CEREBELLUM

 Balance / coordination and control of voluntary movement

 Fine muscle control

The medulla controls the involuntary activities of the body like sneezing, heart rate and vomiting.

Brain stem

 Breathing, temp, digestion, alertness, sleep, swallowing

Corpus callosum

Sodium gates close and potassium gate open / falling phase

Rod – dim-night / numerous and sensitive / black and white

Cone – bright-day / colour red, green, blue / fovea

So, people who are totally colorblind must not have functioning cone cells.

A two-point threshold test seeks to find at what distance apart does a person perceive one point as two
separate points.

Muscle spindle- measures stretch

Golgi tendon- measure force

Motor cortex- directs control of alpha motor meuron

A muscle that bends a joint is called a FLEXOR

A muscle that straightens a joint is called EXTENSORS

The main function of the thalamus is to relay motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex

Low levels of a serotonin byproduct have been linked to a higher risk for suicide.

Hypothalamus – biology clock / eating and drinking

Positron emission tomography- measures blood flow / energy consumption based on amount of
RADIATION emitted

Diffusion tensor imaging- show connectivity between regions of brain / looks at fiber tracts

fMRI – detect increase in blood oxygen levels

ADHD- CAUSED by altered activity in cortex, striatum and cerebellum / reduced catecholamine
transmission in prefrontal cortex / use stimulants methylphenidate

Alcohol- interacts with with GABA receptors- delay reaction time / impair / treatment use
naltrexone which blocks opioid receptors / cirrhosis- scarring of liver / decreases functioning of
NMDA receptor- coma / can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome

Korsakoff’s syndrome- cognitive disorder associated with chronic alcoholism

In some cases, the hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to stimulate or inhibit hormone
production.

Psychostimulants- include cocaine and amphetamine / greatly elevate dopamine in nucleus accumbens

Sedative- promoting calm

The basal ganglia are a group of structures found deep within the cerebral hemispheres. The structures
generally included in the basal ganglia are the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus in the cerebrum,
the substantia nigra in the midbrain, and the subthalamic nucleus in the diencephalon. The basal
ganglia are associated with a variety of functions, including control of voluntary motor movements,
procedural learning, habit learning, eye movements, cognition, and emotion.

Novocain / lidocaine- local anaesthesia

Four types of painkillers / analgesic

Childhood disorders Addiction Degenerative disorders

Autism Nicotine Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

ADHD stands for attention
deficit hyperactivity / use
BEHAVIORAL therpy /
stimulants
Down syndrome
Dyslexia- reading disability /
broca’s area and lobe
(ALS), also known as motor
Alcohol neurone disease (MND) or Lou
Gehrig's disease, is a specific
Marijuana disease that causes the death of
neurons controlling voluntary
Opiates muscles. caused by excess
amount of glutamate and
mutation in superoxide
dismutase
Parkinson's disease is caused by
a loss of nerve cells in the part
of the brain called the substantia
nigra. Nerve cells in this part of
the brain are responsible for
producing a chemical called
dopamine. / levodopa- convert
to dopamine / SLOW
movement / resting tremor /
muscular rigidity / pallidotomy-
removal of overactive structures

Huntington- decline in ability to

walk,TALK, THINK,… /
affects basal ganglia(controls
coordination) and brain cortex /
caused by genetic mutation
expanded triplet repeat in gene
that codes for Huntington /
JERKING

Alzheimer’s/ forget
 HIPPOCAMPUS / abnormal
accumulation of beta amyloid /
accumulation of tau in cell body
= neurofibrillary tangles / no
cure only alleviate symptoms- 5
/ 4 BREAK DOWN
ACETYLCHOLINE AND
ONE REGULATE
GLUTAMATE

Psychiatric disorders

Tourette syndrome – inherited /

males / motor or vocal tics /
abnormal activity in basal
ganglia / treatment SSRI

Schizophrenia – enlarged
ventricles / hallucination,
delusions, abnormal functioning
dopamine, glutamate and
GABA systems

PTSD – high level of

norepinephrine / block
norepinephrine receptors-
prazosin / potentate action at
GABA receptor-
benzodiazepines

OCD- abnormal in cortical /

repetitive

Bipolar- lithium /
anticonvulsant LIKE
VALPROATE

Major Depression / disturbance

in hypothalamus- no negative
feedback of cortisol / use
antidepressants SSRIs- block
reuptake of serotonin / more
serotonin

Bipolar disorder, formerly

called manic depression, is a
mental health condition that
causes extreme mood swings
that include emotional highs
(mania or hypomania) and lows
(depression).
Metastatic- secoundary

Chlorotoxin- scorpion

Multiple sclerosis- autoimmune / body attacks myelin sheath / happen at lesions and plaques /
relapsing

Dementia is a syndrome in which there is deterioration in memory, thinking, behaviour and the ability
to perform everyday activities.

Inhibit cyclo-oxygenase enzyme that make prostaglandin

Magnetic resonance imaging

Lipids- anandamide/ prostaglandin

Excitatory neurotransmitters have excitatory effects on the neuron. This means they increase the
likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters have inhibitory
effects on the neuron. This means they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action.

Benefit of second messenger system- amplification, specifity, compartmentalization

3 germ layers- endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm

Plasticity- adaptable

In neuroscience, long-term potentiation is a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent

patterns of activity. These are patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long-lasting increase in
signal transmission between two neurons. / NMDA receptor

Hands, lips and tongue- high acuity and low two-point threshold

Semantic is fact and figure

Are a normal part of aging- FALSE

Physical and mental exercise

IDIOPATHIC

SYMPTOMATIC

DECOMPRESSIVE CRANIECTOMY- remove part of brain to allow brain to swell

Two effects of chronic stress- hypertension / atherosclerosis / abdominal obesity

Neurotransmitter for stress- epinephrine by the sympathetic nervous system

HAND-HIV associated / reduce incidence with antiretroviral treatment

Stroke- anticoagulants / arterial stent / tPA

Stem cell are cells that become new neuron

Endorphin combine with receptors to block transmission of paIN

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to
stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression. TMS is typically used when
other depression treatments haven't been effective.

Olfactory nerve carry info about smell to brain

Striate cortex- visual

Wernicke’s area- language comprehension

Dopamine and epinephrine from category MONOAMINES

Fluoxetine, sold under the brand names Prozac and Sarafem among others, is an antidepressant of the
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor class.

Glucose is the main focus of action for cortisol

Gyrus and sulcus

3lbs

Pacinian corpuscle

Neuromuscular junction- release acetylcholine onto muscle fibre to cause contraction / neurohistology

Basilar artery

Postcentral gyrus

Primary somatosensory cortex

Molecules of neurotransmitters are stored in small "packages" called vesicles (see the picture on the
right). Neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal when their vesicles "fuse" with the
membrane of the axon terminal, spilling the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.

Stage 4 of NON-REM sleep are the brain waves with slowest and largest

Somatic nervous system innervates skeleton muscle

Adrenaline / Epinephrine increase blood pressure

The somatic nervous system provides efferent innervation of skeletal muscle and afferent innervation
of skin, muscles and joints.

Deep inside the medial temporal lobe is the region of the brain known as the limbic system, which
includes the hippocampus, the amygdala, the cingulate gyrus, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the
epithalamus, the mammillary body and other organs, many of which are of particular relevance to the
processing of memory.

The hippocampus, located in the brain's temporal lobe, is where episodic memories are formed and
indexed for later access.
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of permanent movement disorders that appear in early childhood. Signs
and symptoms vary among people and over time. Often, symptoms include poor coordination, stiff
muscles, weak muscles, and tremors. There may be problems with sensation, vision, hearing,
swallowing, and speaking. / caused by brain injury

Huntington's disease (HD) is a fatal genetic disorder that causes the progressive breakdown of nerve
cells in the brain. It deteriorates a person's physical and mental abilities usually during their prime
working years and has no cure.

Sulci, the grooves, and gyri, the folds or ridges, make up the folded surface of the cerebral cortex. ...
A sulcus is a shallower groove that surrounds a gyrus. A fissure is a large furrow that divides the brain
into lobes and also into the two hemispheres as the longitudinal fissure.

The longitudinal fissure (or cerebral fissure, median longitudinal fissure, interhemispheric fissure) is
the deep groove that separates the two cerebral hemispheres of the vertebrate brain.

A nociceptor ("pain receptor") is a sensory neuron that responds to damaging or potentially damaging
stimuli by sending “possible threat” signals to the spinal cord and the brain.

Motor neurons- controls muscle activity e.g. speech

Interneurons is the most in number / responsible for highest functions / influence simple reflexes

Interneurons do not have motor or sensory functions; they just act to pass on information.

Sensory neurons typically have a long dendrite and short axon, and carry messages from sensory
receptors to the central nervous system. Motor neurons have a long axon and short dendrites and
transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles (or to glands).

The thalamus regulates sleep, alertness and wakefulness, whereas the hypothalamus regulates body
temperature, hunger, fatigue and metabolic processes in general.
In programmed cell death, cells undergo “cellular suicide” when they receive certain cues. Apoptosis
involves the death of a cell, but it benefits the organism as a whole (for instance, by letting fingers
develop or eliminating potential cancer cells).

Oligodendrocytes- myelinate CNS

Schwann cell- myelinate PNS

Neuromodulators

WORKING, SEMANTIC, EPISODIC MEMORY

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the opposing process to LTD; it is the long-lasting increase of
synaptic strength. In conjunction, LTD and LTP are factors affecting neuronal synaptic plasticity.

The limbic system is a set of structures in the brain that deal with emotions and memory. It regulates
autonomic or endocrine function in response to emotional stimuli and also is involved in reinforcing
behavior .

Fragile X is caused by a mutation in the FMR1 gene that prevents the body from making an important
protein, called FMRP. This protein helps create and maintain connections between brain cells and the
nervous system. When FMRP is missing, signals from the brain may be misdirected.

They are signaling molecules that guide the growth cones of axons
during development / netrins and semaphorins

Voltage-gated sodium channels are responsible for the fast action potentials involved in nerve
conduction. Slower action potentials in muscle cells and some types of neurons are generated by
voltage-gated calcium channels.

Synaptic pruning is a natural process that occurs in the brain between early childhood and adulthood.
During synaptic pruning, the brain eliminates extra synapses. ... Synaptic pruning is our body's way of
maintaining more efficient brain function as we get older and learn new complex information.

Cytokines are a large group of proteins, peptides or glycoproteins that are secreted by specific cells of
immune system. Cytokines are a category of signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity,
inflammation and hematopoiesis.
 primary visual
cortex / lateral geniculate nucleus

Tonic sensory input adapts slowly to a stimulus and continues to produce action potentials over the
duration of the stimulus. In this way it conveys information about the duration of the stimulus. In
contrast, phasic receptors adapt rapidly to a stimulus. The response of the cell diminishes very quickly
and then stops.

The SHH gene provides instructions for making a protein called Sonic Hedgehog. This protein
functions as a chemical signal that is essential for embryonic development. Sonic Hedgehog plays a
role in cell growth, cell specialization, and the normal shaping (patterning) of the body.

Have helped reversing the effects of injury- discovery of stem cell / how and why neurons die

Cerebral cortex- gray matter

Temporal lobe- short term memory

Midbrain consists of two pairs of colliculi- visual and auditory

Cerebral nuclei- help coordinate muscle movements

3 types of second messengers- calcium ion / cAMP/ DAG

Touch receptors

 Merkel’s disks
 Ruffini bodies
 Meissner’s corpuscles

Neuroendocrine- stress hormones

PNS- consists of nerves and gray matter called ganglia

Nerve impulses involves the opening and closing of ion channels

Aminobutyric acid, or γ-aminobutyric acid, or GABA, is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the
developmentally mature mammalian central nervous system. Its principal role is reducing neuronal
excitability throughout the nervous system. / Activity of GABA increased by benzodiazepines

Six classes of steroid hormones

 Androgen
 Estrogen
 Progestins
 Glucocorticoids
 Mineralocorticoids
 Vit D

Endocannabinoids- control behaviour

Some ectroderm cell become nerve tissue by neural induction

Send impulse along cranial nerves to taste region

Anterior- front

Right hemisphere- visual / holistic

Cortisol, the primary stress hormone, increases sugars (glucose) in the bloodstream, enhances your
brain's use of glucose and increases the availability of substances that repair tissues.

The autonomic nervous system is regulated in an area called the medulla oblongata which is a part of
the lower brainstem.

The autonomic nervous system can be further broken down into two sub-systems:
The sympathetic nervous system – The sympathetic nervous system often acts as a mobilizing agent
that prepares the body for action by engaging in functions such as elevating heart rate and increasing
respiration.

The parasympathetic nervous system – The parasympathetic nervous system acts as a counter to this
function, by slowing down the body after a period of activity. However, these two systems also work
together in many capacities; for example, both play a role in sexual orgasm.

Motor neurons- CNS to muscle and gland

EEG (electroencephalography) but the calculations are instead

measures the electrical activity aimed at determining how the
of our brain via electrodes that amount of oxygenated blood
are placed on the scalp. It tells flow changes. / fMRI
us, from the surface
measurements, how active the
brain is.

This can be useful for quickly

determining how brain activity
can change in response to
stimuli, and can also be useful
for measuring abnormal
activity, such as with epilepsy
The medulla oblongata, also known as the medulla, directly controls certain ANS responses, such as
heart rate, breathing, blood vessel dilation, digestion, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting. It is a
portion of the brainstem, located just below the pons and just above the spinal cord.
 The main difference between neurotransmitter and neuromodulator is that
neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger released by a neuron to affect either one or two post-
synaptic neurons or another specific effector organ whereas neuromodulator is another chemical
messenger released by a neuron to affect a group of neurons or effector organs with a specific
receptor. Furthermore, a neurotransmitter directly affects the postsynaptic partner to produce a quick,
rapid effect while a neuromodulator indirectly affects the post-synaptic partner, especially through a
second messenger to produce a slow but, long-lasting effect.

Neurotransmitter and neuromodulator are two types of chemical messengers produced by neurons in
the nervous system.

Endorphin- bind to opiate receptors and moderate pain

A neurotransmitter is a chemical signal sent between one neuron to stimulate another. They occur in
short bursts. Neuromodulators act to alter the condition of a neuron (either post or pre-synaptic) in the
way it deals with neurotransmitters.

Anatomically, the presynaptic neuron is the neuron before the synapse, this neuron is delivering the
"message" across the synapse to the postsynaptic neuron. The postsynaptic neuron is the "receiver" of
the neurotransmitter "message".
Long-term depression (LTD) is a persistent decrease in synaptic efficacy that occurs in an activity-
dependent manner. LTD synergistically functions with long-term potentiation (LTP) to generate a
balanced, stable memory mechanism.

In neuroscience, long-term potentiation (LTP) is a persistent strengthening of synapses based on

recent patterns of activity. These are patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long-lasting increase
in signal transmission between two neurons. Occurs as a change of synapses involving NMDA
receptor and glutamate

The limbic system is a set of structures in the brain that deal with emotions and memory. It regulates
autonomic or endocrine function in response to emotional stimuli and also is involved in reinforcing
behavior .
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to
stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression. TMS is typically used when
other depression treatments haven't been effective.

The NMDA receptor is a glutamate and ion channel protein receptor that is activated when glycine
and glutamate bind to it. The receptor is a heteromeric complex that interacts with multiple
intracellular proteins by three different subunits: GluN1, GluN2 and GluN3.
Gliomas- type of primary brain tumor / malignant / release of glutamate at toxic concentration / kills
of neuron