be 𝑛𝜆.
For Destructive Interference to occur, path difference must
1
be (𝑛 + ) 𝜆.
2

Coherent waves: waves which have the same frequency, phase relationship and a fixed phase
difference
Wave front: a line along which all points have the same phase (usually a crest).
Ray: a line showing the direction of a wave.

Simple Harmonic Motion

NOTE: ALL angles must be in radians!!!
Two conditions need to be met for a body to perform simple harmonic motion:
1. The force (or acceleration) acting on the body must be proportional to its
displacement from an equilibrium position.
2. The force must point towards the equilibrium position.
Easy to remember: 𝑓 ∝ −𝑥

As it oscillates, the ball creates a curve like so:

Circular motion
If we create a circle with radius 𝑥0 and we have our oscillator
(in SHM) as it goes around the circle at constant speed the
vertical component of the displacement is given b 𝑥 (blue line).
2𝜋 360 𝜃
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜔 = = =
𝑇 𝑇 𝑡

⇒ 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) It can also be:
𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡(𝜔𝑡) 𝑖𝑡 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠.

Displacement, velocity and acceleration

By calculating the derivatives of the displacement we can find the velocity and displacement.

Displacement 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)

Velocity 𝑣 = −𝑥0 𝜔𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) 𝑣 = 𝑥0 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)

Acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑥0 𝜔2 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) 𝑎 = −𝑥0 𝜔2 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)

Remember 𝑥0 is the peak or maximum displacement (Amplitude).

Two useful formulas
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥 and 𝑣 = ±𝜔√(𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 )

Maximums
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ±𝑥0
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ±𝜔𝑥0
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝜔2 𝑥

Standing Waves
NOTE: for pipes, the open end must always be an ANTINODE! opeN aNti!
NOTE 2: find fundamental f in terms of the length of the pipe.
Standing waves are formed when two waves are travelling in
opposite directions and interfere causing a series of nodes and
antinodes. (Usually the second wave is the reflection of the original
wave).
Node: a point of 0 amplitude.
Antinode: a point of maximum amplitude.

Standing waves on strings

The first harmonic is also called the “fundamental harmonic”
𝑐
As we know 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆 ∴ 𝑓 = and for the first harmonic 𝜆 = 2𝐿
𝜆
𝑐
therefore we can say that 𝑓1 = .
2𝐿

There is no energy transfer from left to right.

Standing waves in pipes (closed at one end)

They are closed at one end. There must be a node at the start
and antinode at the end.
𝜆 𝑐
For the first harmonic, 𝐿 = ∴ 𝜆 = 4𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓1 =
4 4𝐿

**Standing waves in pipes (closed at one end)

Same as a string fixed at both ends.

Polarization
Polarization only applies to transverse waves.
Polarizing material: often crystalline, it only allows the oscillations of a wave to pass in one
direction.
Polarizing filter: a polarizing filter absorbs half the energy of an unpolarized wave. They are
normally vertical or horizontal (image one is vertical).

*Note that 2 polarizing filters at a 90º angle from each other stop all light from being transmitted.
Water, Ice, Snow and Clouds all partially polarize light.
Malus’s Law
Malus’s Law tells us that through a polarizing filter the intensity
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃)
And if we are careful, we see that if theta is 90, then I = 0!

Refraction
Refraction occurs to all waves.
Refraction: the change in direction of a wave as it travels
from one medium to another.

Snell’s Law
Snell’s Law says that:
𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2
Which can be rearranged to:
𝑣2 𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2
= = (𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑙𝑒𝑡)
𝑣1 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1
N is the refractive index and it is 1 for air.
In refraction, the frequency never changes, it is the velocity which changes meaning that the
wavelength will change (lambda).

Critical Angle
When a wave goes from a high dense medium to a
lower dense medium (speeds up), the angle of
incidence for which the ray goes along the boundary is
called the critical angle. Any angle larger than the
critical angle (C), will create total internal reflection.
When 𝜃1 = 𝐶 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃2 = 900 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝜃1 > 𝐶 there is
no refracted ray.
Reflective coatings & thin film interference
Reflective coatings
Imagine that there says are in a straight
perpendicular line down (it is difficult to
visualize that’s why we put them at an angle).
This ray will interfere but there is a path
difference sine one travels more than the other
reflected ray. The path difference is 2d since the
wave have to travel that distance twice.
In order for there to be destructive interference d
1
the path difference must be (𝑚 + ) 𝜆.
2

The smallest distance for the reflective coat to

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
work must be 𝑑 = .
4

Thin film interference

Same thing applies but we have to know two things:
- When light reflects at a boundary of a higher refractive index, it undergoes a 180º
degree phase change.
- When light reflects a boundary of a lower refractive index, its phase remains the
same.
In this case the rules change since there is a 180 phase change (only top reflection).
𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟
For destructive interference: 2𝑑 = 𝑚𝜆𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚

𝑚𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜆𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 ∴ 2𝑑 =
𝑛
1
∴ 2𝑛𝑑 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟
2
1
For constructive interference: 2𝑛𝑑 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟
2

Diffraction
Single Slit
**Image
 𝑑 𝜆
As we can see we can use trigonometry. 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = . This will find the first minum.
𝑏 𝑏

As we know for small angles in radians, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜃. Therefore to find all the nimums we can use
the formula:
𝑛𝜆
𝜃=
𝑏
When we apply this formula or look at our screen we find a pattern like so:

(Central maxima is twice the width for all of subsequent maxima, to get full marks make sure
central peak is at least 4X the other ones).

Double Slit
**Image
Rays which constructively interfere
𝜆 𝑠
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 = =
𝑑 𝐷
𝜆𝐷 𝑛𝜆
𝑠= 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑠 =
𝑑 𝑑
For double slits, the graph changes since we don’t only have a double slit but also two single slits.
As we can see the blue arrows should be maximums but are cancelled by the single slit
(modulation). We can say that “a double slit diffraction pattern is modulated by a single slit pattern.
All maxima are equally spaced at small angles.

Diffraction gratings
For a grating (with multiple slits, 3 or more), since the angle gets bigger:
𝑛𝜆
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = = 𝑛𝜆 = 𝑑𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑑

The more slits we add, the sharper and brighter are the peaks.

Rayleigh Criterion
For circular apertures like our eyes, things change. We can’t use the single slit equation since our
eye can’t resolve certain objects at determined distances. We have to think of our retina as the
screen and the pupil as the aperture (𝑏).
For our eye to resolve we have to use the Rayleigh Criterion.
If we look at these dots and move backwards, at some time you will see both dots as one.
 ··
When the first central maximum of one object coincides with the first minimum of the other then
the objects are just distinguishable (or resolved).

1.22𝜆
𝜃=
𝑏
ANGLE MUST be in radians! Remember we are using the small angle approximation, if angles
get big then we use 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃. BIG ANGLE = 15º or so.

Resolution
Definition: the ability of a diffracting grating to separate wavelengths.
𝜆
𝑅=
Δ𝜆
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛥𝜆 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝜆
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑁
𝑚 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
If we were to use light, due to diffraction at the center we would have a central maxima with a spot
of white light, but as we look into the different maxima we will see mini spectrums, the higher the
order of the maxima the more spread out the spectrum (makes sense because we are multiplying
by a difference, hence making in larger).
Resolution is a value, imagine you have the capacity to resolve 200 if I ask you to resolve 652 you
can’t but 180 and 200 yes!
Doppler Effect
Definition:

A moving source of waves

- Towards an observer means a higher frequency will be observed.
- Away from an observer means a lower frequency will be observed.
𝑣
𝑓′ = 𝑓 [ ]
𝑣 ± 𝑢𝑠
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 ′ = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑓 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠,
𝑢𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
Simple tip! An ambulance (source) coming to you is a negative thing (-) and if it goes away
it’s a “positive” thing (+).

A moving observer
- Towards a source means a higher frequency will be observed.
- Away from a source means a lower frequency will be observed.
But the equation is different this time so the positive and negatives are inverse.
𝑣 ± 𝑢0
𝑓′ = 𝑓 [ ]
𝑣
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 ′ = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑓 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠, 𝑢𝑠 =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟
Simple tip! If you are running towards a police car to help that’s good (+), if you are running
away from the cops that’s bad (-).

Electromagnetic waves
Since electromagnetic waves travel so fast that the speed of the moving object is negligible in
comparison to the source.
Δ𝑓 Δ𝜆 𝑣
= ≈
𝑓 𝜆 𝑐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
 **These two cars are moving relative???

The medical use of the Doppler Effect

The Doppler Effect is used to send a signal and measure the shift in frequency as they calculate
the velocity of blood flow.
**TIP of diffraction and refraction.