Transactions, A m e r i c a n G e o p h y s i c a l Union Volume 3 1 , Number 4 August 1950

FLUID RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE ROUGHNESS

H. A . Einstein and R. B . Banks

Abstract--A s e r i e s of flume experiments was conducted to determine the c o m p o ­

site resistance of different types of roughness opposing the flow of water through an
open channel. Each of the roughness types investigated p o s s e s s e d a distinctive g e o ­
metrical shape and each type contributed resistance to the flow. The different types
of roughness w e r e acting on the same surface and each could be assumed to be uni­
formly distributed o v e r the s u r f a c e . The combined o r c o m p o s i t e resistance was
sought in terms of the r e s i s t a n c e s which the individual roughness types exerted.

Within the range of the v a r i a b l e s tested, it was found that the total resistance
exerted by combined types of roughness i s equal to the sum of the resistance f o r c e s
exerted by each type individually.

Introduction - - P r e v i o u s investigations of the p r o b l e m of artificial roughness in channels

appears to be confined to the study of the effect of uniform roughness e l e m e n t s . Early e x p e r i ­
mental work by BAZIN [1865] and the basic r e s e a r c h of NIKURADSE [1933], FROMM [1923],
HOPF [1923], and o t h e r s , established roughness c r i t e r i a as did m o r e recent investigations of
roughness employing various types of uniform roughness elements. Among these studies are the
works of SCHLICHTENG [1937], experimenting with s p h e r e s , c o n e s and angles in a c l o s e d conduit,
FACE [1933] employing small p y r a m i d s , HOUGHTON [1932] using a corrugated sheet and JOHNSON
[1844] and POWELL [1946] experimenting with small rectangular s i l l s .

The question of c o m p o s i t e roughness, in which m o r e than one type of resistance element i s

present, was suggested in a study of the Salinas R i v e r . In this r i v e r , vegetation and sand b a r s a r e
present which naturally exert r e s i s t a n c e to the flow. In this c a s e the total f o r c e opposing the flow
consists of (a) the resistance exerted by the p a r t i c l e s composing the river bed and sides; (b) the
geometrical o r f o r m resistance of the b a r s ; and (c) the resistance exerted by the vegetation. It
is natural to inquire whether the total friction can be expressed in s o m e way as the sum of the
individual r e s i s t a n c e s .

It is most significant to note that these different frictional d e v i c e s are not arranged side by
side such as the various grain s i z e s of a sediment mixture, but are actually superimposed and
thus acting on the s a m e a r e a . Such a superposition may best be exemplified by a sheet of sand
paper. If this sand paper i s laid flat on a flat bottom it gives a roughness according to its grain.
This same sand p a p e r , on the other hand, may b e arranged in the shape of a corrugated sheet.
I n this case the corrugation and the grain represent two different types of roughness which a r e
superimposed o v e r one another. Each type may be measured individually and combined; c o m p a r i ­
son of these results will determine the effects of these different frictional d e v i c e s and how they
must be described such that their effects may be easily combined.

In the present study, the following types of resistance w e r e used (see F i g . 1): (a) blocks
without offset and without p e g s ; (b) b l o c k s without block offset, combined with various peg d e n s i ­
ties and patterns; (c) b l o c k s with alternate b l o c k s offset, without pegs; and (d) b l o c k s with alternate
blocks offset, combined with v a r i o u s peg densities and patterns.

It is evident that in types (a), (b), and (c) the individual resistance due to each type of rough­
ness can be determined. Arrangement (a) allows the determination of the friction along the plane
concrete surface. Comparison of arrangements (a) and (b) g i v e s the influence of the pegs and c o m ­
parison of (a) and (c) that of the offset. Arrangement (d) then permits the c o m p a r i s o n of the sum
of the individual r e s i s t a n c e s with their combined o r composite resistance.

Theory--Since m o s t of the experiments w e r e conducted at near-uniform flow conditions,

Eq (1) for non-uniform flow of O'BRIEN and HICKOX [1937, p . 274] was employed in the d e t e r m i ­
nation of the energy s l o p e , S e

2 2 3
S = Se w -aQ (S - S )/gb d
w b (1)

603
604 EINSTEIN and BANKS [Trans. AGU, V. 31-4]

DEPTH 0 . 2 3 ' - 0 . 3 8 ' DIRECTION OF FLOW

-I2"X6"X2" CEMENT BLOCKS

-6"-
I ' / z ' W ' PEGS V pFFSET

I I I

a) WITHOUT PEGS, WITHOUT OFFSET ( b) WITH PEGS, WITHOUT OFFSET

(c) WITHOUT PEGS, WITH OFFSET (d.) WITH PEGS, WITH OFFSET

Fig. 1 - - T y p e s of roughness investigated

in which S is the water surface s l o p e , oc = J*v^dA/Av^, the v e l o c i t y head c o r r e c t i o n ; Q, the

w

d i s c h a r g e , c f s ; b , the flume width; d, the average depth of flow;and S^, the slope of the channel
bottom. A value of oc = 1.10 was obtained by graphical integration in preliminary runs and this
value was used in all subsequent calculation.

In o r d e r to eliminate the effects due to the side w a l l s , whose roughness was constant during
the tests (Manning coefficient of wall, n = 0.0087), the method of side wall elimination of
w

EINSTEIN [1942] was employed in calculating the Manning roughness coefficient of the bed, n b?

and the friction f a c t o r s . These values w e r e calculated f r o m the e x p r e s s i o n s

3
n b = 1.486 Rj2/ s V 2 / v (2)

2
f = 8R g S / V b e (3)

R is the hydraulic radius of the bed and is equal to A / b , where A i s the c r o s s sectional area
b b D

of the channel corresponding to the b e d . Though the p a r a m e t e r s n and f e x p r e s s the friction, it

b

is m o r e appropriate to consider the actual resistance exerted by the v a r i o u s roughness elements,

In o r d e r to express this concept quantatively, the following assumptions w e r e made: (a) The
blocks offer only shear resistance along the bed surface, e x p r e s s i b l e in the f o r m

T =T Q (4)
2
where T is the resistance measured in l b s / f t exerted by the bed on which the bed shear T acts, 0

(b) The offsets and the pegs cause only f o r m resistance acting on the flow of the free stream and
each can b e e x p r e s s e d in the f o r m

2
T =C D p SV /2 (5!

in which Cjy is a drag coefficient, p, the density, S, the area of the obstruction per unit bed area
projected on a plane normal to the flow and V the average v e l o c i t y , (c) The bed area occupied
by the pegs is small c o m p a r e d to the total a r e a . The reduction of actual cement bed area due to
the p r e s e n c e of the p e g s , therefore, may be neglected.
[Hydrology] FLUID RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE ROUGHNESS 605

Identifying the various e x p r e s s i o n s with subscripts b , p , and o , to identify their r e f e r e n c e to

the block surface, pegs and offset, r e s p e c t i v e l y , it follows that

T b = T 0 =wR S b e =^ v \ / 8 (6a)

in which w is the unit weight of water and other t e r m s as defined p r e v i o u s l y . Similar e x p r e s s i o n s

can be made f o r T , T , and T
b o b p which denote the resistances p e r square foot of bed area due
b p o

to the blocks and offset, the b l o c k s and p e g s , and the b l o c k s , pegs and offset, respectively. That
is, the following hydraulic radii may be defined by

T w R s
bo - bo e (6b)

T b p = wR b p S e (6c)

T w R s
bpo " bpo e »d)

In these equations, R, with the r e s p e c t i v e s u b s c r i p t s , represents the hydraulic radius of the bed
due to the p r e s e n c e of the b l o c k s u r f a c e , the offset and the p e g s . Considering (6d) as the m o s t .
general case it i s seen that the hydraulic radius R t ) is equal to the c r o s s sectional area A p o b p o

corresponding to the bed divided by the wetted p e r i m e t e r , that i s ,

R = A b
bpo bpo/

The total c r o s s sectional a r e a of the channel is equal to A . Eliminating the side wall effects,
the area corresponding the the bed is

A
bpo = A - A w

This area, A , can b e represented schematically consisting of a r e a s , A , A , and A each

b p o b Q p

corresponding to the appropriate roughness element, that i s , to the block surface, the offset and
the pegs, respectively. This is analogous to the assignment of the area A to the side wall i n ­ w

fluence. Then,

A A A A ?
bpo = b + o + p • ( )

These areas are representative of the energy expended on the particular roughness element. T h e
energy represented by each of these areas i s nearly uniformly distributed a c r o s s the channel and
hence each area is assumed to p o s s e s s the s a m e wetted p e r i m e t e r , b . Consequently, the hydraulic
radii corresponding to the b l o c k surface, the offset and the pegs are respectively

R b = A /b; b R 0 = A /b; 0 R p = A /b p (8)

As A has been defined as the sum of the areas pertaining to the b l o c k s , offset, and pegs c o m ­
b p o

bined, (7), the sum of the three hydraulic radii of (8) equals

R b + R 0 + Rp = ( A + A b 0 + Ap)/b » A b p 0 /b = R b p o (9)

These hydraulic radii may be added directly only because they refer to the same wetted p e r i m e t e r .
This combination i s basically different f r o m that between bed and side wall friction.

From (9) and (6d) the f o r c e T b p o may now b e expressed a s follows

T 88 w R
bpo b p o S = wR S e b e + wRp S + w R S = T e 0 e b +T p +T 0 (10)

or as the sum of the r e s i s t a n c e s which the block surface, p e g s , and the offset exert individually.
The assumption i s made that these three individual resistance f o r c e s , T , T , and T are mutually b p Q

independent and may be e x p r e s s e d by (6) and (10). This is verified experimentally in the following
measurements.

Experimental p r o c e d u r e - - T h e s e r i e s of experiments w e r e conducted in a 17-ft flume, 12 inches

wide and 18 inches d e e p . The s i d e s were of painted sheet metal. Water was recirculated through
the channel f r o m a constant' head r e s e r v o i r through a six-inch pipe to a stilling basin at the en­
trance of the flume. Transition guide vanes directed the flow f r o m the basin into the channel and
the flow was permitted f r e e outfall at the exit. Discharge was determined by means of a calibrated
606 EINSTEIN and BANKS [ T r a n s . AGU, V, 31 - 4 ]

o r i f i c e . The water-surface slope was obtained with a battery of seven point gage wells connected
to tap holes in the side wall of the flume. The first connection was at a point 2.5 ft from the stil­
ling basin. Thereafter, connections w e r e spaced 1.75 ft apart with the last well connected to a
point 3.25 ft f r o m the outfall. P r i o r to the installation of the b l o c k s in the channel, the Manning
coefficient of the bottom and sides was determined f o r use in eliminating the side wall effects.

A s stated in the introduction, the investigation of the c o m p o s i t e roughness was divided into
four s e r i e s of experiments. In the first s e r i e s , the channel bottom a r e a was composed of 12 x
6 X 2-inch cement b l o c k s (with the s i x - i n c h dimension parallel to the direction of flow) placed
side by side throughout the channel r e a c h . By means of a rack supporting these b l o c k s , the bottom
was adjusted to the desired slope which was kept constant throughout all the s e r i e s . For each ran
the discharge was determined and the slope of the water surface obtained by least squares from
the well point gage readings. The energy slope was computed with (1), using the average depth of
flow. By eliminating the effects due to the side w a l l s , the hydraulic radius of the bed was obtained
and the Manning coefficient, friction factor and total r e s i s t a n c e computed. The water tempera­
ture r e c o r d e d for computation of Reynolds' number, varied f r o m 72° to 75° F.

F o r the second s e r i e s , pegs (1 1/2 inch height x 1/4 inch diameter) w e r e s c r e w e d into holes
on the block surface in various patterns and densities (0.25 to 10 p e g s s q / f t ) . The experimental
p r o c e d u r e was the s a m e . In the third s e r i e s , alternate b l o c k s w e r e offset vertically 1/4 inch with
the pegs r e m o v e d . In the fourth s e r i e s , p e g s w e r e again placed on the b l o c k s in patterns and
densities s i m i l a r to those of the second s e r i e s .

To prevent flow beneath the b l o c k s the edges between the side walls and blocks and between
adjacent b l o c k s w e r e s e a l e d . In the offset s e r i e s , the joints between b l o c k s w e r e sealed and then
trimmed to p r e s e r v e the sharp c o r n e r o f f s e t s .

Experimental r e s u l t s - - F r o m the first s e r i e s of experiments an average value of f = 0.0208 b

was obtained. With this value of f , (6a) b e c o m e s b

2 2
T b = p f V / S = 0.00505 V
D (11)

Since,
2 2
T b p = T b +T p = p f b V /8+C D p N/> Sp V / 2

where N-is the peg density, in pegs p e r s q ft of bed a r e a . Then,

T 8 + C N 2 v 2
bp=[^V DpP V l
2
= [0.00505 + C D p pN Sp/2] V (12)
2
F r o m the second s e r i e s the value of Crjp p Sp/2 was determined by plotting T w ' V versus
N and obtaining the line of best fit by the least squares method. T h i s v a l u e , Crjp p Sp/2, repre­
sents the s l o p e of (12) and was computed to be 0.00175 f r o m which Crjp = 0.652. (Naturally, for
a given shape this coefficient may vary with Reynolds' number, FL H o w e v e r , since the experi­
ments w e r e all conducted at nearly equal Jg, this is assumed constant (B = 300,000). From a
published c u r v e of Crj> v e r s u s R for flow around i m m e r s e d c y l i n d e r s , C d has the approximate p

value of 0.7 [ROUSE, 1938, p . 217]). Then,

2
T b p = [0.00505 + 0.00175 N] V (13)

Similarly, for the runs with alternate b l o c k s offset, the magnitude of / o f / 8 + C r j b 0 pS 2 0

2 = 0 0 7 1 5 a n d
was determined to be 0.0122. Then Cj) p S / 2 = 0.0122 - 0.00505, C d P S /
0 0 °- 0 0

Cdo - 0.362. Then

Tbpo = T b +T 0 + T p

= [pf /S h +C D o pS /2 + C
Q D p pN S p / 2 ] (14)

2
« [0.0122 + 0.00175 N] V (15)

Equations 13 and 15 are shown in Figure 2 . Points shown in this figure represent data ob­
tained experimentally. The l o w e r points, computed f r o m ( 6 c ) , are f o r the s e r i e s without the offset
and the upper points, computed from (6d) are f o r the s e r i e s with the o f f s e t . The lower line (Eq 13)
[Hydrology] FLUID RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE ROUGHNESS 607

—
——
c

o <

) —

v
PES DENSITY, N

F i g . 2 - - C o m p a r i s o n of resistances for (a) with offset

and (b) without offset f o r various peg densities

was computed by least squares from the e x ­

perimental data. The upper curve (Eq. 15)
was drawn parallel to the lower curve at a
distance C r j ) p S / 2 which represents the r e ­
0 0

sistance offered b y the offset. For c o m p l e t e ­

n e s s , experimental data are presented in
Tables 1 and 2 .

The foregoing analysis c o n s i d e r e d none

of the g e o m e t r i c a l characteristics of the
arrangements of the pegs in the channel. In
Figure 3 a comparison is made between the
r
o resistance exerted by a certain peg a r r a n g e ­
oo ment in which there was an offset with the
resistance exerted by an identical pattern
with no offset at equal flow v e l o c i t i e s . If
2
the value of T ^ p o / V for a certain peg a r r a n g e ­
ment is plotted as the ordinate and the value
2
of T ^ p / V as the a b s c i s s a for the same a r ­
rangement, then it follows from (13) and (15)
that

T 2 2
bpo/V = 0.00715 + T b p /V (16)

This equation and the points obtained f r o m

experimentation are shown in Figure 3.

There are several probable explanations

Fig. 3 - - C o m p a r i s o n of resistance with offset
with resistance without offset f o r identical
peg arrangements
for the scatter of the points in Figures 2 and
3. F i r s t , it was assumed that the velocity
head c o r r e c t i o n factor, a , was a constant
(oc- 1.10)throughout the test r e a c h . How­
e v e r , differentiating the total energy
608 EINSTEIN" and BANKS [ T r a n s . AGU, V . 31 - 4]

Table 1 - -Summary of results for runs without offset. Sp (projected a r e a of a single p p ^

2 2
= 0.00278 f t : S^ ( p r o i e c t e d a r e a of the offset) = 0.02d4 f t : b (flume width) = 1.QQ7 ft
• ~U 't

Corresponding
Depth Velocity T T/V 2
N run with offset 3
Run
d
m V (see Table 2)
2
ft ' ft/sec lb/ft 2
pegs/ft

100 0.00765 0.235 3.98 0.0805 0.00508 0

101 0.00732 0.234 3.97 0.0768 0.00486 0
102 0.0073.7 0.233 3.98 0.0769 0.00484 0
103 0.00774 0.234 3.96 0.0815 0.00519 0
104 0.00773 0.233 3.98 0.0818 0.00516 0
105 0.00743 0.237 3.91 0.0800 0.00523 0

A v e r a g e , runs 100-105 0.00506 0 Average 200-202

106 0.00774 0.238 3.93 0.0840 0.00546 0.25

107 0.00797 0.240 3.90 0.0881 0.00579 0.5 203
108 0.00815 0.239 3.87 0.0915 0.00610 0.5 204,205
109 0.00858 0.244 3.84 0.0990 0.00674 1 207, 208
110 0.00860 0.246 3.77 0.1018 0.00717 1 209, 206

111 0.00941 0.250 3.75 0.1152 0.00821 2 210

112 0.00906 0.260 3.56 0.1174 0.00929 2 211, 212
113 0.00975 0.283 3.29 0.1421 0.01311 3 213, 214
114 0.00993 0.266 3.49 0.1342 0.01105 4
115 0.01019 0.270 3.45 0.1406 0.01181 4

116 0.00884 0.293 3.17 0.1329 0.01322 4 215

117 0.00796 0.313 2.97 0.1287 0.01460 5 216, 217
118 0.01024 0.278 3.33 0.1479 0.01331 6
119 0.00775 0.325 2.86 0.1310 0.01599 6 219
120 0.00803 0.327 2.85 0.1371 0.01695 6 221

121 0.00880 0.330 2.81 0.1542 0.01952 8 223

122 0.00845 0.352 2.64 0.1600 0.02210 10 229
123 0.00860 0.351 2.65 0.1620 0.02315 10 230
124 0.00833 0.348 2.68 0.1550 0.02165 10 227, 228
125 0.00862 0.353 2.63 0.1640 0.02370 10 229

a
W h e r e two corresponding runs with offset exist f o r one without offset, their average is plotted in
Figure 3.
2
dE/dx = dz/dx + dy/dx + d ( a V / 2 g ) / d x (17)

in which E i s the total energy, z, the elevation of the b e d , y , the water depth and x , the distance
along the flume, it is seen that if in general oc is c o n s i d e r e d s o m e function of x , (17) becomes

2 2
dE/dx = dz/dx + dy/dx + a d ( V / 2 g ) / d x + ( V / 2 g ) d a / d x (18}

and an additional term i s introduced. This t e r m may be of such magnitude that its neglect would
introduce a considerable e r r o r in the calculation of the energy s l o p e . H o w e v e r , little correction
can be made without the detailed knowledge of the nature of the a function. In the few a determi­
nations made by the w r i t e r s , however, it s e e m e d to be quite constant throughout the channel espec­
ially at large peg density.

Undoubtedly the major s o u r c e of apparent discrepancy in results is due to the geometry of the
peg arrangements. It i s evident that two different patterns of arrangement with the same density
will exert different r e s i s t a n c e s . This accounts for variations in total r e s i s t a n c e among points
p o s s e s s i n g the same peg density, N (see F i g . 2 ) . This was confirmed by comparing the peg arrange*
ments f o r the points situated above the curve with the arrangements f o r the points situated below.
[Hydrology] FLUID RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE ROUGHNESS 609

Table 2 - - S u m m a r y of results f o r runs with offset.

Depth Velocity
Run T T/V 2
N
dm V

ft ft/sec lb/ft 2
pegs/ft 2

200 0.00928 0.281 3.30 0.1338 0.01227 0

201 0.00937 0.279 3.32 0.1340 0.01214 0
202 0.00945 0.279 3.32 0.1345 0.01221 0

Average, runs 200-202 0.01220 0

203 0.00916 0.288 3.22 0.1359 0.01306 0.5

204 0.00924 0.290 3.20 0.1385 0.01351 0.5
205 0.00924 0.285 3.25 0.1352 0.01276 0.5
206 0.00881 0.297 3.31 0.1351 0.01380 1
207 0.00880 0.295 3.14 0.1334 0.01350 1

208 0.00887 0.296 3.13 0.1357 0.01385 1

209 0.00874 0.299 3.10 0.1351 0.01404 1
210 0.00844 0.307 3.03 0.1349 0.01491 2
211 0.00830 0.313 2.97 0.1351 0.01539 2
212 0.00836 0.310 2.99 0.1345 0.01500 2

213 0.00810 0.341 2.72 0.1467 0.01990 3

214 0.00819 0.324 2.86 0.1393 0.01700 3
215 0.00814 0.336 2.76 0.1450 0.01904 4
216 0.00858 0.354 2.62 0.1640 0.02385 5
217 0.00835 0.344 2.70 0.1538 0.02110 5

218 0.00816 0.341 2.71 0.1437 0.02020 5

219 0.00848 0.348 2.66 0.1590 0.02245 6
220 0.00837 0.345 2.69 0.1547 0.02150 6
221 0.00847 0.352 2.64 0.1584 0.02290 6
222 0.00839 0.350 2.65 0.1578 0.02250 6

223 0.00844 0.353 2.63 0.1605 0.02330 8

224 0.00918 0.362 2.54 0.1818 0.02770 8
225 0.00845 0.359 2.58 0.1645 0.02470 8
226 0.00899 0.362 2.56 0.1776 0.02720 8
227 0.00947 0.375 2.47 0,1969 0.03230 10

228 0.00912 0.362 2.56 0.1803 0.02745 10

229 0.00934 0.371 2.49 0.1911 0.03080 10
230 0.00921 0.366 2.53 0.1845 0.02880 10

However, the p r o b l e m of developing a true roughness parameter which includes both the g e o m e t r y
of peg arrangement and their density has not been successful. In Figure 3 in which the effect of
the geometry has apparently been eliminated, the experimental points appear to be in better a g r e e ­
ment with the computed relationship.

Conclusions - - Evidently the conditions imposed by the assumptions stated above are of a
limited nature. However, within the range of the parameters investigated there appears to be c o n ­
sistency in r e s u l t s . The conclusion that the total resistance can be expressed as the sum of the
individual r e s i s t a n c e s is l o g i c a l as long as the separate roughness elements do not exert any
mutual interference on one another. Over quite a broad range of peg densities this independence
of influence of roughness types exists; at l e a s t , they are effectively independent. For e x a m p l e ,
consider the two bed types: (1) without offset and without p e g s ; and (2) with offset and without p e g s .
In the latter the offset exerts an additional r e s i s t a n c e due to the f o r m resistance of the offset and
separation at the down s t r e a m edge of the r a i s e d b l o c k . This separation zone reduces the surface
effect in some p l a c e s by diverting the flow f r o m these areas but appears to concentrate the flow
sufficiently in other areas to i n c r e a s e the s h e a r s o that the total shear f o r c e remains about c o n ­
stant. The same reasoning applies to the interference between the block surface shear and the peg
resistance. Thus it appears l o g i c a l to expect an additive property among the separate r e s i s t a n c e s
610 EINSTEIN and BANKS [ T r a n s . AGU, V. 31 - 4 1

until the types exhibit e x c e s s i v e mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e .

It i s of interest to investigate the distribution of the total r e s i s t a n c e among the various rough-
ness elements and this is p o s s i b l e when the amount of r e s i s t a n c e which each element contributes
to the total is known. F r o m (14) it is s e e n that the three t e r m s of the right hand member express
the b l o c k surface r e s i s t a n c e , the offset resistance and the peg r e s i s t a n c e , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The ratio
of each t e r m to the total e x p r e s s i o n , then represents the p e r cent of total resistance which eacl *
type e x e r t s . This distribution is a function of the peg density, N, and hence the effect of the intro­
duction o r removal of pegs on resistance distribution can be investigated. This concept may be of
value in predicting the effect of the introduction of artificial roughness on the stabilization of a
r i v e r bed

The work from which these results w e r e derived was in part supported by a grant of the Geo­
logical Society of A m e r i c a .

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Fluid Mechanics L a b o r a t o r y ,
University of California,
Berkeley, California

(Manuscript r e c e i v e d February 7, 1950; open f o r f o r m a l d i s c u s s i o n until January 1,1951.)