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Ward Instructional Grouping
Ward Instructional Grouping
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School aprovement Research Series
Close-Up #2 NE mw
S
jInstructional Grouping in the Classroom
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4 Beatrice A. Ward
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111111MINIPO
A small group of four to six diverse stu- The team receives recognition based
dents is assigned a topic of study. on amount each student's score
rnrceeds average or past performance
Different students are assigned subparts on skills and content covered in indi-
of the work to be done. vidual assignment.
The group's collective product is eva: Tournament groups are temporary for
ated. Each student's performance is particular skill or content area.
judged based in this evaluation and, in
addition, may include an individual score Learning teams are stable.
for the subtask completed by the student.
c. Jig-saw
Group membership changes for different
assignments. Material to be learned is broken into
sections
Generally, there is no inter-group competi-
tion. Each student is to learn a section and
then teach it to other team members.
Peer tutoring
Each student i3 tested i.., n d graded in-
A small group of four to six students with dividually on entire set of material.
a cross section of characteristics is formed
to teach information and skills. Teams are temporary based on mate-
rial to be learned.
Tasks assigned to groups emphasize
material previously taught to the entire d. Learning together
class by the teacher.
A small group is given one assignment
Peer tutoring approaches include: sheet. The group completes and hands
in this single assignment.
a. Team assisted individualization
Evaluation is based on how well stu-
Each student receives an individual dents work together to complete the
assignment lased on learning needs. assignment sheet and performance on
completed sheet.
The team goal is to help one another
complete assigned tasks successfully Concept development
and to improve each student's per-
formance on a quiz measuring skills Small groups of four to six students are
and content covered in the student's formed. Generally the students in each
individual assignment. group have diverse characteristics.
4
PAGE 2 CLOSE-UP #2
Tasks assigned to groups are complex, Why Is Instructional
e g., tasks with more than one answer or
way to solve a problem. Grouping Used?
Groups engage in learning activities such TO ASSURE THAT ALL STUDENTS
as re-enactment of historical events; LEARN
dramatizations; instructional games, and
developir.2nt of fictional events, countries Total classroom groups typically include
or governments, and so forth. students with a variety of characteristic-.
Students plan what to do and assign Students differ in mastery of the skills
subtasks, if any, to students based on and knowledge prerequisites for
group plans. successful learning in that classroom
Evaluation frequently includes qualitative Students differ in the time needed for
as well as quantitative rating of final learning a given unit of material or to
products. attain a particular educational objec-
tive. The slowest 10 percent of stu-
Teams are temporary. dents need 2.4 to 6 times as much time
as the highest 10 percent.
LONG-TERM ABILITY GROUPS
Students differ in race, sex, socioeco-
Students are assigned to groups based on nomic level of parents and age
academic ability.
Students differ in self-concept, interest
Changes in group assignments occur only in school, motivation to learn and
when a student's academic performance personal education goals.
changes.
Accommodating such student heterogene
Assignments seldom change. For the ity is one of the most troublesome and en
most part, a student's assignment to during problems faced by teachers.
an ability group level in kindergarten
will be maintained through grade Both high and low ability students do
three and beyond. better academically in classes where 'Lhe
total group includes students with a wide
Most changes are based on factors range of academic ability. The impact is
other than achievement, e.g., social greater on low ability students There is
behavior and neatness, and are to a no difference in average ability students'
lower rather than higher ability group academic perff,rmance in classes that are
academically heterogeneous or homogene-
Learning in small group is teacher- ous.
directed.
Short-term lesson-by-lesson instructional
Instructs i may be provided in a "pull- groups provide review, practice and
ou situation in which students are enrichment opportunities that effectively
taught by a different teacher from the one meet the diverse learning needs of stu-
who teaches the class. Group instruction dents in a heterogeneous classroom
may take place in a setting outside the
regular classroom. Although instructional grouping is used to
reduce the range of differences in the
Students are evaluated individually students being taught at a given point in
time, the abilities of students in the
vai4ous groups, even long-term ability
groups, overlap considerably.
CLOSE-UP #2
PACE 3
5
Most studies of small group versus whole signed tasks gain more in achievement
class instruction find greater learning on than students at the came ability level
the part of students when the teacher uses who are recipients of help.
small instructional groups for at least part
of the time. Group investigations, particularly ones
that do not include competition between
-- High and low ability students benefit teams, promote use of abstract thinking,
more than average students. problem solving, and critical thinking
skills.
Achievement gains are less clear in
mathematics than reading. In math, Students change over time. This should
students in peer tutoring groups show lead to chang- their instructional
more significant gains in math compu- grouping.
tation than in math concepts and
applications. Students who complete When ability groups are used, exit
group investigation tasks acquire criteria should be specified so it is
more high level math skills than those clear when a student should be moved
engaged in total class instruction. to another group.
Harmful effects are identified for low Engagement of low ability students
ability students. Pull-out low ability decreases as the diversity of the students
groups have a particularly adverse in the small group decreases When all
impact upon the performance of low students it a group are low ability and
ability students. their placement in the group extends for
more than a few days, these low ability
In desegregated classrooms, cooperative students have almost twice as much off
learning groups produce significant gains task time as students asigned to lo,ig-term
in academic achievement for minority high ability groups. This occurs even
group students. when the teacher directs the low group
In cocperative groups, students who help A factor related to high engagement rates
others by providing explanations or in instructional groups is the success rate
demonstrations of how to complete as- students must have to learn effectively
6
PAGE 4 CLOSE-UP #2
When students receive immediate feed- Students' perceptions of other students a-
back, as they do in some groups, only a 70 helpful and cooperative rather than
to SO percent success rate is competitive Jut,. .coca vwhen student,'
`When students work on their own in a engage in cooperative group activities
total class seatwork situation, an initial
success rate of 95 to 100 percent is re- Students who engage in small group
quired. activities for some of their instructional
time decide how to do school work more
l ormation of lesson -by-lesson groups quickly and freely than students who onl%
based on differences in students' learning engage in total class, teacher-directed
needs reduces the amount of review and instructior. They also show more self-
practice time needed by all students to initiative and assume greater individual
achieve high success. However, students responsibility for completion of assigned
who are assigned repeatedly to groups tasks
that receive more review and practice time
than other groups, over time, require ever Students who participate in group investi-
increasing amounts of review and practice gation and concept development gr;ups
to achieve mastery of the skills and acquire negotiation, consensus and com-
knowledge covered in later lessons. promise skills
CLOSE-UP 02 7 PAGE 5
among students of different races, social Long-term assignment to an ability group
classes, achievement levels and sexes. or competit,on between cooperative groups
has a negative effect upon the self-esteem
fiandirapppri ctilric-ntc inforapt more with of avcrage and 1:Avcr ability tudent-s.
non-handicapped students when placed in Impact is greatest for students in groups
small cooperative groups. They also give that are not successful in completion of
more management input to learning assigned tasks or in team competition
activities. They receive more academic
support from neir non-handicapped peers Placement in long-term ability groups
influences students' perceptions of self
Non-handicapped students become more regardless of the school the students
open-minded regarding handicapped attend. When long-term reading groups
students and the ideas they provide when are established in schools serving high
they work with handicapped students in socioeconomic neighborhoods, children
cooperative groups. placed in lower groups think they are less
talented than other students even though
TO MOTIVATE STUDENTS they would be considered model students
in another setting Some become con-
Peer tutoring groups motivate students to vinced they cannot learn to read
review and rehearse material until they
know it. Students who engage in small group
activities for a particular subject area like
Students who participate in groups other that subject better than students who are
than long-term ability groups show more taught in total class groups
interest in classroom activities
In competitive situations, high ability'
The general classroom tone is more students attribute more ability to self than
positive and friendly when cooperative others. In cooperative groups, there is no
groups are used for some of the instruction difference in self-other ability attribution
that takes place. by these stud -nts
PAGE 6 8 CLOSE-UP #2
1
CLOSE-UP #2
9 ?AGE 7
the products produced during practice Use of written instructions for each
sessions are not evaluated. instructional group increases clarity of
teacher directions and explanations.
Assigning one student in a group to
observe group members' use of cooperative Monitoring
norms and group process skills and report
back to the group and teacher on the Teacher monitoring of student behavior
group's performance is an effective train- during instructional group work requires
ing strategy. attention both to group process factors and
to the individual student's time on task
Students who receive training in how to and task completion success.
function in various types of instru onal
groups exhibit more task related interac- Procedures for monitoring the work of
tion, give more higher order explanations other groups while working with one
to one another, and provide fewer answers group must be established by the teacher.
to other students' worksheets than stu- Designation of one or more students to
dents who are not trained. monitor on-task behavior in each group
helps with this aspect of effective teach-
White dominance in groups that include ing.
students from diverse races is lessened
when minority students receive special, Formal record keeping regarding students'
advance training on academic and nonac- mastery of subject area content and skills
ademic tasks and then teach them to the and their use of group process and other
white students in their groups. social skills helps the teacher keep abreast
of the progress of individual students. It
EFFECTIVE TEACHING SKILLS also facilitates provision of review, prac-
tice and enrichment experiences to groups
For instructional groups to work, the teacher and to individual students on a timely
must solve the management, wotivation, and basis.
direct instruction needs of students. Both the
teacher and students can help do this. Reinforcement and feedback
Classroom organization and manage- Students working in instructional groups
ment need feedback on how they are doing just
as students need such input in large
Resources to be used by students in group, direct instruction situations.
instructional groups should be readily
available. In instructional groups, teacher feedback
and reinforcement should attend to
Physical arrangement of classroom to students' use of group process skills in
provide separate work areas for groups addition to time on task and success in
increaser students' attention to group task completion.
tasks.
When group process feedback is given, it
When the teacher is working with an should focus on specific processes and not
instructional group, interruption of the reasons for students' successful or un-
teacher-student interaction by students successful use of the process at that point
from other groups should not be allowed. in time.
Clarity The temptation for off-task behavior
increases when group activities are
Tasks to be completed and expectations inadequately understood. The teacher
for high quality performance must be clear must be alert to this problem and provide
to all students in an instructional group. corrective feedback regarding both task
assignments and student engagement
Roles ?rid responsibilities of students in a when a group is not on task.
group must be clear to all students.
PAGE 8
10 CLOSE-UP #2
The purpose and functions of most in- When performance of lower ability stu-
structional groups call for delegation of dents is weighted so it counts as much as
some feedback and reinforcement respon- toward group scores as that of higher
sibility to the students in each group. ability students, the quantity and quality
This should be clear to students. They of contact among team members improves
should be taught how to provide instruc-
tional feedback. Wrap-up sessions which evaluate stu-
dents' success in working together are an
Indicators should be established that help important part of instructional group
students determine when to obtain work.
teacher assistance with instructional or
behavioral matters. REVIEW OF GROUP COMPOSITION
Substantive teacher time Frequent and regular review of group
composition and changes in students'
In an instructional group, teacher-student group assignments are essential. They
interaction that focuses upon student counteract the tendency to maintain
acquisition of the content to be mastered student placement in an inappropriate
and the group processes to be followed ability group and reduce the student
constitutes substantive teacher time. Be- domination and interpersonal conflicts
havior management and attention to ir- that tend to build up when groups remain
relevant content do not. stable.
Teacher assistance and direction at crucial Appropriateness of student placement in
steps in the students' thinking/analysis all types of instructional groups is in-
process are particularly important when creased when placement decisions are
instructional groups are used. Provision made by a team of teachers. This is the
of such assistance is facilitated if students case even though the groups include
are trained to alert the teacher when they students from only one class. The addi-
arrive at group decision making points. tional questions and insights brought to
the decision malang by non-involved
Teacher prompting of students to try out teachers increaL3 the objectivity of student
the ideas of everyone in the group before assignment.
they arrive at a plan of action is par: of
substantive teacher time in some instruc- When long-term ability groups are used,
tional groups. advance scheduling of required dates for
review of student placement is recom-
EVALUATION mended.
The group reward structure plays an
important part in students' achievement
gains in instructional groups. Group Cautions Regarding Use of
r-:waids enhance the learning of individ- Instructional Groups
ual students only if group members are
held individually acco.intable and re- PERMANENCE OF GROUP
warded for their own learning as well as
for the group's products and performance. Failure to change group composition on a
frequent basis can lead to students' roles
The group reward structure can promote and interactions within a group being
or discourage student cooperation. Use of influenced more by students' sc,,:ioeco-
group-level rewards or recognition encour- nomic status than by assigned tasks and
ages cooperation. Evaluation of each responsibilities.
individual studem's contribution to a
group score discourages cooperation. It Long-term assignment to any type of
should not be done. group works against the positive outcomes
of instructional grouping.
CLOSE-UP #2
11 PAGE 9
TEACHER PERCEPTIONS AND EXPEC- The teacher behaviors that are ob-
TATIONS AND GROUP ASSIGNMENT served have been found to be nega-
tively related to the performance of
Students' basic, higher cognitive and students at any ability level. They are
social skills must serve as the major particularly harmful for low ability
criteria for assignment of students to students.
groups.
Some of the differences in ceachc r
When specific information regarding behavior that have been observed in
students' knowledge and skill develop- low compared with other ability
ment is not used to determine group as- groups include:
signments, teacher bias enters in.
+ Teachers wait less time for stu-
Perceived capacity to profit from dents to answer.
in 'ruction rather than ability may
serve as the criterion for group assign- Teachers provide briefer and less
ment. informative feedback.
PAGE 10 12 CLOSE-UP V2
CHANGES IN THE ROLE OF WE the learning climate is consistent across
TEACHER REQUIRED BY INF .UC- all the groups.
TIONAL GROUPS
171L, A rTJ10/10/ MO_ A TATTXTri
A L. A.CILV IL 114 11.11. 1.11.11.11.1.
Policy Implications
Key References
USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL GROUPS
Abadzi, H. "Ability Grouping Effects on
Instructional groups should be used for Academic. Achievement and Self Esteem-
specific instructional purposes. They Who Performs in the Long Run as
should not be the only male of instruction Expected." Journal of Educational Re-
in a classroom or subject matter area. search, 79:1, 36 -40, September /October
1985.
Teacher presentation of new information
and skills should be done in a total-class, Reports on the effects over a five-year
direct instruction setting. Instructional period of long-term ability grouping on
groups should be used for review, drill and high achievement and regular students'
practice activities or for expanded investi- academic performance and self-concept
gation of subject areas.
Calfee, R. and Brown, R. "Grouping Students
Use of long-term ability groups based on for Instruction." In D. L. Duke (Ed.),
student ability should be reduced. Classroom Management (Seventy eighth
yearbook of the National Society for the
Pull-out instruction of students based on Study of Fdut. ion). Chicago, IL; Univer-
academic ability Mould not occur. sity of Chicago Press, 144-181,1979.
If long- or short-term ability groups are Compilation of research on the structure
used, instruction should be monitored to and function of instructional groups and
assure that the quality of instruction and recent innovations in instructional group-
ing.
CLOSE-UP #2 PAGE 11
13
Cohen, E. C.. "On the Sociology of the Class- Hallinan, M. "Summary and Implications."
room." In J. Hannaway and M. E. Lock- In P. L. Peterson, L. C. Wilkinson and M.
heed (Ed.), The Contributions of the Social Hallinan (Ed.), The Social Context of
Sciences to Educational Policy and Prac- Instruction: Group Organization and
tice: 1965-1986. Berkeley, CA: Group Process. Orlando, FL: Academic
McCutchan Publishing Corp, 127-162, Press, 229-240, 1984.
1986.
Summarizes information on instructional
A review of recent sociological research on grouping presented by the various chapter
the social system of the classroom. Infor- authors.
mation regarding instructional grouping is
presented throughout the chapter. Rosenbaurn, J. E. "Social Implications of
Educational Grouping." In D. C. Berliner
Faltus, R. Cooperative Small Groups. (Train- (Ed.), _ieview of Research in Education.
ing and Research Manual, Vol. I, Educa- Washington, DC: American Educational
tion and Dissemination Program). Wash- Researe. Association. 361-401, 1980.
ington, DC: American Federation of
Teachers, 1985. Compilation of research literature to
answer questions about the influence
Manual used in AFT teacher training pro- ability grouping has upon student achieve-
gram. Includes summary of research on ment, teaching methods, social identities
cooperative small groups, training exer- and attitudes. The chapter also explores
cises for teachers, and suggested activities the effects of curriculum grouping (or
for training students to work in small student tracking).
groups.
Sharon, S. "Cooperative Learning in Small
Good, T. L. "What 's Learned in Elementary Groups: Recent Methods and Effects on
Schools." In T. M. Tomlinson and H. J. Achievement, Attitudes and Ethnic
Walberg (Ed.), Academic Work and Educa- Relations." Review of E rational Re-
tional Excellence. Berkeley, CA: search, 50:2, 241-272, Summer 1980.
McCutchan Publishing Corp., 87-114,
1986. Reviews five approaches to cooperative
group learning and summarizes experi-
This book presents 12 papers that were mental studies of each approach.
prepared for the National Commission on
Excellence in Education summarizing Slavin, R. E. "Cs _perative Learning." Review
research on various aspects of education. of Educational Research, 50.2, 315-342,
This chapter includes information on the Summer 1980.
consequences for students and teachers of
tracking, ability grouping and pull-out in- Summarizes research on use of coopera-
struction. tive loarning groups in urban, suburban
and rural schools.
Good, T. L. and Weinstein, R. S. "Teacher
Expectations: A Framework for Exploring Slavin, R. E. and Karweit, N. L. "Effects of
Classrooms." in K. K Zumwalt (Ed.), Whole Class, Ability Grouped, and Indi-
Improving Teaching (1986 ASCD Year- vidualized Instruction on Mathematics
book). Alexandria, VA: Association for Achievement." American Educational
Supervision and Curriculum Develop- Research Journal, 22:3, 351-369, Fall
ment, 63-85, 1986. 1985.
PAGE 12 CLOSE-UP #2
14
Swing, S. R. and Peterson, P. L. "The Rela- Beckerman, T. M. and Good, T. L. "The
tionship of Student Ability and Small Classroom Ratio of High- and Low-
Group Interaction to Student Aptitude Students and its Effects on
Achievement" -4 me rice , n Rditnntinnnl Achievement." .America :2 '.11.1cational
Research Journal, 19:2, 259-274, Summer Research Journal, 18:2, 317-328, Fall
1982. 1981.
Reports data regarding the effects of Looks at the impact both on teacher and
advanced training of students in small- student performance of the rarge of
group interaction on their later perform- heterogeneity of students assigned to a
ance and learning in small cooperative classroom.
groups.
Boiko, H., Cone, R., Russo, N. A. and Shavel-
Webb, N. M. Student Interaction and Learn- son, R. G. "Teachers' Decision Making."
ing in Small Groups. Review of Educa- In P. L. Peterson and H. J. Walberg (Ed.),
tional Research, 52.3, 421-445, 1982 Research on Teaching. Berkeley, CA:
McCutchan Publishing Corp, 1979.
A review of research on the student inter-
action processes that occur in small Describes the interplay between student
groups, particularly cooperative groups. behavior, task, demands and instructional
Three aspects of group learning are decisions.
examined: (1) the relationships between
interaction and achievement, (2) cognitive Brophy, J. E. "Classroom Organization and
process and social-emotional mechanisms Management." The Elementary School
bridging interaction and achievement and Journal, 83:4, 265-285, March 1983.
(3) characteristics of the individual, group
and reward structure that predict interac- Summarizes research on how successful
tion in small groups. teachers organize and manage their
classrooms. Includes a discussion of
grouping in the classroom.
Other References Cohen, E. "Expectation States and Interracial
Interaction in School Settings." Annual
Arlin, M. "Time Variability in Mastery
Review of Sociology, 8, 209-230, 1982.
Learning." American Educational Jour-
nal, 12:1, 103-120, Spring 1984.
The article includes information on the
use of cooperative small groups in class-
Looks at the time students of various rooms serving Hispanic and Anglo stu-
ability levels need to master basic mathe- dents.
matics skills.
Evertson, C. M., Sanford, J. P. and Emmer, E.
Ames, C. "Competitive Versus Cooperative T. "Effects of Class Heterogeneity in
Reward Structures: The 1.,fluence of Junior High School." American Educa-
Individual and Group Performance Fac- tional Research Journal, 18:2, 219-232,
tors on Achievement Attributions and Summer 1981.
Affect." American Educational Research
Journal, 18:3, 273-`,..,38, Fall 1981.
Deports findings regarding class heteroge-
neity and teacher:' successful adaptation
Report of a study of students' attributions of instruction to individual student aca-
for and affective reactions to success and demic and attentive needs.
failure when students who work together
are rewarded for their combined effort and
when only the student who solves the
mr-,t problems is rewarded.
CLOSE-UP #2 PAGE 13
15
Gettinger, M. "Achievement as a Function of Marsh, H. W. "Self-Concept, Social Compari-
Time Spent in Learning and Time Needed son and Ability Grouping: A Reply to
for Learning." American Educational Kulik and Kulik." American Educational
Research Journal, 21:3, 617-628, Fail Research Journal, 21:4, 799-806, Winter
1984. 1984.
Presents information regarding the effects Reports information Showing that ability
of spending less time than heeded in grouping is likely to have substantive
learning. effects upon self-concepts within different
ability groups.
Haller, E. J. "Pupil Race and Elementary
School Ability Grouping: Are Teachers Owens, L. and Barnes, J. "The Relationships
Biased Against Black Children?" Ameri- Between Cooperative, Competitive and
can Educational Research Journai, 22:4, Individualized Learning Preferences and
465-484, Winter 1985. Students' Perceptions of Classroom
Learning Atmosphere." American
The article reports on the relationship be- Educational Research Journal, 1 9:2, 182-
tween the teachers' remarks while en- 200, Summer 1982.
gaged in tae process of grouping children
and the racial composition of the groups Reports a study that linked attitudes
they actually formed. toward different approaches to learning
and student perceptions regarding the
Haller, E. J. and Davis, S. A. "Does Socioeco- press to learn in a .eitain way to achieve-
nomic Status Bias the Assignment of ment.
Elementary Sc Imo] Students t:- Reading
Groups?" American Educational Research Peterson, P. L. and Fennema, E. "Effective
Journal, 17:4, 409-418, Winter 1980. Teaching, Student Engagement in Class-
room Activities, and Sex-Related Differ-
Found that students' achievement played ences in Learning Mathematics." Ameri-
a more importar t sole in student place- can Educational Research Journal, 22 3,
ment in ability groups than family SES. 309-335, Fall 1985.
16
PAGE 14 CLOSE-UP #2
Sindelar, P. T., Rosenberg, M. S., Wilson, R. J.
and Bursixk, W. D. "The Effects of Group
Size and Instructional Method on the
Acquisition of Mathematic Concepts by
Fourth Grade Students." Journal of
Educational Research, 77:3, 178-183,
January/February 1984.
This publication is based on work sponsored wholly, or in part, by the Office of Educational Research and Improve-
ment (GERI), U.S. Department of Education, under Contract Number 400-86-Outit, The content of this publication
does not necessarily reflect the views of OERI, the Department, or any other agency of the U S. Government
November 1987
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