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PART - 5 - Precalculus Fifth Edition Mathematics For Calculus
PART - 5 - Precalculus Fifth Edition Mathematics For Calculus
iAp
R
1 11 i 2 n
A little experimentation will convince you that it’s not possible to solve this
equation for i algebraically. So, to find i we use a graphing device to graph R as a
function of the interest rate x, and we then use the graph to find the interest rate cor-
responding to the value of R we want ($405 in this case). Since i x/12, we graph
the function
118,0002
x
450 12
R1x2
x 60
1 a1 b
405 12
11.4 Exercises
1. Annuity Find the amount of an annuity that consists of couple intends to secure a 30-year mortgage, how much can
10 annual payments of $1000 each into an account that pays they borrow?
6% interest per year.
15. Mortgage A couple secures a 30-year loan of $100,000
2. Annuity Find the amount of an annuity that consists of at 9 34 % per year, compounded monthly, to buy a house.
24 monthly payments of $500 each into an account that
(a) What is the amount of their monthly payment?
pays 8% interest per year, compounded monthly.
(b) What total amount will they pay over the 30-year period?
3. Annuity Find the amount of an annuity that consists of
(c) If, instead of taking the loan, the couple deposits the
20 annual payments of $5000 each into an account that pays
monthly payments in an account that pays 9 34 % interest
interest of 12% per year.
per year, compounded monthly, how much will be in
4. Annuity Find the amount of an annuity that consists of the account at the end of the 30-year period?
20 semiannual payments of $500 each into an account that
pays 6% interest per year, compounded semiannually. 16. Financing a Car Jane agrees to buy a car for a down pay-
ment of $2000 and payments of $220 per month for 3 years.
5. Annuity Find the amount of an annuity that consists of If the interest rate is 8% per year, compounded monthly,
16 quarterly payments of $300 each into an account that what is the actual purchase price of her car?
pays 8% interest per year, compounded quarterly.
17. Financing a Ring Mike buys a ring for his fiancee by
6. Saving How much money should be invested every quar-
paying $30 a month for one year. If the interest rate is 10%
ter at 10% per year, compounded quarterly, in order to have
per year, compounded monthly, what is the price of the ring?
$5000 in 2 years?
7. Saving How much money should be invested monthly at 18. Interest Rate Janet’s payments on her $12,500 car are
6% per year, compounded monthly, in order to have $2000 $420 a month for 3 years. Assuming that interest is com-
in 8 months? pounded monthly, what interest rate is she paying on the
car loan?
8. Annuity What is the present value of an annuity that con-
sists of 20 semiannual payments of $1000 at the interest rate 19. Interest Rate John buys a stereo system for $640. He
of 9% per year, compounded semiannually? agrees to pay $32 a month for 2 years. Assuming that inter-
9. Funding an Annuity How much money must be invested est is compounded monthly, what interest rate is he paying?
now at 9% per year, compounded semiannually, to fund an 20. Interest Rate A man purchases a $2000 diamond ring for
annuity of 20 payments of $200 each, paid every 6 months, a down payment of $200 and monthly installments of $88
the first payment being 6 months from now? for 2 years. Assuming that interest is compounded monthly,
10. Funding an Annuity A 55-year-old man deposits what interest rate is he paying?
$50,000 to fund an annuity with an insurance company. The 21. Interest Rate An item at a department store is priced at
money will be invested at 8% per year, compounded semi- $189.99 and can be bought by making 20 payments of
annually. He is to draw semiannual payments until he $10.50. Find the interest rate, assuming that interest is com-
reaches age 65. What is the amount of each payment? pounded monthly.
11. Financing a Car A woman wants to borrow $12,000 in
order to buy a car. She wants to repay the loan by monthly
installments for 4 years. If the interest rate on this loan is Discovery • Discussion
10 12 % per year, compounded monthly, what is the amount of
each payment? 22. Present Value of an Annuity (a) Draw a time line as in
Example 1 to show that the present value of an annuity is
12. Mortgage What is the monthly payment on a 30-year
the sum of the present values of each payment, that is,
mortgage of $80,000 at 9% interest? What is the monthly
payment on this same mortgage if it is to be repaid over a R R R R
Ap ...
15-year period? 1i 11 i 2 2
11 i 2 3
11 i2 n
13. Mortgage What is the monthly payment on a 30-year
mortgage of $100,000 at 8% interest per year, compounded (b) Use part (a) to derive the formula for Ap given in the text.
monthly? What is the total amount paid on this loan over the 23. An Annuity That Lasts Forever An annuity in
30-year period? perpetuity is one that continues forever. Such annuities
14. Mortgage A couple can afford to make a monthly mort- are useful in setting up scholarship funds to ensure that
gage payment of $650. If the mortgage rate is 9% and the the award continues.
854 CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series
(a) Draw a time line (as in Example 1) to show that to set bank gave them an amortization schedule, which is a table
up an annuity in perpetuity of amount R per time pe- showing how much of each payment is interest, how much
riod, the amount that must be invested now is goes toward the principal, and the remaining principal after
each payment. The table below shows the first few entries in
R R R R
Ap ... ... the amortization schedule.
1i 11 i 2 2 11 i2 3 11 i2 n
Payment Total Interest Principal Remaining
where i is the interest rate per time period.
number payment payment payment principal
(b) Find the sum of the infinite series in part (a) to show that
1 724.17 675.00 49.17 89,950.83
R 2 724.17 674.63 49.54 89,901.29
Ap
i 3 724.17 674.26 49.91 89,851.38
(c) How much money must be invested now at 10% per 4 724.17 673.89 50.28 89,801.10
year, compounded annually, to provide an annuity in
perpetuity of $5000 per year? The first payment is due After 10 years they have made 120 payments and are won-
in one year. dering how much they still owe, but they have lost the amor-
(d) How much money must be invested now at 8% per tization schedule.
year, compounded quarterly, to provide an annuity in (a) How much do John and Mary still owe on their mort-
perpetuity of $3000 per year? The first payment is gage? [Hint: The remaining balance is the present value
due in one year. of the 240 remaining payments.]
24. Amortizing a Mortgage When they bought their house, (b) How much of their next payment is interest and how
John and Mary took out a $90,000 mortgage at 9% interest, much goes toward the principal? [Hint: Since 9%
repayable monthly over 30 years. Their payment is $724.17 12 0.75%, they must pay 0.75% of the remaining
per month (check this using the formula in the text). The principal in interest each month.]
Consider the polynomial This leads naturally to the following question: Is it true that for every natural number
p1n2 n2 n 41 n, the sum of the first n odd numbers is n2? Could this remarkable property be true?
Here are some values of p1n 2 : We could try a few more numbers and find that the pattern persists for the first 6, 7,
p11 2 41 p12 2 43
8, 9, and 10 odd numbers. At this point, we feel quite sure that this is always true, so
we make a conjecture:
p13 2 47 p14 2 53
p15 2 61 p16 2 71 The sum of the first n odd numbers is n 2.
p17 2 83 p18 2 97
Since we know that the nth odd number is 2n 1, we can write this statement more
All the values so far are prime num- precisely as
bers. In fact, if you keep going, you
will find p1n2 is prime for all natural 1 3 5 . . . 12n 12 n2
numbers up to n 40. It may seem
reasonable at this point to conjecture It’s important to realize that this is still a conjecture. We cannot conclude by check-
that p1n2 is prime for every natural ing a finite number of cases that a property is true for all numbers (there are infinitely
number n. But out conjecture would be many). To see this more clearly, suppose someone tells us he has added up the first
too hasty, because it is easily seen that
p141 2 is not prime. This illustrates that
trillion odd numbers and found that they do not add up to 1 trillion squared. What
would you tell this person? It would be silly to say that you’re sure it’s true because
we cannot be certain of the truth of a
statement no matter how many special you’ve already checked the first five cases. You could, however, take out paper and
cases we check. We need a convincing pencil and start checking it yourself, but this task would probably take the rest of your
argument—a proof—to determine the life. The tragedy would be that after completing this task you would still not be sure
truth of a statement. of the truth of the conjecture! Do you see why?
Herein lies the power of mathematical proof. A proof is a clear argument that
demonstrates the truth of a statement beyond doubt.
Mathematical Induction
Let’s consider a special kind of proof called mathematical induction. Here is how it
works: Suppose we have a statement that says something about all natural numbers
n. Let’s call this statement P. For example, we could consider the statement
P: For every natural number n, the sum of the first n odd numbers is n 2.
Since this statement is about all natural numbers, it contains infinitely many state-
ments; we will call them P(1), P(2), . . . .
How can we prove all of these statements at once? Mathematical induction is a clever
way of doing just that.
The crux of the idea is this: Suppose we can prove that whenever one of these
statements is true, then the one following it in the list is also true. In other words,
For every k, if P1k2 is true, then P1k 1 2 is true.
This is called the induction step because it leads us from the truth of one statement
to the next. Now, suppose that we can also prove that
P112 is true.
856 CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series
The induction step now leads us through the following chain of statements:
P112 is true, so P122 is true.
P122 is true, so P132 is true.
P132 is true, so P142 is true.
. .
. .
. .
So we see that if both the induction step and P112 are proved, then statement P is
proved for all n. Here is a summary of this important method of proof.
We now use mathematical induction to prove that the conjecture we made at the
beginning of this section is true.
SECTION 11.5 Mathematical Induction 857
1 3 5 . . . 12k 12 k 2
We want to use this to show that P1k 12 is true, that is,
1 3 5 . . . 12k 12 321k 12 14 1k 12 2
[Note that we get P1k 12 by substituting k 1 for each n in the state-
ment P1n2 .] We start with the left side and use the induction hypothesis to
obtain the right side of the equation:
1 3 5 . . . 12k 12 321k 12 14
31 3 5 . . . 12k 12 4 321k 12 14 Group the first
2
This equals k by the induction k terms
k 2 321k 12 14
hypothesis. Induction
hypothesis
k 2 32k 2 14 Distributive
Property
k 2 2k 1 Simplify
1k 12 2
Factor
Thus, P1k 12 follows from P1k2 and this completes the induction step.
111 1 2
1
2
and this statement is clearly true.
858 CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series
4k 2k
We want to use this to show that P1k 12 is true, that is,
2 4k
k
Because 4 4k
2k 2k Induction hypothesis
2#2 k
Thus, P1k 12 follows from P1k2 and this completes the induction step.
Having proved Steps 1 and 2, we conclude by the Principle of Mathematical
Induction that P1n 2 is true for all natural numbers n 5. ■
11.5 Exercises
1–12 ■ Use mathematical induction to prove that the formula 1 1 1 1 n
...
1#2 2#3 3#4 1n 1 2
10.
is true for all natural numbers n. n1n 12
1. 2 4 6 . . . 2n n1n 1 2 11. 1 # 2 2 # 22 3 # 23 4 # 24 . . . n # 2n
n13n 1 2 231 1n 1 22n 4
2. 1 4 7 . . . 13n 2 2
2 12. 1 2 22 . . . 2n1 2n 1
n13n 7 2
3. 5 8 11 . . . 13n 2 2 13. Show that n2 n is divisible by 2 for all natural numbers n.
2
14. Show that 5n 1 is divisible by 4 for all natural numbers n.
n1n 12 12n 1 2
4. 12 22 32 . . . n2 15. Show that n2 n 41 is odd for all natural numbers n.
6
16. Show that n3 n 3 is divisible by 3 for all natural
5. 1 # 2 2 # 3 3 # 4 . . . n1n 1 2 numbers n.
n1n 12 1n 2 2 17. Show that 8n 3n is divisible by 5 for all natural numbers n.
3
18. Show that 32n 1 is divisible by 8 for all natural numbers n.
6. 1 # 3 2 # 4 3 # 5 . . . n1n 2 2
19. Prove that n 2n for all natural numbers n.
n1n 1 2 12n 7 2
20. Prove that 1n 12 2 2n2 for all natural numbers n 3.
21. Prove that if x 1, then 11 x 2 n 1 nx for all natural
6
n2 1n 1 2 2 numbers n.
7. 13 23 33 . . . n3
4
22. Show that 100n
n2 for all n 100.
8. 1 3 5
3 3 .
3 . . 12n 12 n2 12n2 1 2
3
23. Let an1 3an and a1 5. Show that an 5 ⴢ 3n1 for all
9. 23 43 63 . . . 12n2 3 2n2 1n 1 2 2 natural numbers n.
860 CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series
24. A sequence is defined recursively by an1 3an 8 and (b) n2 n for all n 2.
a1 4. Find an explicit formula for an and then use mathe- (c) 22n1 1 is divisible by 3 for all n 1.
(d) n3 1n 12 2 for all n 2.
matical induction to prove that the formula you found is true.
25. Show that x y is a factor of x y for all natural
n n
(e) n3 n is divisible by 3 for all n 2.
numbers n.
(f) n3 6n2 11n is divisible by 6 for all n 1.
3Hint: x k1
y k1
x 1x y 2 1x y 2 y4
k k k
36. All Cats Are Black? What is wrong with the following
26. Show that x y is a factor of x 2n1 y 2n1 for all natural “proof” by mathematical induction that all cats are black?
numbers n. Let P1n 2 denote the statement: In any group of n cats, if one
is black, then they are all black.
27–31 ■ Fn denotes the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence
discussed in Section 11.1. Use mathematical induction to prove Step 1 The statement is clearly true for n 1.
the statement. Step 2 Suppose that P1k 2 is true. We show that P1k 1 2
is true.
27. F3n is even for all natural numbers n.
Suppose we have a group of k 1 cats, one of
28. F1 F2 F3 . . . Fn Fn2 1 whom is black; call this cat “Midnight.” Remove
some other cat (call it “Sparky”) from the group.
29. F 12 F 22 F 32 . . . F n2 FnFn1
We are left with k cats, one of whom (Midnight) is
30. F1 F3 . . . F2n1 F2n black, so by the induction hypothesis, all k of these
31. For all n 2, are black. Now put Sparky back in the group and
take out Midnight. We again have a group of k cats,
c d c n1 d
1 1 n F Fn all of whom—except possibly Sparky—are black.
1 0 Fn Fn1 Then by the induction hypothesis, Sparky must be
black, too. So all k 1 cats in the original group
32. Let an be the nth term of the sequence defined recursively by are black.
1 Thus, by induction P1n 2 is true for all n. Since everyone has
a n1
1 an seen at least one black cat, it follows that all cats are black.
and a1 1. Find a formula for an in terms of the Fibonacci
numbers Fn. Prove that the formula you found is valid for all
natural numbers n.
33. Let Fn be the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence. Find and
prove an inequality relating n and Fn for natural numbers n.
34. Find and prove an inequality relating 100n and n3.
Midnight Sparky
Discovery • Discussion
35. True or False? Determine whether each statement is true
or false. If you think the statement is true, prove it. If you
think it is false, give an example where it fails.
(a) p1n 2 n2 n 11 is prime for all n.
Expanding (a ⴙ b)n
To find a pattern in the expansion of 1a b2 n, we first look at some special cases:
1a b2 1 a b
1a b2 2 a 2 2ab b 2
1a b2 3 a 3 3a 2b 3ab 2 b 3
1a b2 4 a 4 4a 3b 6a 2b 2 4ab 3 b 4
1a b2 5 a 5 5a 4b 10a 3b 2 10a 2b 3 5ab 4 b 5
.
.
.
The following simple patterns emerge for the expansion of 1a b2 n:
1. There are n 1 terms, the first being an and the last bn.
2. The exponents of a decrease by 1 from term to term while the exponents of b
increase by 1.
3. The sum of the exponents of a and b in each term is n.
For instance, notice how the exponents of a and b behave in the expansion of
1a b2 5.
1a b 2 5 a 5a b 1 10a b 2 10a b 3 5a
5 4 3 2 1
b4 b5
1a b2 5 a 5 5a 4b 10a 3b 10a 2b
1 2 3 4 5
5a 1b b
With these observations we can write the form of the expansion of 1a b2 n for any
natural number n. For example, writing a question mark for the missing coefficients,
we have
1a b2 0 1
1a b2 1 1 1
1a b2 2 1 2 1
1a b2 3 1 3 3 1
1a b2 4
1 4 6 4 1
1a b2 5 1 5 10 10 5 1
862 CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series
The row corresponding to 1a b2 0 is called the zeroth row and is included to show
Pascal’s triangle appears in this the symmetry of the array. The key observation about Pascal’s triangle is the follow-
Chinese document by Chu Shikie,
ing property.
dated 1303. The title reads “The
Old Method Chart of the Seven
Multiplying Squares.” The triangle
was rediscovered by Pascal (see
Key Property of Pascal’s Triangle
page 858).
Every entry (other than a 1) is the sum of the two entries diagonally above it.
From this property it’s easy to find any row of Pascal’s triangle from the row above
it. For instance, we find the sixth and seventh rows, starting with the fifth row:
1a b2 5 1 5 10 10 5 1
씮
1a b2
씮 씮
씮 씮
씮 씮
씮 씮
씮
6
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
씮
1a b2 7
씮
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
To see why this property holds, let’s consider the following expansions:
1a b2 5 a 5 5a 4b 10a 3b 2 10a 2b 3 5ab 4 b 5
–
씯–
씯
1a b2 6 a 6 6a 5b 15a 4b 2 20a 3b 3 15a 2b 4 6ab 5 b 6
We arrive at the expansion of 1a b2 6 by multiplying 1a b2 5 by 1a b2 . Notice,
for instance, that the circled term in the expansion of 1a b2 6 is obtained via this
multiplication from the two circled terms above it. We get this term when the two
terms above it are multiplied by b and a, respectively. Thus, its coefficient is the sum
of the coefficients of these two terms. We will use this observation at the end of this
section when we prove the Binomial Theorem.
Having found these patterns, we can now easily obtain the expansion of any bino-
mial, at least to relatively small powers.
0! 1
This definition of 0! makes many formulas involving factorials shorter and easier to
write.
a b
n n!
r r!1n r 2!
1 # 2 # 3 # p # 97 # 98 # 99 # 100
(c) a b
100 100!
97 97!1100 972! 11 # 2 # 3 # p # 972 11 # 2 # 32
98 # 99 # 100
161,700
1#2#3
■
Although the binomial coefficient (nr) is defined in terms of a fraction, all the re-
sults of Example 3 are natural numbers. In fact, (nr) is always a natural number (see
Exercise 50). Notice that the binomial coefficients in parts (b) and (c) of Example 3
are equal. This is a special case of the following relation, which you are asked to
prove in Exercise 48.
a b a b
n n
r nr
To see the connection between the binomial coefficients and the binomial expan-
sion of 1a b2 n, let’s calculate the following binomial coefficients:
a b 1 a b 5 a b 10 a b 10 a b 5 a b 1
5 5 5 5 5 5
a b
5 5!
10
2 2!15 22 ! 0 1 2 3 4 5
These are precisely the entries in the fifth row of Pascal’s triangle. In fact, we can
write Pascal’s triangle as follows.
a b
0
0
a b a b
1 1
0 1
a b a b a b
2 2 2
0 1 2
a b a b a b a b
3 3 3 3
0 1 2 3
a b a b a b a b a b
4 4 4 4 4
0 1 2 3 4
a b a b a b a b a b a b
5 5 5 5 5 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
# # # # # # #
a b
n
a b
n
a b
n # # # a
n
b a b
n
0 1 2 n1 n
To demonstrate that this pattern holds, we need to show that any entry in this version
of Pascal’s triangle is the sum of the two entries diagonally above it. In other words,
we must show that each entry satisfies the key property of Pascal’s triangle. We now
state this property in terms of the binomial coefficients.
SECTION 11.6 The Binomial Theorem 865
Notice that the two terms on the left side of this equation are adjacent entries in the
kth row of Pascal’s triangle and the term on the right side is the entry diagonally be-
low them, in the 1k 12 st row. Thus, this equation is a restatement of the key prop-
erty of Pascal’s triangle in terms of the binomial coefficients. A proof of this formula
is outlined in Exercise 49.
We prove this theorem at the end of this section. First, let’s look at some of its
applications.
1x y2 4 a b x 4 a b x 3y a b x 2y 2 a b xy 3 a b y 4
4 4 4 4 4
0 1 2 3 4
Verify that
a b 1 a b 4 a b 6 a b 4 a b 1
4 4 4 4 4
0 1 2 3 4
It follows that
1x y2 4 x 4 4x 3y 6x 2y 2 4xy 3 y 4 ■
866 CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series
1a b2 8 a b a 8 a b a 7b a b a 6b 2 a b a 5b 3 a b a 4b 4
8 8 8 8 8
0 1 2 3 4
a b a 3b 5 a b a 2b 6 a b ab 7 a b b 8
8 8 8 8
5 6 7 8
Verify that
a b 1 a b 8 a b 28 a b 56 a b 70
8 8 8 8 8
0 1 2 3 4
a b 56 a b 28 a b 8 a b 1
8 8 8 8
5 6 7 8
So
A 1x 1B 8 1x 1/2 2 8 81x 1/2 2 7 112 281x 1/2 2 6 112 2 561x 1/2 2 5 112 3
701x 1/2 2 4 112 4 561x 1/2 2 3 112 5 281x 1/2 2 2 112 6
81x 1/2 2 112 7 112 8
This simplifies to
The Binomial Theorem can be used to find a particular term of a binomial expan-
sion without having to find the entire expansion.
a b a rb nr
n
nr
SECTION 11.6 The Binomial Theorem 867
a ba b 12x2 5y15
20 5 15 20! 20!
32x 5y15 496,128x 5y15 ■
15 15!120 152! 15!5!
a b 1x 2 2 r a b a b x 2r 1x 1 2 10r a b x 3r10
10 1 10r 10 10
10 r x 10 r 10 r
Thus, the term that contains x8 is the term in which
3r 10 8
r6
So the required coefficient is
a b a b 210
10 10
■
10 6 4
Step 1 We show that P112 is true. But P112 is just the statement
1a b2 1 a b a 1 a b b 1 1a 1b a b
1 1
0 1
which is certainly true.
Step 2 We assume that P1k 2 is true. Thus, our induction hypothesis is
1a b2 k1 1a b2 3 1a b2 k 4
a b a k1 c a b a b d a kb c a b a b d a k1b 2
k k k k k
0 0 1 1 2
... ca b a b d ab k a b b k1
k k k
Group like terms
k1 k k
Using the key property of the binomial coefficients, we can write each of the
expressions in square brackets as a single binomial coefficient. Also, writing
the first and last coefficients as (k1 k1
0 ) and (k1) (these are equal to 1 by Exer-
cise 46) gives
But this last equation is precisely P1k 12 , and this completes the induc-
tion step.
Having proved Steps 1 and 2, we conclude by the Principle of Mathematical
Induction that the theorem is true for all natural numbers n. ■
11.6 Exercises
1–12 ■ Use Pascal’s triangle to expand the expression. 13–20 ■ Evaluate the expression.
10. 11 x 3 2 3 11. a 1x b b
5
12. a 2
x 5
19. a b a b a b a b a b a b
1 5 5 5 5 5 5
x 2 0 1 2 3 4 5
SECTION 11.6 The Binomial Theorem 869
■
20. a b a b a b a b a b a b
5 5 5 5 5 5 43–44 Simplify using the Binomial Theorem.
0 1 2 3 4 5 1x h2 3 x 3 1x h2 4 x 4
43. 44.
h h
21–24 ■ Use the Binomial Theorem to expand the expression. 45. Show that 11.01 2 100 2.
21. 1x 2y 2 4 22. 11 x2 5 [Hint: Note that 11.012 100 11 0.012 100 and use the Bino-
mial Theorem to show that the sum of the first two terms of
23. a 1 b 24. 12A B 2 2 4
1 6 the expansion is greater than 2.]
x
46. Show that a b 1 and a b 1.
n n
25. Find the first three terms in the expansion of 1x 2y 2 20. 0 n
26. Find the first four terms in the expansion of 1x 1/2 1 2 30.
47. Show that a b a b n.
n n
n1
27. Find the last two terms in the expansion of 1a 2 .
1
2/3
a 1/3 25
ax b
1 40
49. In this exercise we prove the identity
x
n1
a b a b a b
n n
29. Find the middle term in the expansion of 1x 2 1 2 18.
r1 r r
30. Find the fifth term in the expansion of 1ab 1 2 20. (a) Write the left side of this equation as the sum of two
fractions.
31. Find the 24th term in the expansion of 1a b 2 25.
(b) Show that a common denominator of the expression
32. Find the 28th term in the expansion of 1A B 2 30. you found in part (a) is r!1n r 1 2!.
(c) Add the two fractions using the common denominator
33. Find the 100th term in the expansion of 11 y2 100. in part (b), simplify the numerator, and note that the
resulting expression is equal to the right side of the
34. Find the second term in the expansion of equation.
a x2 b
1 25 50. Prove that 1 nr 2 is an integer for all n and for 0
r
n.
x [Suggestion: Use induction to show that the statement is
35. Find the term containing x4 in the expansion of 1x 2y 2 10.
true for all n, and use Exercise 49 for the induction step.]
37. Find the term containing b8 in the expansion of 1a b 2 2 12. Discovery • Discussion
38. Find the term that does not contain x in the expansion of 51. Powers of Factorials Which is larger, 1100! 2 101 or
1101!2 100? [Hint: Try factoring the expressions. Do they
a 8x b
1 8 have any common factors?]
2x
52. Sums of Binomial Coefficients Add each of the
first five rows of Pascal’s triangle, as indicated. Do you
39–42 ■ Factor using the Binomial Theorem. see a pattern?
42. x 8 4x 6y 6x 4y 2 4x 2y 3 y 4 1 5 10 10 5 1 ?
870 CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series
Based on the pattern you have found, find the sum of the 53. Alternating Sums of Binomial Coefficients Find
nth row: the sum
a b a b a b ... a b a b a b a b . . . 112 n a b
n n n n n n n n
0 1 2 n 0 1 2 n
Prove your result by expanding 11 12 n using the Binomial by finding a pattern as in Exercise 52. Prove your result by
Theorem. expanding 11 1 2 n using the Binomial Theorem.
11 Review
Concept Check
n
1. (a) What is a sequence?
4. (a) Write the sum a a k without using 兺-notation.
(b) What is an arithmetic sequence? Write an expression k1
for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence. (b) Write b 1 b2 b3 . . . bn using 兺-notation.
(c) What is a geometric sequence? Write an expression for 5. Write an expression for the amount Af of an annuity consist-
the nth term of a geometric sequence. ing of n regular equal payments of size R with interest rate i
2. (a) What is a recursively defined sequence? per time period.
(b) What is the Fibonacci sequence? 6. State the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
3. (a) What is meant by the partial sums of a sequence? 7. Write the first five rows of Pascal’s triangle. How are the
(b) If an arithmetic sequence has first term a and common entries related to each other?
difference d, write an expression for the sum of its first
8. (a) What does the symbol n! mean?
Write an expression for the binomial coefficient 1 nr 2.
n terms.
(b)
(c) If a geometric sequence has first term a and common
ratio r, write an expression for the sum of its first (c) State the Binomial Theorem.
n terms. (d) Write the term that contains ar in the expansion of
(d) Write an expression for the sum of an infinite geometric 1a b2 n.
series with first term a and common ratio r. For what
values of r is your formula valid?
Exercises
1–6 ■ Find the first four terms as well as the tenth term of the a n1
8. a n , a1 1
sequence with the given nth term. n
2. an 11 2 n
n2 2n 9. an an1 2an2, a1 1, a2 3
1. a n
n1 n
10. a n 23a n1, a 1 13
11 2 n 1 n1n 1 2
3. a n 4. a n 11–14 ■ The nth term of a sequence is given.
n3 2
(a) Find the first five terms of the sequence.
12n 2 ! n1
6. a n a b
(b) Graph the terms you found in part (a).
5. a n
2nn! 2 (c) Determine if the series is arithmetic or geometric. Find the
common difference or the common ratio.
5
7–10 ■ A sequence is defined recursively. Find the first seven 11. an 2n 5 12. a n
2n
terms of the sequence. 3n n
13. a n 14. a n 4
7. an an1 2n 1, a1 1 2n1 2
CHAPTER 11 Review 871
15–22 ■ The first four terms of a sequence are given. Deter- 35. Find the values of x for which the sequence 6, x, 12, . . . is
mine whether they can be the terms of an arithmetic sequence, a (a) arithmetic (b) geometric
geometric sequence, or neither. If the sequence is arithmetic or
geometric, find the fifth term. 36. Find the values of x and y for which the sequence 2, x, y,
17, . . . is
15. 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, . . . 16. 1, 32, 2, 52, . . . (a) arithmetic (b) geometric
17. 12, 2 12, 3 12, 4 12, . . . 18. 12, 2, 2 12, 4, . . .
37. a 1k 12 2
6 4
3 1 1 2 1 1 2i
21. , , , ,... 22. a, 1, , 2 , . . . 38. a
4 2 3 9 a a k3 i1 2i 1
39. a 1k 12 2k1
6 5
23. Show that 3, 6i, 12, 24i, . . . is a geometric sequence, 40. a 3m2
and find the common ratio. (Here i 11.) k1 m1
24. Find the nth term of the geometric sequence 2, 2 2i, 4i,
4 4i, 8, . . . (Here i 11.) 41–44 ■ Write the sum without using sigma notation. Do not
25. The sixth term of an arithmetic sequence is 17, and the evaluate.
fourth term is 11. Find the second term.
41. a 1k 12 2
10 100
1
42. a
26. The 20th term of an arithmetic sequence is 96, and the com- k1 j2 j 1
mon difference is 5. Find the nth term. 50
3k 10
43. a k1 44. a n22n
27. The third term of a geometric sequence is 9, and the com- k1 2 n1
mon ratio is 23 . Find the fifth term.
28. The second term of a geometric sequence is 10, and the fifth 45–48 ■ Write the sum using sigma notation. Do not evaluate.
term is 1250
27 . Find the nth term.
45. 3 6 9 12 . . . 99
29. A teacher makes $32,000 in his first year at Lakeside
School, and gets a 5% raise each year. 46. 12 22 32 . . . 1002
(a) Find a formula for his salary An in his nth year at this 47. 1 # 23 2 # 24 3 # 25 4 # 26 . . . 100 # 2102
school.
1 1 1 1
# # ...
1#2 999 # 1000
(b) List his salaries for his first 8 years at this school. 48.
2 3 3 4
30. A colleague of the teacher in Exercise 29, hired at the same
time, makes $35,000 in her first year, and gets a $1200 raise
each year. 49–54 ■ Determine whether the expression is a partial sum of
(a) What is her salary An in her nth year at this school? an arithmetic or geometric sequence. Then find the sum.
(b) Find her salary in her eighth year at this school, and 49. 1 0.9 10.92 2 . . . 10.9 2 5
compare it to the salary of the teacher in Exercise 29 in 50. 3 3.7 4.4 . . . 10
his eighth year.
51. 15 2 15 3 15 . . . 100 15
31. A certain type of bacteria divides every 5 s. If three of these
bacteria are put into a petri dish, how many bacteria are in 52. 1 2 1 4 . . . 33
3 3 3
the dish at the end of 1 min?
53. a 314 2 n 54. a 715 2 k/2
6 8
32. If a1, a2, a3, . . . and b1, b2, b3, . . . are arithmetic sequences, n0 k0
show that a1 b1, a2 b2, a3 b3, . . . is also an arithmetic 55. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is a 7, and the
sequence. common difference is d 3. How many terms of this
33. If a1, a2, a3, . . . and b1, b2, b3, . . . are geometric sequences, sequence must be added to obtain 325?
show that a1b1, a2b2, a3b3, . . . is also a geometric sequence. 56. The sum of the first three terms of a geometric series is 52,
34. (a) If a1, a2, a3, . . . is an arithmetic sequence, is the and the common ratio is r 3. Find the first term.
sequence a1 2, a2 2, a3 2, . . . arithmetic? 57. A person has two parents, four grandparents, eight great-
(b) If a1, a2, a3, . . . is a geometric sequence, is the sequence grandparents, and so on. What is the total number of a
5a1, 5a2, 5a3, . . . geometric? person’s ancestors in 15 generations?
872 CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series
67. a 1 b a1 b a1 b . . . a1 b n 1
58. Find the amount of an annuity consisting of 16 annual pay- 1 1 1 1
ments of $1000 each into an account that pays 8% interest 1 2 3 n
per year, compounded annually.
68. Show that 7n 1 is divisible by 6 for all natural numbers n.
59. How much money should be invested every quarter at 12%
per year, compounded quarterly, in order to have $10,000 in 69. Let an1 3an 4 and a1 4. Show that an 2 # 3n 2
one year? for all natural numbers n.
60. What are the monthly payments on a mortgage of $60,000 70. Prove that the Fibonacci number F4n is divisible by 3 for all
at 9% interest if the loan is to be repaid in natural numbers n.
(a) 30 years? (b) 15 years? 71. Find and prove an inequality that relates 2n and n!.
61–64 ■
Find the sum of the infinite geometric series.
61. 1 254 125
2
5
8
... ■
72–75 Evaluate the expression.
62. 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 . . .
72. a b a b 73. a b a b
5 5 10 10
1 1 1 2 3 2 6
63. 1 1/2 3/2 . . .
3 3 3
74. a a b 75. a a b a b
5 8
5 8 8
64. a ab 2 ab 4 ab 6 . . . k0 k k0 k 8 k
11 Test
1. Find the first four terms and the tenth term of the sequence whose nth term is
an n 2 1.
2. A sequence is defined recursively by a n2 a 2n a n1, with a1 1 and a2 1.
Find a5.
3. An arithmetic sequence begins 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . . .
(a) Find the common difference d for this sequence.
(b) Find a formula for the nth term an of the sequence.
(c) Find the 35th term of the sequence.
4. A geometric sequence begins 12, 3, 3/4, 3/16, 3/64, . . . .
(a) Find the common ratio r for this sequence.
(b) Find a formula for the nth term an of the sequence.
(c) Find the tenth term of the sequence.
5. The first term of a geometric sequence is 25, and the fourth term is 15 .
(a) Find the common ratio r and the fifth term.
(b) Find the partial sum of the first eight terms.
6. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 10 and the tenth term is 2.
(a) Find the common difference and the 100th term of the sequence.
(b) Find the partial sum of the first ten terms.
7. Let a1, a2, a3, . . . be a geometric sequence with initial term a and common ratio r.
Show that a 21, a 22, a 23, . . . is also a geometric sequence by finding its common ratio.
8. Write the expression without using sigma notation, and then find the sum.
n1 n3
To model this statement using algebra, let A0 be the amount of the original deposit,
A1 the amount at the end of the first month, A2 the amount at the end of the second
month, and so on. So An is the amount at the end of the nth month. Thus
An 1.005An1
We recognize this as a recursively defined sequence—it gives us the amount at each
stage in terms of the amount at the preceding stage.
0.005An−1
A0 A1 A2 An−1
874
Modeling with Recursive Sequences 875
To find a formula for An, let’s find the first few terms of the sequence and look for
a pattern.
A1 1.005A0
A2 1.005A1 11.0052 2A0
A3 1.005A2 11.0052 3A0
A4 1.005A3 11.0052 4A0
population at the end of this year 1.02 population at the end of last year
Pn 1.02Pn1
P0 5000
P1 1.02P0 11.0225000
P2 1.02P1 11.022 25000
P3 1.02P2 11.022 35000
P4 1.02P3 11.022 45000
(c) We see from the pattern exhibited in part (b) that Pn 11.022 n5000. (Note that
Pn is a geometric sequence, with common ratio r 1.02.) ■
Solution
(a) Each morning 60% of the drug remains in his system plus he takes an addi-
tional 50 mg (his daily dose).
An 0.6An1 50
A0 50
A1 0.6A0 50 0.61502 50
A2 0.6A1 50 0.6 30.61502 504 50
0.62 1502 0.61502 50
5010.62 0.6 12
A3 0.6A2 50 0.630.62 1502 0.61502 504 50
0.63 1502 0.62 1502 0.61502 50
5010.63 0.62 0.6 1 2
(d) To find the amount remaining after 5 days, we substitute n 5 and get
A5 12511 0.651 2 ⬇ 119 mg.
150
To find the amount remaining after prolonged use, we let n become large. As
n gets large, 0.6n approaches 0. That is, 0.6n 씮 0 as n 씮 q (see Section 4.1).
So as n 씮 q,
An 12511 0.6n1 2 씮 12511 02 125
16
0 Thus, after prolonged use the amount of drug in the patient’s system approaches
Graph sequence
125 mg (see Figure 1, where we have used a graphing calculator to graph the
Figure 1 sequence). ■
Modeling with Recursive Sequences 877
Problems
1. Retirement Accounts Many college professors keep retirement savings with TIAA,
the largest annuity program in the world. Interest on these accounts is compounded and
credited daily. Professor Brown has $275,000 on deposit with TIAA at the start of 2006,
and receives 3.65% interest per year on his account.
(a) Find a recursive sequence that models the amount An in his account at the end of the
nth day of 2006.
(b) Find the first eight terms of the sequence An , rounded to the nearest cent.
(c) Find a formula for An.
2. Fitness Program Sheila decides to embark on a swimming program as the best way
to maintain cardiovascular health. She begins by swimming 5 min on the first day, then
1
adds 1 2 min every day after that.
(a) Find a recursive formula for the number of minutes Tn that she swims on the nth day
of her program.
(b) Find the first 6 terms of the sequence Tn.
(c) Find a formula for Tn. What kind of sequence is this?
(d) On what day does Sheila attain her goal of swimming at least 65 min a day?
(e) What is the total amount of time she will have swum after 30 days?
3. Monthly Savings Program Alice opens a savings account paying 3% interest per
year, compounded monthly. She begins by depositing $100 at the start of the first month,
and adds $100 at the end of each month, when the interest is credited.
(a) Find a recursive formula for the amount An in her account at the end of
the nth month. (Include the interest credited for that month and her monthly
deposit.)
(b) Find the first 5 terms of the sequence An.
(c) Use the pattern you observed in (b) to find a formula for An. [Hint: To find the pat-
tern most easily, it’s best not to simplify the terms too much.]
(d) How much has she saved after 5 years?
4. Stocking a Fish Pond A pond is stocked with 4000 trout, and through reproduction
the population increases by 20% per year. Find a recursive sequence that models the
trout population Pn at the end of the nth year under each of the following circumstances.
Find the trout population at the end of the fifth year in each case.
(a) The trout population changes only because of reproduction.
(b) Each year 600 trout are harvested.
(c) Each year 250 additional trout are introduced into the pond.
(d) Each year 10% of the trout are harvested and 300 additional trout are introduced
into the pond.
5. Pollution A chemical plant discharges 2400 tons of pollutants every year into an
adjacent lake. Through natural runoff, 70% of the pollutants contained in the lake at the
beginning of the year are expelled by the end of the year.
(a) Explain why the following sequence models the amount An of the pollutant in the
lake at the end of the nth year that the plant is operating.
An 0.30An1 2400
878 Focus on Modeling
6. Annual Savings Program Ursula opens a one-year CD that yields 5% interest per
year. She begins with a deposit of $5000. At the end of each year when the CD matures,
she reinvests at the same 5% interest rate, also adding 10% to the value of the CD from
her other savings. (So for example, after the first year her CD has earned 5% of $5000 in
interest, for a value of $5250 at maturity. She then adds 10%, or $525, bringing the total
value of her renewed CD to $5775.)
(a) Find a recursive formula for the amount Un in her CD when she reinvests at the end
of the nth year.
(b) Find the first 5 terms of the sequence Un. Does this appear to be a geometric sequence?
(c) Use the pattern you observed in (b) to find a formula for Un.
(d) How much has she saved after 10 years?
u( ) v( ) (b) Using the Seq (“sequence”) mode on your graphing calculator, enter the
0 5000 5000 sequences Un and Vn as shown in the figure to the left. Then use the TABLE
1 5750 5750
2 6612.5 7037.5
command to compare the two sequences. For the first few years, Victoria seems to
3 7604.4 8889.4 be accumulating more savings than Ursula. Scroll down in the table to verify that
4 8745 11334
5 10057 14401 Ursula eventually pulls ahead of Victoria in the savings race. In what year does
6 11565 18121
this occur?
=0
Table of values 8. Newton’s Law of Cooling A tureen of soup at a temperature of 170 F is placed on
of the sequences a table in a dining room in which the thermostat is set at 70 F. The soup cools according
to the following rule, a special case of Newton’s Law of Cooling: Each minute, the tem-
perature of the soup declines by 3% of the difference between the soup temperature and
the room temperature.
(a) Find a recursive sequence that models the soup temperature Tn at the nth
minute.
(b) Enter the sequence Tn in your graphing calculator, and use the TABLE command
to find the temperature at 10-min increments from n 0 to n 60. (See
Problem 7(b).)
(c) Graph the sequence Tn. What temperature will the soup be after a long time?
We can get a more accurate model by assuming that the birth rate is proportional to the
size of the population, but the death rate is proportional to the square of the population.
Using this idea, researchers find that the number of raccoons Rn on a certain island is
modeled by the following recursive sequence:
Here n represents the number of years since observations began, R 0 is the initial
population, 0.08 is the annual birth rate, and 0.0004 is a constant related to the
death rate.
(a) Use the TABLE command on a graphing calculator to find the raccoon population
for each year from n 1 to n 7.
(b) Graph the sequence Rn. What happens to the raccoon population as n becomes
large?
12 Limits: A Preview
of Calculus
12.1 Finding Limits Numerically and Graphically
12.2 Finding Limits Algebraically
12.3 Tangent Lines and Derivatives
12.4 Limits at Infinity; Limits of Sequences
12.5 Areas
Chapter Overview
A⁄ In this chapter we study the central idea underlying calculus—the concept of limit.
Calculus is used in modeling numerous real-life phenomena, particularly situations
Afi that involve change or motion. To understand the basic idea of limits let’s consider
A¤
two fundamental examples.
A‹ A›
To find the area of a polygonal figure we simply divide it into triangles and add the
areas of the triangles, as in the figure to the left. However, it is much more difficult to
A=A⁄+A¤+A‹+A›+Afi find the area of a region with curved sides. One way is to approximate the area by in-
scribing polygons in the region. The figure illustrates how this is done for a circle.
If we let An be the area of the inscribed regular polygon with n sides, then we see
that as n increases An gets closer and closer to the area of the circle. We say that the
area A of the circle is the limit of the areas An and write
area lim An
nSq
If we can find a pattern for the areas An, then we may be able to determine the limit
A exactly. In this chapter we use a similar idea to find areas of regions bounded by
graphs of functions.
In Chapter 2 we learned how to find the average rate of change of a function. For
example, to find average speed we divide the total distance traveled by the total time.
But how can we find instantaneous speed—that is, the speed at a given instant? We
can’t divide the total distance traveled by the total time, because in an instant the to-
tal distance traveled is zero and the total time spent traveling is zero! But we can find
the average rate of change on smaller and smaller intervals, zooming in on the instant
we want. For example, suppose f1t2 gives the distance a car has traveled at time t. To
Karl Ronstrom /Reuters/Landov
find the speed of the car at exactly 2:00 P.M., we first find the average speed on an in-
terval from 2 to a little after 2, that is, on the interval 32, 2 h 4 . We know that the
average speed on this interval is 3f12 h2 f122 4/h. By finding this average speed
881
882 CHAPTER 12 Limits: A Preview of Calculus
for smaller and smaller values of h (letting h go to zero), we zoom in on the instant
we want. We can write
f12 h2 f122
instantaneous speed lim
hS0 h
If we find a pattern for the average speed, we can evaluate this limit exactly.
The ideas in this chapter have wide-ranging applications. The concept of “instan-
taneous rate of change” applies to any varying quantity, not just speed. The concept
of “area under the graph of a function” is a very versatile one. Indeed, numerous phe-
nomena, seemingly unrelated to area, can be interpreted as area under the graph of a
function. We explore some of these in Focus on Modeling, page 929.
Definition of Limit
We begin by investigating the behavior of the function f defined by
f1x2 x 2 x 2
for values of x near 2. The following table gives values of f1x2 for values of x close
to 2 but not equal to 2.
f1x 2 f1x 2
y
x x
1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000
1.5 2.750000 2.5 5.750000 Ï
1.8 3.440000 2.2 4.640000 y=≈- x+2
approaches 4
1.9 3.710000 2.1 4.310000 4.
1.95 3.852500 2.05 4.152500
1.99 3.970100 2.01 4.030100
1.995 3.985025 2.005 4.015025
1.999 3.997001 2.001 4.003001
0 2 x
As x approaches 2,
Figure 1
From the table and the graph of f (a parabola) shown in Figure 1 we see that when
x is close to 2 (on either side of 2), f1x 2 is close to 4. In fact, it appears that we can
make the values of f1x2 as close as we like to 4 by taking x sufficiently close to 2. We
express this by saying “the limit of the function f1x2 x 2 x 2 as x approaches
2 is equal to 4.” The notation for this is
lim 1x 2 x 22 4
xS2
SECTION 12.1 Finding Limits Numerically and Graphically 883
We write
lim f1x2 L
xSa
and say
“the limit of f1x 2, as x approaches a, equals L”
if we can make the values of f1x2 arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we
like) by taking x to be sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
Roughly speaking, this says that the values of f1x2 get closer and closer to the num-
ber L as x gets closer and closer to the number a (from either side of a) but x a.
An alternative notation for limxSa f1x2 L is
f1x2 씮 L as x씮a
which is usually read “f1x 2 approaches L as x approaches a.” This is the notation we
used in Section 3.6 when discussing asymptotes of rational functions.
Notice the phrase “but x a” in the definition of limit. This means that in finding
the limit of f1x 2 as x approaches a, we never consider x a. In fact, f1x 2 need not
even be defined when x a. The only thing that matters is how f is defined near a.
Figure 2 shows the graphs of three functions. Note that in part (c), f 1a2 is not
defined and in part (b), f1a2 L. But in each case, regardless of what happens at a,
limxSa f1x2 L.
y y y
L L L
0 a x 0 a x 0 a x
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2
lim f 1x 2 L in all three cases
xSa
x1 f 1x 2 x 1 f 1x 2
0.5 0.666667 1.5 0.4000000
0 2
0.9 0.526316 1.1 0.476190
0.99 0.502513 1.01 0.497512
Figure 3 0.999 0.500250 1.001 0.499750
0.9999 0.500025 1.0001 0.499975
0.6
On the basis of the values in the two tables, we make the guess that
(1, 0.5)
x1
lim 0.5
xS1 x 1
2
tion, and when we use the TRACE feature, we can easily estimate that the limit is
about 16 . But if we zoom in too far, as in parts (c) and (d), then we get inaccurate
graphs, again because of problems with subtraction.
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
(a) [_5, 5] by [_0.1, 0.3] (b) [_0.1, 0.1] by [_0.1, 0.3] (c) [_10–§, 10–§] by [_0.1, 0.3] (d) [_10–¶, 10–¶] by [_0.1, 0.3]
Figure 5
y
The Heaviside function H is defined by
0 if t 0
1 H1t2 e
1 if t 0
0 x
[This function is named after the electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925)
and can be used to describe an electric current that is switched on at time t 0.]
Its graph is shown in Figure 6. Notice the “jump” in the graph at x 0.
Figure 6 As t approaches 0 from the left, H1t2 approaches 0. As t approaches 0 from
the right, H1t2 approaches 1. There is no single number that H1t2 approaches as
t approaches 0. Therefore, limtS0 H1t 2 does not exist. ■
but this time our guess is wrong. Note that although f11/n2 sin np 0 for any
integer n, it is also true that f1x2 1 for infinitely many values of x that approach
0. (See the graph in Figure 7.)
y
y=ß(π/x)
1
_1
1 x
_1
Figure 7
The broken lines indicate that the values of sin1p/x2 oscillate between 1 and 1
infinitely often as x approaches 0. Since the values of f1x 2 do not approach a fixed
number as x approaches 0,
p
lim sin does not exist ■
x씮0 x
Example 4 illustrates some of the pitfalls in guessing the value of a limit. It is easy
to guess the wrong value if we use inappropriate values of x, but it is difficult to know
when to stop calculating values. And, as the discussion after Example 2 shows, some-
times calculators and computers give incorrect values. In the next two sections, how-
ever, we will develop foolproof methods for calculating limits.
0 x
Figure 8 ■
SECTION 12.1 Finding Limits Numerically and Graphically 887
One-Sided Limits
We noticed in Example 3 that H1t 2 approaches 0 as t approaches 0 from the left and
H1t 2 approaches 1 as t approaches 0 from the right. We indicate this situation sym-
bolically by writing
lim H1t 2 0 and lim H1t 2 1
tS0 tS0
The symbol “t 씮 0” indicates that we consider only values of t that are less than 0.
Likewise, “t 씮 0” indicates that we consider only values of t that are greater than 0.
We write
lim f1x2 L
xSa
and say the “left-hand limit of f1x2 as x approaches a” [or the “limit of f1x2
as x approaches a from the left”] is equal to L if we can make the values of
f1x2 arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x less
than a.
Notice that this definition differs from the definition of a two-sided limit only in
that we require x to be less than a. Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we
get “the right-hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a is equal to L” and we write
lim f1x2 L
xSa
Thus, the symbol “x씮a ” means that we consider only x a. These definitions are
illustrated in Figure 9.
y y
L Ï
Ï L
0 x a x 0 a x x
By comparing the definitions of two-sided and one-sided limits, we see that the
following is true.
Thus, if the left-hand and right-hand limits are different, the (two-sided) limit does
not exist. We use this fact in the next two examples.
Since the left- and right-hand limits are different, we conclude that limx씮2 g1x2
does not exist.
(b) The graph also shows that
lim g1x2 2 and lim g1x2 2
xS5 xS5
This time the left- and right-hand limits are the same, and so we have
lim g1x2 2
xS5
12.1 Exercises
11. lim a b
1–6 ■ Complete the table of values (to five decimal places) and 1 1 tan 2x
12. lim
use the table to estimate the value of the limit. xS1 ln x x1 xS0 tan 3x
2x 2 13. For the function f whose graph is given, state the value of the
1. lim
xS4 x4 given quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.
(a) lim f 1x 2 (b) lim f 1x 2 (c) lim f 1x 2
xS1 xS1 xS1
x 3.9 3.99 3.999 4.001 4.01 4.1
(d) lim f 1x 2 (e) f 15 2
f 1x 2 xS5
y
x2
2. lim 2
xS2 x x 6
4
0 2 4 x
x1
3. lim 3
xS1 x 1
14. For the function f whose graph is given, state the value of the
given quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1 (a) lim f 1x 2 (b) lim f 1x 2 (c) lim f 1x 2
f 1x 2
xS0 xS3 xS3
e 1
x
y
4. lim
xS0 x
4
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f 1x 2 2
sin x 0 2 4 x
5. lim
xS0 x
15. For the function g whose graph is given, state the value of the
x 1 0.5 0.1 0.05 0.01 given quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.
f 1x 2 (a) lim g1t2 (b) lim g1t2 (c) lim g1t2
tS0 tS0 tS0
4
7–12 ■ Use a table of values to estimate the value of the limit.
Then use a graphing device to confirm your result graphically. 2
x4 x 1
3
7. lim 8. lim
xS4 x 2 7x 12 xS1 x2 1 2 4 t
5 3
x x
1x 9 3
9. lim 10. lim
xS0 x xS0 x
890 CHAPTER 12 Limits: A Preview of Calculus
x 3 if x 1
25. f 1x2 e
16. State the value of the limit, if it exists, from the given graph
of f. If it does not exist, explain why. 3 if x 1
(a) lim f 1x 2 (b) lim f 1x2 (c) lim f 1x2 (a) lim f 1x 2 (b) lim f 1x 2 (c) lim f 1x 2
xS3 xS1 xS3
xS1 xS1 xS1
1
Discovery • Discussion
_3 _2 0 1 2 3 x 27. A Function with Specified Limits Sketch the graph of
_1 an example of a function f that satisfies all of the following
_2 conditions.
lim f 1x 2 2 lim f 1x 2 0
xS0 xS0
17–22 ■ Use a graphing device to determine whether the limit lim f 1x 2 1 f 102 2 f 122 3
exists. If the limit exists, estimate its value to two decimal xS2
places.
How many such functions are there?
x 3 x 2 3x 5 x 3 6x 2 5x 1
17. lim 18. lim 3 28. Graphing Calculator Pitfalls
xS1 2x 2 5x 3 xS2 x x 8x 12
2
Limit Laws
We use the following properties of limits, called the Limit Laws, to calculate limits.
SECTION 12.2 Finding Limits Algebraically 891
Limit Laws
Then
1. lim 3f1x2 g1x2 4 lim f1x2 lim g1x2 Limit of a Sum
x씮a x씮a x씮a
Limit Laws
Therefore, we have
lim 3f1x2 5g1x2 4 lim f1x2 lim 35g1x2 4 Limit of a Sum
x씮2 x씮2 x씮2
1 5112 4
(b) We see that limxS1 f1x2 2. But limxS1 g1x2 does not exist because the
left- and right-hand limits are different:
lim g1x2 2 lim g1x2 1
x씮1 x씮1
So we can’t use Law 4 (Limit of a Product). The given limit does not exist,
since the left-hand limit is not equal to the right-hand limit.
(c) The graphs show that
lim f1x2 ⬇ 1.4 and lim g1x2 0
x씮2 x씮2
Because the limit of the denominator is 0, we can’t use Law 5 (Limit of a Quo-
tient). The given limit does not exist because the denominator approaches 0
while the numerator approaches a nonzero number.
(d) Since limxS1 f1x2 2, we use Law 6 to get
23 8 ■
1. lim c c
x씮a
2. lim x a
x씮a
3. lim x n a n where n is a positive integer
x씮a
n n
4. lim 1 x 1 a where n is a positive integer and a 0
x씮a
SECTION 12.2 Finding Limits Algebraically 893
122 2122 1
3 2
Special Limits 3, 2, and 1
5 3122
1
■
11
Functions with this direct substitution property are called continuous at a. You
will learn more about continuous functions when you study calculus.
894 CHAPTER 12 Limits: A Preview of Calculus
Solution
(a) The function f1x2 2x 3 10x 12 is a polynomial, so we can find the limit
by direct substitution:
lim 12x 3 10x 122 2132 3 10132 8 16
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is x씮3
6 Let h 씮 0 ■
2t 2 9 3 2t 2 9 3 # 2t 2 9 3
lim 2 lim Rationalize numerator
t씮0 t t씮0 t2 2t 2 9 3
1t 2 92 9 t2
lim lim
t씮0 t 2 A 2t 2 9 3B t씮0 t 2 A 2t 2 9 3B
1 1 1 1
lim
t씮0 2t 9 3
2
2lim 1t 92 3
2 33 6
t씮0
This calculation confirms the guess that we made in Example 2 in Section 12.1. ■
When computing one-sided limits, we use the fact that the Limit Laws also hold
for one-sided limits.
896 CHAPTER 12 Limits: A Preview of Calculus
if x 0
0x0 e
The result of Example 7 looks plausible x
from Figure 2. x if x 0
y 0x0 x
lim lim lim 1 1
|x| x씮0 x x씮0 x x씮0
y= x
0x0
1
x
lim lim lim 112 1
0 x x씮0 x x씮0 x x씮0
_1
Since the right-hand and left-hand limits exist and are different, it follows that
limx씮0 0 x 0 /x does not exist. The graph of the function f1x 2 0 x 0 /x is shown in
Figure 3 Figure 3 and supports the limits that we found. ■
2x 4 if x 4
f1x 2 e
8 2x if x 4
The right- and left-hand limits are equal. Thus, the limit exists and
0 4 x
lim f1x2 0
x씮4
12.2 Exercises
1. Suppose that 9–20 ■ Evaluate the limit, if it exists.
lim f 1x 2 3 lim g1x 2 0 lim h1x2 8 x2 x 6 x 2 5x 4
x씮a x씮a x씮a
9. lim 10. lim
Find the value of the given limit. If the limit does not exist, x씮2 x2 x씮4 x 2 3x 4
explain why. x x6
2
x3 1
(a) lim 3 f 1x 2 h1x 2 4 (b) lim 3f 1x 2 4 2 11. lim
x씮2 x2
12. lim
x씮1 x 1
2
x씮a x씮a
t2 9 11 h 1
(c) lim 1h1x 2
3 1
x씮a f 1x2
(d) lim 13. lim 14. lim
t씮3 2t 7t 3
2
xSa h씮0 h
f 1x 2 g1x 2 12 h 2 3 8 x 4 16
h1x 2 f 1x2
(e) lim (f) lim 15. lim 16. lim
x씮a x씮a h씮0 h x씮2 x 2
13 h 2 1 31
f 1x 2 2f 1x2 17. lim
1x 2 3
18. lim
g1x 2 h1x2 f 1x2
(g) lim (h) lim x씮7 x7 h씮0 h
x씮a x씮a
1 1
2. The graphs of f and g are given. Use them to evaluate each
20. lim a b
limit, if it exists. If the limit does not exist, explain why. 4 x 1 1
19. lim 2
(a) lim 3 f 1x 2 g1x 2 4 (b) lim 3f 1x 2 g1x 2 4 x씮4 4 x t씮0 t t t
x씮2 x씮1
f 1x2
(c) lim 3 f 1x 2 g1x 2 4
21–24 ■ Find the limit and use a graphing device to confirm
(d) lim your result graphically.
x씮0 x씮1 g1x2
x2 1 14 x 2 3 64
(e) lim x 3f 1x 2 (f) lim 23 f 1x 2 21. lim 22. lim
x씮2 x씮1 x씮1 1x 1 x씮0 x
y y x x2
2
x 1
8
23. lim 24. lim
x씮1 x3 x x씮1 x5 x
y=Ï y=˝ 25. (a) Estimate the value of
1 1
x
lim
1 x 0 1 x x씮0 21 3x 1
by graphing the function f1x2 x/A 11 3x 1B .
(b) Make a table of values of f 1x2 for x close to 0 and guess
3–8 ■ Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the the value of the limit.
appropriate Limit Law(s). (c) Use the Limit Laws to prove that your guess is correct.
3. lim 15x 2 2x 32 4. lim 1x 3 2 2 1x 2 5x 2 26. (a) Use a graph of
x씮4 x씮3
23 x 13
5. lim
x2
6. lim a
x4 x2 6 2
b f 1x 2
x씮1 x 4x 3
2
x씮1 x 4 2x 3 x
7. lim 1t 1 2 1t 1 2
9 2
8. lim 2u 4 3u 6 to estimate the value of limxS0 f 1x 2 to two decimal
t씮2 u씮2 places.
898 CHAPTER 12 Limits: A Preview of Calculus
(b) Use a table of values of f 1x2 to estimate the limit to Discovery • Discussion
four decimal places.
35. Cancellation and Limits
(c) Use the Limit Laws to find the exact value of the limit.
(a) What is wrong with the following equation?
27–32 ■ Find the limit, if it exists. If the limit does not exist, x2 x 6
explain why. x3
x2
0x40
27. lim 0 x 4 0 28. lim (b) In view of part (a), explain why the equation
x씮4 x씮4 x4
x2 x 6
0x20 2x 2 3x lim lim 1x 32
x2
x씮1.5 0 2x 3 0
29. lim 30. lim x씮2 x씮2
x씮2 x2
is correct.
31. lim a b 32. lim a b
1 1 1 1
x씮0 x 0x0 x씮0 x 0x0 36. The Lorentz Contraction In the theory of relativity, the
33. Let Lorentz contraction formula
L L 0 21 √ 2/c 2
x1 if x 2
f1x 2 e 2 expresses the length L of an object as a function of its
x 4x 6 if x 2
velocity √ with respect to an observer, where L 0 is the
(a) Find limxS2 f 1x2 and limxS2 f 1x2 . length of the object at rest and c is the speed of light. Find
(b) Does limx씮2 f 1x2 exist? lim√ Sc L and interpret the result. Why is a left-hand limit
(c) Sketch the graph of f. necessary?
y In this section we see how limits arise when we attempt to find the tangent line to a
t curve or the instantaneous rate of change of a function.
choosing a nearby point Q1x, x 2 2 on the parabola (as in Figure 2) and computing the
y
QÓx, ≈Ô t
slope mPQ of the secant line PQ.
We choose x 1 so that Q P. Then
y=≈
P (1, 1)
x2 1
m PQ
x1
0 x
Now we let x approach 1, so Q approaches P along the parabola. Figure 3 shows how
the corresponding secant lines rotate about P and approach the tangent line t.
Figure 2
y y y
Q
t t t
Q
Q
P P P
0 x 0 x 0 x
t t t
Q P P P
Q Q
0 x 0 x 0 x
Figure 3
The slope of the tangent line is the limit of the slopes of the secant lines:
m lim m PQ
Q씮P
slope m is Now that we know the slope of the tangent line is m 2, we can use the point-slope
y y1 m1x x 1 2 form of the equation of a line to find its equation:
(See Section 1.10.) y 1 21x 12 or y 2x 1
900 CHAPTER 12 Limits: A Preview of Calculus
We sometimes refer to the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a point as the slope
of the curve at the point. The idea is that if we zoom in far enough toward the point,
the curve looks almost like a straight line. Figure 4 illustrates this procedure for the
curve y x 2. The more we zoom in, the more the parabola looks like a line. In other
words, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable from its tangent line.
2 1.5 1.1
Figure 4
Zooming in toward the point 11, 1 2 on the parabola y x 2
If we have a general curve C with equation y f1x2 and we want to find the tan-
gent line to C at the point P1a, f1a22 , then we consider a nearby point Q1x, f1x22 ,
where x a, and compute the slope of the secant line PQ:
f1x2 f1a2
m PQ
xa
Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting x approach a. If mPQ
approaches a number m, then we define the tangent t to be the line through P with
slope m. (This amounts to saying that the tangent line is the limiting position of the
secant line PQ as Q approaches P. See Figure 5.)
y y
t
QÓ x, Ï Ô Q
Q
Ï- f(a)
P Q
PÓa, f(a)Ô
x-a
0 a x x 0 x
Figure 5
The tangent line to the curve y f1x2 at the point P1a, f1a22 is the line
through P with slope
f1x2 f1a2
m lim
x씮a xa
provided that this limit exists.
SECTION 12.3 Tangent Lines and Derivatives 901
lim a b
1
Cancel x 3
y x씮3 x
x+3y-6=0 3 1
y= x Let x 씮 3
3
(3, 1) Therefore, an equation of the tangent at the point 13, 12 is
0 x y 1 13 1x 32
which simplifies to
x 3y 6 0
Figure 6
The hyperbola and its tangent are shown in Figure 6. ■
There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line that is sometimes easier
to use. Let h x a. Then x a h, so the slope of the secant line PQ is
f1a h2 f1a2
m PQ
h
See Figure 7 where the case h 0 is illustrated and Q is to the right of P. If it hap-
pened that h 0, however, Q would be to the left of P.
y
t
QÓa+h, f(a+h)Ô
f(a+h)-f(a)
PÓa, f(a)Ô
0 a a+h x
Figure 7
Notice that as x approaches a, h approaches 0 (because h x a), and so the ex-
pression for the slope of the tangent line becomes
f1a h2 f1a2
m lim
h씮0 h
902 CHAPTER 12 Limits: A Preview of Calculus
Definition of a Derivative
23 Let h 씮 0 ■
We see from the definition of a derivative that the number f¿1a2 is the same as the
slope of the tangent line to the curve y f1x2 at the point 1a, f1a22 . So the result of
Example 2 shows that the slope of the tangent line to the parabola y 5x 2 3x 1
at the point 12, 252 is f¿122 23.
Solution
(a) We use the definition of the derivative at a:
f1a h2 f1a2
f¿ 1a 2 lim Definition of derivative
h씮 0 h
1a h 1a
lim f 1x 2 1x
h씮0 h
1a h 1a # 1a h 1a
lim Rationalize numerator
h씮0 h 1a h 1a
1a h2 a
lim Difference of squares
h씮0 hA 1a h 1aB
h
lim Simplify numerator
h씮0 hA 1a h 1aB
904 CHAPTER 12 Limits: A Preview of Calculus
1
lim Cancel h
h씮0 1a h 1a
1 1
Let h 씮 0
1a 1a 2 1a
(b) Substituting a 1, a 4, and a 9 into the result of part (a), we get
1 1 1 1 1 1
f¿112 f¿142 f¿192
2 11 2 2 14 4 2 19 6
These values of the derivative are the slopes of the tangent lines shown in
Figure 8.
1 y=Ϸ
x
0 1 4 9 x
Figure 8 ■
h1t2 h142
h¿142 lim Definition of h¿142
t씮4 t4
3000 16t 2 2744
lim h1t2 3000 16t 2
t씮4 t4
256 16t 2
lim Simplify
t씮4 t4
1614 t 2 14 t 2
lim Factor numerator
t씮4 t4
lim 1614 t 2 Cancel t 4
t씮4
The negative sign indicates that the height is decreasing at a rate of 128 ft/s. ■
t P1t 2
Example 6 Estimating an Instantaneous
1996 269,667,000 Rate of Change
1998 276,115,000
2000 282,192,000 Let P1t2 be the population of the United States at time t. The table in the margin
2002 287,941,000 gives approximate values of this function by providing midyear population esti-
2004 293,655,000 mates from 1996 to 2004. Interpret and estimate the value of P¿120002 .
P1t 2 P12000 2
Solution The derivative P¿120002 means the rate of change of P with respect to t
t when t 2000, that is, the rate of increase of the population in 2000.
t 2000 According to the definition of a derivative, we have
P1t 2 P120002
1996 3,131,250
1998 3,038,500 P¿120002 lim
2002 2,874,500 t씮2000 t 2000
2004 2,865,750
So we compute and tabulate values of the difference quotient (the average rates of
change) as shown in the table in the margin. We see that P(2000) lies somewhere
Here we have estimated the derivative between 3,038,500 and 2,874,500. (Here we are making the reasonable assumption
by averaging the slopes of two secant that the population didn’t fluctuate wildly between 1996 and 2004.) We estimate
lines. Another method is to plot the that the rate of increase of the U.S. population in 2000 was the average of these two
population function and estimate numbers, namely
the slope of the tangent line when
t 2000. P¿120002 ⬇ 2.96 million people/year ■
906 CHAPTER 12 Limits: A Preview of Calculus
12.3 Exercises
1–6 ■ Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the 23. (a) If f 1x 2 x 3 2x 4, find f¿1a2 .
given point. (b) Find equations of the tangent lines to the graph of
1. f 1x2 3x 4 at 11, 7 2 f at the points whose x-coordinates are 0, 1, and 2.
2. f 1x 2 5 2x at 13, 11 2
(c) Graph f and the three tangent lines.
24. (a) If g1x2 1/12x 12 , find g¿ 1a2 .
3. f 1x 2 4x 2 3x at 11, 7 2
(b) Find equations of the tangent lines to the graph
4. f 1x 2 1 2x 3x 2 at 11, 0 2 of g at the points whose x-coordinates are 1, 0,
5. f 1x2 2x 3 at 12, 16 2 and 1.
(c) Graph g and the three tangent lines.
6. f 1x2 at 12, 2 2
6
x1
Applications
7–12 ■ Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the
given point. Graph the curve and the tangent line. 25. Velocity of a Ball If a ball is thrown into the air
7. y x x 2 at 11, 0 2
with a velocity of 40 ft/s, its height (in feet) after t
seconds is given by y 40t 16t 2. Find the velocity
8. y 2x x 3 at 11, 1 2 when t 2.
26. Velocity on the Moon If an arrow is shot upward on the
at 12, 2 2
x
9. y moon with a velocity of 58 m/s, its height (in meters) after t
x1
seconds is given by H 58t 0.83t 2.
at 11, 1 2
1
10. y (a) Find the velocity of the arrow after one second.
x2 (b) Find the velocity of the arrow when t a.
11. y 1x 3 at 11, 2 2 (c) At what time t will the arrow hit the moon?
12. y 11 2x at 14, 3 2 (d) With what velocity will the arrow hit the moon?
17. F1x 2
1
at 4
1x 27. Velocity of a Particle The displacement s (in meters) of
18. G1x 2 1 21x at 4 a particle moving in a straight line is given by the equation
of motion s 4t 3 6t 2, where t is measured in seconds.
Find the velocity of the particle s at times t a, t 1,
19–22 ■ Find f¿ 1a2 , where a is in the domain of f. t 2, t 3.
19. f 1x2 x 2 2x 28. Inflating a Balloon A spherical balloon is being inflated.
Find the rate of change of the surface area AS 4pr 2 B with
20. f 1x 2 2
1
x respect to the radius r when r 2 ft.
29. Temperature Change A roast turkey is taken from an
21. f 1x2
x
oven when its temperature has reached 185F and is placed
x1
on a table in a room where the temperature is 75F. The
22. f 1x 2 1x 2 graph shows how the temperature of the turkey decreases
SECTION 12.3 Tangent Lines and Derivatives 907
and eventually approaches room temperature. By measuring 32. World Population Growth The table gives the world’s
the slope of the tangent, estimate the rate of change of the population in the 20th century.
temperature after an hour.
Population Population
T (°F) Year (in millions) Year (in millions)
30. Heart Rate A cardiac monitor is used to measure the Discovery • Discussion
heart rate of a patient after surgery. It compiles the number 33. Estimating Derivatives from a Graph For the function
of heartbeats after t minutes. When the data in the table are g whose graph is given, arrange the following numbers in
graphed, the slope of the tangent line represents the heart increasing order and explain your reasoning.
g¿ 122 g¿ 102 g¿ 122 g¿ 142
rate in beats per minute.
0
t (min) 36 38 40 42 44 y
2 y=˝
Heartbeats 2530 2661 2806 2948 3080
1
(a) Find the average heart rates (slopes of the secant lines) 0 x
over the time intervals 340, 424 and 342, 444.
_1 1 2 3 4
_1
(b) Estimate the patient’s heart rate after 42 minutes by
averaging the slopes of these two secant lines.
34. Estimating Velocities from a Graph The graph shows
31. Water Flow A tank holds 1000 gallons of water, which
the position function of a car. Use the shape of the graph to
drains from the bottom of the tank in half an hour. The
explain your answers to the following questions.
values in the table show the volume V of water remaining
in the tank (in gallons) after t minutes. (a) What was the initial velocity of the car?
(b) Was the car going faster at B or at C?
(c) Was the car slowing down or speeding up at A, B,
t (min) 5 10 15 20 25 30 and C?
V (gal) 694 444 250 111 28 0 (d) What happened between D and E?
s
(a) Find the average rates at which water flows from the D E
tank (slopes of secant lines) for the time intervals C
310, 154 and 315, 204. B
(b) The slope of the tangent line at the point 115, 250 2
represents the rate at which water is flowing A
from the tank after 15 minutes. Estimate this rate
by averaging the slopes of the secant lines in 0 t
part (a).
908 CHAPTER 12 A Preview of Calculus
f
L⁄ P
Q
L¤
Limits at Infinity
f 1x 2
x Let’s investigate the behavior of the function f defined by
1.000000 x2 1
0 f1x2
1 0.000000 x2 1
2 0.600000
as x becomes large. The table in the margin gives values of this function correct to six
3 0.800000
4 0.882353 decimal places, and the graph of f has been drawn by a computer in Figure 1.
5 0.923077 y
10 0.980198
y=1
50 0.999200
100 0.999800
1000 0.999998
0 1 x
≈-1
y=
≈+1
Figure 1
As x grows larger and larger, you can see that the values of f1x2 get closer and
closer to 1. In fact, it seems that we can make the values of f1x2 as close as we like
to 1 by taking x sufficiently large. This situation is expressed symbolically by writing
x2 1
lim 1
xSq x2 1
In general, we use the notation
lim f1x2 L
xSq
to indicate that the values of f1x 2 become closer and closer to L as x becomes larger
and larger.
Limit at Infinity
means that the values of f1x 2 can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x
sufficiently large.
Geometric illustrations are shown in Figure 2. Notice that there are many ways for
the graph of f to approach the line y L (which is called a horizontal asymptote) as
we look to the far right.
y y y
y=L
y=Ï y=L
y=Ï
y=Ï
y=L
0 x 0 x 0 x
Figure 2
Examples illustrating lim f1x 2 L
xSq
Referring back to Figure 1, we see that for numerically large negative values of x,
the values of f1x2 are close to 1. By letting x decrease through negative values with-
out bound, we can make f1x2 as close as we like to 1. This is expressed by writing
x2 1
lim 1
xSq x2 1
The general definition is as follows.
means that the values of f1x2 can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x
0 x sufficiently large negative.
y
Again, the symbol q does not represent a number, but the expression
y=Ï lim f1x2 L is often read as
xSq
y=L
“the limit of f1x2, as x approaches negative infinity, is L”
0 The definition is illustrated in Figure 3. Notice that the graph approaches the line
x
y L as we look to the far left.
Figure 3
Examples illustrating lim f 1x2 L Horizontal Asymptote
xS q
y For instance, the curve illustrated in Figure 1 has the line y 1 as a horizontal
π asymptote because
2
x2 1
lim 1
0 xSq x2 1
x
As we discovered in Section 7.4, an example of a curve with two horizontal
π
asymptotes is y tan1 x (see Figure 4). In fact,
_2
p p
lim tan1 x and lim tan1 x
Figure 4 xSq 2 xSq 2
y tan1 x
so both of the lines y p/2 and y p/2 are horizontal asymptotes. (This
follows from the fact that the lines x p/2 are vertical asymptotes of the graph
of tan.)
We first investigated horizontal Solution Observe that when x is large, 1/x is small. For instance,
asymptotes and limits at infinity for
rational functions in Section 3.6. 1 1 1
0.01 0.0001 0.000001
100 10,000 1,000,000
1
lim 0
xSq x
y Similar reasoning shows that when x is large negative, 1/x is small negative, so we
also have
1
y= x
1
lim 0
xSq x
0 x It follows that the line y 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote of the curve
y 1/x. (This is a hyperbola; see Figure 5.) ■
The Limit Laws that we studied in Section 12.2 also hold for limits at infinity. In
particular, if we combine Law 6 (Limit of a Power) with the results of Example 1, we
Figure 5 obtain the following important rule for calculating limits.
1 1
lim 0, lim 0
xSq x xSq x
lim a 3 2b
1 2
y
xSq x x
y=0.6 Limit of a Quotient
lim a 5 2 b
4 1
0 1 x xSq x x
1 1
lim 3 lim 2 lim 2
xSq x
xSq xSq x Limits of Sums and
1 1 Differences
lim 5 4 lim lim 2
xSq xSq x xSq x
300 3
Let x 씮 q
500 5
Figure 6 A similar calculation shows that the limit as x 씮 q is also 35 . Figure 6 illustrates
the results of these calculations by showing how the graph of the given rational
function approaches the horizontal asymptote y 35. ■
y
x ex
y=Æ 0 1.00000
1 0.36788
2 0.13534
3 0.04979
1 5 0.00674
8 0.00034
10 0.00005
0 1 x
Figure 7 ■
SECTION 12.4 Limits at Infinity; Limits of Sequences 913
0 x Solution From the graph in Figure 8 and the periodic nature of the sine function,
we see that, as x increases, the values of sin x oscillate between 1 and 1 infinitely
often and so they don’t approach any definite number. Therefore, limxSq sin x
Figure 8 does not exist. ■
Limits of Sequences
a›
a⁄ a¤ a‹ In Section 11.1 we introduced the idea of a sequence of numbers a1, a2, a3, . . . . Here
we are interested in their behavior as n becomes large. For instance, the sequence
0 1 1
2 defined by
Figure 9 n
an
n1
an is pictured in Figure 9 by plotting its terms on a number line and in Figure 10 by
plotting its graph. From Figure 9 or 10 it appears that the terms of the sequence
a n n/1n 12 are approaching 1 as n becomes large. We indicate this by writing
1
n
7 lim 1
a‡= 8 nSq n1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n
Definition of the Limit of a Sequence
Figure 10 A sequence a1, a2, a3, . . . has the limit L and we write
lim a n L or a n 씮 L as n 씮 q
nSq
if the nth term an of the sequence can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking
n sufficiently large. If limnSq a n exists, we say the sequence converges (or is
convergent). Otherwise, we say the sequence diverges (or is divergent).
an an
Figure 11 L L
Graphs of two
sequences with
lim a n L 0 1 2 3 n 0 1 2 3 n
nSq
Solution Before calculating the limit, let’s first simplify the expression for an.
Because n 3 n # n # n, we place a factor of n beneath each factor in the numerator
that contains an n:
15 # n # n 1 # 2n 1
# 1 # a1 b a2 b
5 1 1
an
6 n n n 2 n n
SECTION 12.4 Limits at Infinity; Limits of Sequences 915
a1 b a2 b
5 1 1
lim a n lim Definition of an
nSq nSq 2 n n
lim a 1 b lim a 2 b
5 1 1
Limit of a Product
2 nSq n nSq n
112 122 5
5
Let n 씮 q ■
2
12.4 Exercises
18. lim a 1 b
1–2 ■ (a) Use the graph of f to find the following limits. x5 2 3x
17. lim
(i) lim f1x2 xSq ex xSq x
(ii) lim f1x 2
xSq
xSq
(b) State the equations of the horizontal asymptotes. 19–30 ■ If the sequence is convergent, find its limit. If it is
divergent, explain why.
1. y 2. y
1n 5n
19. a n 20. a n
n n2 n5
1 1 n2 n1
21. a n 22. a n
1 x 1 x n1 n3 1
1 11 2 n
23. a n 24. a n
3n n
25. a n sin1np/2 2
3–14 ■ Find the limit. 26. an cos np
3 n1n 12
c d
6 3
3. lim 4. lim 27. a n
xSq x xSq x4 n2 2
4 n1n 12
an c db
2x 1 2 3x 5
5. lim 6. lim 28. a n
xSq 5x 1 xSq 4x 5 n n 2
24 n1n 12 12n 1 2
c d
4x 1
2
x2 2
7. lim 8. lim 29. a n
xSq 2 3x 2 xSq x x1
3 n3 6
12 n1n 12 2
c d
8t t 3
4r 3 r 2
30. a n
12t 1 2 12t 2 1 2 1r 1 2 3
9. lim 10. lim
tSq rSq n4 2
12. lim a b
4
x 1 2t
11. lim
xSq 1 x2 x3 tSq t t1
x1 Applications
13. lim a 6b 14. lim cos x
xSq x1 xSq 31. Salt Concentration
(a) A tank contains 5000 L of pure water. Brine that con-
tains 30 g of salt per liter of water is pumped into the
15–18 ■ Use a table of values to estimate the limit. Then use a
tank at a rate of 25 L/min. Show that the concentration
graphing device to confirm your result graphically.
of salt after t minutes (in grams per liter) is
2x 2 4x
15. lim 30t
xSq 4x 1 C1t2
200 t
16. lim A 29x 2 x 3xB
xSq (b) What happens to the concentration as t 씮 q?
916 CHAPTER 12 A Preview of Calculus
(b) Graph √1t 2 , and use the graph to estimate how long it Find the first ten terms of this sequence correct to
takes for the velocity of the raindrop to reach 99% eight decimal places. Does this sequence appear to be
of its terminal velocity. convergent? If so, guess the value of the limit.
(b) Assuming the sequence in part (a) is convergent, let
limnSq a n L. Explain why limnSq a n1 L also,
and therefore
(t)=1.2(1-e–8.2t ) L 12 L
Solve this equation to find the exact value of L.
12.5 Areas
We have seen that limits are needed to compute the slope of a tangent line or an in-
stantaneous rate of change. Here we will see that they are also needed to find the area
of a region with a curved boundary. The problem of finding such areas has conse-
quences far beyond simply finding area. (See Focus on Modeling, page 929.)
y=Ï
x=a
S x=b
0 a b x
Figure 1
In trying to solve the area problem, we have to ask ourselves: What is the mean-
ing of the word area? This question is easy to answer for regions with straight sides.
SECTION 12.5 Areas 917
For a rectangle, the area is defined as the product of the length and the width. The area
of a triangle is half the base times the height. The area of a polygon is found by di-
viding it into triangles (as in Figure 2) and adding the areas of the triangles.
A¤ A‹
„ h A⁄ A›
l b
However, it is not so easy to find the area of a region with curved sides. We all have
an intuitive idea of what the area of a region is. But part of the area problem is to make
this intuitive idea precise by giving an exact definition of area.
Recall that in defining a tangent we first approximated the slope of the tangent line
by slopes of secant lines and then we took the limit of these approximations. We pur-
sue a similar idea for areas. We first approximate the region S by rectangles, and then
we take the limit of the areas of these rectangles as we increase the number of rec-
tangles. The following example illustrates the procedure.
Solution We first notice that the area of S must be somewhere between 0 and 1
S because S is contained in a square with side length 1, but we can certainly do better
than that. Suppose we divide S into four strips S1, S2, S3, and S4 by drawing the ver-
tical lines x 14, x 12, and x 34 as in Figure 4(a). We can approximate each strip
0 1 x by a rectangle whose base is the same as the strip and whose height is the same as
the right edge of the strip (see Figure 4(b)). In other words, the heights of these
Figure 3 rectangles are the values of the function f1x2 x2 at the right endpoints of the
subintervals 30, 14 4, 3 14, 12 4, 3 12, 34 4, and 3 34, 14 .
y y
(1, 1) (1, 1)
y=≈ y=≈
S›
S¤
S‹
S⁄
0 1 1 3 1 x 0 1 1 3 1 x
4 2 4 4 2 4
Each rectangle has width 14 and the heights are A 14 B 2, A 12 B 2, A 34 B 2, and 12. If we let R4
be the sum of the areas of these approximating rectangles, we get
R4 14 # A 14 B 14 # A 12 B 14 # A 34 B 14 # 1 15
2 2 2 2
y 32 0.46875
(1, 1) From Figure 4(b) we see that the area A of S is less than R4, so
y=≈ A 0.46875
Instead of using the rectangles in Figure 4(b), we could use the smaller rectan-
gles in Figure 5 whose heights are the values of f at the left endpoints of the
subintervals. (The leftmost rectangle has collapsed because its height is 0.) The
sum of the areas of these approximating rectangles is
L4 14 # 02 14 # A 14 B 2 14 # A 12 B 2 14 # A 34 B 2 327 0.21875
0 1 1 3 1 x
4 2 4
Figure 5 We see that the area of S is larger than L4, so we have lower and upper estimates for A:
0.21875 A 0.46875
We can repeat this procedure with a larger number of strips. Figure 6 shows
what happens when we divide the region S into eight strips of equal width. By com-
puting the sum of the areas of the smaller rectangles 1L 8 2 and the sum of the areas
of the larger rectangles 1R8 2 , we obtain better lower and upper estimates for A:
0.2734375 A 0.3984375
So one possible answer to the question is to say that the true area of S lies some-
where between 0.2734375 and 0.3984375.
y y
(1, 1) (1, 1)
y=≈
y=≈
0 1 1 x 0 1 1 x
8 8
Figure 6
Approximating S with eight rectangles (a) Using left endpoints (b) Using right endpoints
We could obtain better estimates by increasing the number of strips. The table
in the margin shows the results of similar calculations (with a computer) using n
rectangles whose heights are found with left endpoints 1L n 2 or right endpoints 1R n 2.
n Ln Rn
In particular, we see by using 50 strips that the area lies between 0.3234 and
10 0.2850000 0.3850000 0.3434. With 1000 strips we narrow it down even more: A lies between 0.3328335
20 0.3087500 0.3587500 and 0.3338335. A good estimate is obtained by averaging these numbers:
30 0.3168519 0.3501852 A ⬇ 0.3333335. ■
50 0.3234000 0.3434000
100 0.3283500 0.3383500
From the values in the table it looks as if Rn is approaching 13 as n increases. We
1000 0.3328335 0.3338335
confirm this in the next example.
SECTION 12.5 Areas 919
lim Rn 13
n씮q
y Solution Rn is the sum of the areas of the n rectangles shown in Figure 7. Each
(1, 1) rectangle has width 1/n, and the heights are the values of the function f1x2 x 2
at the points 1/n, 2/n, 3/n, . . . , n/n. That is, the heights are 11/n2 2, 12/n2 2,
13/n2 2, . . . , 1n/n2 2. Thus
y=≈
a b a b a b a b
1 1 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 ... 1 n 2
Rn
n n n n n n n n
1# 1 2
0 1 x 11 22 32 . . . n2 2
1 n n2
n
11 22 32 . . . n2 2
1 2
Figure 7
n3
Here we need the formula for the sum of the squares of the first n positive
integers:
Putting the preceding formula into our expression for Rn, we get
Thus, we have
1n 12 12n 12
lim Rn lim
n씮q n씮q 6n2
1 n1 2n 1
lim a ba b
n씮q 6 n n
a1 b a2 b
1 1 1
lim
n씮q 6 n n
16 # 1 # 2 13 ■
It can be shown that the lower approximating sums also approach 31 , that is,
lim Ln 13
n씮q
920 CHAPTER 12 A Preview of Calculus
From Figures 8 and 9 it appears that, as n increases, both Rn and Ln become better and
better approximations to the area of S. Therefore, we define the area A to be the limit
of the sums of the areas of the approximating rectangles, that is,
A lim Rn lim Ln 13
n씮q n씮q
y y y
n=10 R⁄‚=0.385 n=30 R‹‚Å0.3502 n=50 Rfi‚=0.3434
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
Figure 8
y y y
n=10 L⁄‚=0.285 n=30 L‹‚Å0.3169 n=50 Lfi‚=0.3234
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
Figure 9
Definition of Area
Let’s apply the idea of Examples 1 and 2 to the more general region S of Figure 1. We
start by subdividing S into n strips S1, S2, . . . , Sn of equal width as in Figure 10.
y
y=Ï
S⁄ S¤ S‹ Si Sn
The width of the interval 3a, b4 is b a, so the width of each of the n strips is
ba
¢x
n
These strips divide the interval 3a, b4 into n subintervals
3x0, x1 4, 3x1, x2 4, 3x2, x3 4, ..., 3xn1, xn 4
where x0 a and xn b. The right endpoints of the subintervals are
x1 a ¢x, x2 a 2 ¢x, x3 a 3 ¢x, . . . , xk a k ¢x, . . .
Let’s approximate the kth strip Sk by a rectangle with width
x and height f1xk 2 ,
which is the value of f at the right endpoint (see Figure 11). Then the area of the kth
rectangle is f1xk 2 ¢x. What we think of intuitively as the area of S is approximated by
the sum of the areas of these rectangles, which is
Rn f1x1 2 ¢x f1x2 2 ¢x . . . f1xn 2 ¢x
Figure 12 shows this approximation for n 2, 4, 8, and 12.
y
Îx
f(x k )
0 a x⁄ x¤ x‹ xk-1 xk b x
Figure 11
y y y y
0 a x⁄ b x 0 a x⁄ x¤ x‹ b x 0 a b x 0 a b x
(a) n=2 (b) n=4 (c) n=8 (d) n=12
Figure 12
Notice that this approximation appears to become better and better as the number
of strips increases, that is, as n 씮 q. Therefore, we define the area A of the region S
in the following way.
922 CHAPTER 12 A Preview of Calculus
Definition of Area
The area A of the region S that lies under the graph of the continuous func-
tion f is the limit of the sum of the areas of approximating rectangles:
A lim Rn lim 3f1x1 2 ¢x f1x2 2 ¢x . . . f1xn 2 ¢x4
n씮q n씮q
A lim a f1xk 2 ¢x
n
n씮q k1
In using this formula for area, remember that
x is the width of an approximating
rectangle, xk is the right endpoint of the kth rectangle, and f1xk 2 is its height. So
ba
Width: ¢x
n
Right endpoint: x k a k ¢x
a 1a k bk 2 a a k a b k
n n n n n
a ca k c a a k
k1 k1 k1 k1 k1
We will also need the following formulas for the sums of the powers of the first n
natural numbers from Section 11.5.
n n n1n 12
a c nc ak 2
k1 k1
n n1n 12 12n 12 n n2 1n 12 2
ak ak
2 3
k1 6 k1 4
y
Example 3 Finding the Area under a Curve
Find the area of the region that lies under the parabola y x 2, 0
x
5.
25
Solution The region is graphed in Figure 13. To find the area, we first find the
y=≈ dimensions of the approximating rectangles at the nth stage.
ba 50 5
Width: ¢x
n n n
5
x k a k ¢x 0 k a b
5 5k
Right endpoint:
0 x n n
1 5
f1xk 2 f a b a b 2
5k 5k 2 25k 2
Height:
Figure 13 n n n
SECTION 12.5 Areas 923
A lim a f1xk 2 ¢x
n
Definition of area
n씮q k1
lim a 2 #
n
25k 2 5
f 1xk 2
25k 2 5
, ¢x
n씮q k1 n n n2 n
n
125k 2
lim a Simplify
n씮q k1 n3
125 n 2 125
lim 3 ak Factor
n씮q n k1 n3
3 ⬇ 41.7.
Thus, the area of the region is 125 ■
xk a k ¢x 1 k a b 1
2 2k
Right endpoint:
n n
Figure 14 shows the region whose area
f1xk 2 f a 1 b 4a1 b a1 b
is computed in Example 4. 2k 2k 2k 2
Height:
n n n
y
8k 4k 4k 2
y=4x-≈ 4 1 2
n n n
4k 4k 2
3 2
n n
Thus, according to the definition of area, we get
lim a a 3 a k 2 a k 2 b a b
n
4 n 4 n 2
Figure 14 n씮q k1 n k1 n k1 n
924 CHAPTER 12 A Preview of Calculus
lim a a 3 2 a k 3 a k 2 b
2 n 8 n 8 n
n씮q n k1 n k1 n k1
8 n1n 12 8 n1n 12 12n 12
lim a 13n2 2 c d 3c db
2
n씮q n n 2 n 6
n#n1 4 n n 1 2n 1
lim a 6 4 # # # # b
n씮q n n 3 n n n
lim c 6 4 a 1 b a1 b a2 b d
1 4 1 1
n씮q n 3 n n
64#1 # 1 # 2 22
4
■
3 3
12.5 Exercises
1. (a) By reading values from the given graph of f, use five 3–6 ■ Approximate the area of the shaded region under the
rectangles to find a lower estimate and an upper estimate graph of the given function by using the indicated rectangles.
for the area under the given graph of f from x 0 to (The rectangles have equal width.)
x 10. In each case, sketch the rectangles that you use.
3. f1x2 12 x 2 4. f1x2 4 x 2
(b) Find new estimates using ten rectangles in each case.
y y y
5 y=Ï
1
1
0 5 10 x 0 1 2 x _1 0 1 x
2. (a) Use six rectangles to find estimates of each type for the
area under the given graph of f from x 0 to x 12. 4
5. f1x2 6. f1x2 9x x 3
(i) L6 (using left endpoints) x
(ii) R6 (using right endpoints) y
y
(b) Is L6 an underestimate or an overestimate of the true 10
area? 4
(c) Is R6 an underestimate or an overestimate of the true
area?
5
y
1
8 0 0
1 7 x
1 2 x
y=Ï
8. (a) Estimate the area under the graph of f1x 2 25 x 2 The following TI-83 program finds the approximate area
from x 0 to x 5 using five approximating rectangles under the graph of f on the interval [a, b] using n rectangles.
and right endpoints. Sketch the graph and the rectangles. To use the program, first store the function f in Y1. The
Is your estimate an underestimate or an overestimate? program prompts you to enter N, the number of rectangles,
(b) Repeat part (a) using left endpoints. and A and B, the endpoints of the interval.
0
x
4, using four approximating rectangles and
taking the sample points to be PROGRAM:AREA
(i) right endpoints :Prompt N
(ii) left endpoints :Prompt A
In each case, sketch the curve and the rectangles. :Prompt B
(b) Improve your estimates in part (a) by using eight :(B-A)/N씮D
rectangles. :0씮S
:A씮X
11–12 ■ Use the definition of area as a limit to find the area
:For (K,1,N)
of the region that lies under the curve. Check your answer by
:X+D씮X
sketching the region and using geometry.
:S+Y1씮S
11. y 3x, 0
x
5 12. y 2x 1, 1
x
3 :End
13–18 ■ Find the area of the region that lies under the graph of :D*S씮S
f over the given interval. :Disp "AREA IS"
13. f1x 2 3x 2, 0
x
2 :Disp S
14. f1x2 x x , 2
0
x
1 20. Regions with Straight Versus Curved Boundaries
15. f1x 2 x 2,
Write a short essay that explains how you would find the area
3
0
x
5 of a polygon, that is, a region bounded by straight line seg-
16. f1x 2 4x , 3
2
x
5 ments. Then explain how you would find the area of a region
17. f1x 2 x 6x 2,
whose boundary is curved, as we did in this section. What is
1
x
4 the fundamental difference between these two processes?
18. f1x 2 20 2x , 2
2
x
3
Discovery • Discussion
19. Approximating Area with a Calculator When we
approximate areas using rectangles as in Example 1, then
the more rectangles we use the more accurate the answer.
12 Review
Concept Check
1. Explain in your own words what is meant by the equation 2. Explain what it means to say that
Is it possible for this statement to be true and yet f12 2 3? In this situation is it possible that limx씮1f1x2 exists?
Explain. Explain.
926 CHAPTER 12 A Preview of Calculus
3. Describe several ways in which a limit can fail to exist. 8. Explain the meaning of the equation
Illustrate with sketches.
lim f1x2 2
x씮q
4. State the following Limit Laws.
Draw sketches to illustrate the various possibilities.
(a) Sum Law
(b) Difference Law 9. (a) What does it mean to say that the line y L is a hori-
(c) Constant Multiple Law zontal asymptote of the curve y f1x 2 ? Draw curves
(d) Product Law to illustrate the various possibilities.
(e) Quotient Law (b) Which of the following curves have horizontal
(f) Power Law asymptotes?
(g) Root Law (i) y x 2 (iv) y tan1 x
(ii) y 1/x (v) y e x
5. Write an expression for the slope of the tangent line to the
(iii) y sin x (vi) y ln x
curve y f1x 2 at the point 1a, f1a 22 .
6. Define the derivative f¿1a 2 . Discuss two ways of interpret- 10. (a) What is a convergent sequence?
ing this number. (b) What does limn씮q an 3 mean?
7. If y f1x 2 , write expressions for the following. 11. Suppose S is the region that lies under the graph of
(a) The average rate of change of y with respect to x y f1x 2, a
x
b.
between the numbers a and x. (a) Explain how this area is approximated using rectangles.
(b) The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to (b) Write an expression for the area of S as a limit
x at x a. of sums.
Exercises
1–6 ■ Use a table of values to estimate the value of the (e) lim f1x2 (f) lim f1x2
x씮4 x씮q
limit. Then use a graphing device to confirm your result
(g) lim f1x2 (h) lim f1x2
graphically. x씮q x씮0
x2 y
1. lim
x씮2 x 2 3x 2
t1
2. lim
t씮1 t3 t
1
2x 1
3. lim
x씮0 x 1 x
sin 2x
4. lim
x씮0 x
5. lim ln 1x 1 8. Let
x씮1
tan x 2 if x 1
6. lim
x씮0 0x0 f 1x 2 • x 2 if 1
x
2
x 2 if x 2
7. The graph of f is shown in the figure. Find each limit or
explain why it does not exist. Find each limit or explain why it does not exist.
(a) lim f1x 2 (b) lim f1x 2 (a) lim f1x2 (b) lim f1x2
x씮2 x씮3
(c) lim f1x 2 (d) lim f1x 2
x씮1 x씮1
(c) lim f1x2 (d) lim f1x2
x씮3 x씮3 x씮1 x씮2
CHAPTER 12 Review 927
(e) lim f1x2 (f) lim f1x 2 35. A stone is dropped from the roof of a building 640 ft above
(g) lim f1x 2
x씮2
(h) lim 1f1x22
x씮2
2 the ground. Its height (in feet) after t seconds is given by
x씮0 x씮3 h1t2 640 16t 2.
■
(a) Find the velocity of the stone when t 2.
9–20 Use the Limit Laws to evaluate the limit, if it exists.
(b) Find the velocity of the stone when t a.
x1
9. lim 10. lim 1t 3 3t 6 2 (c) At what time t will the stone hit the ground?
x씮2 x3 t씮1
(d) With what velocity will the stone hit the ground?
x x 12
2
x2 4
11. lim 12. lim 36. If a gas is confined in a fixed volume, then according
x씮3 x3 x씮2 x x 2
2
to Boyle’s Law the product of the pressure P and the
1u 12 2 1 1z 3 temperature T is a constant. For a certain gas, PT 100,
13. lim 14. lim where P is measured in lb/in2 and T is measured in
u씮0 u z씮9 z9
kelvins (K).
x3
16. lim a b
1 2
2
0x30
15. lim (a) Express P as a function of T.
x씮3 x씮0 x x 2x
(b) Find the instantaneous rate of change of P with respect
2x x2 1 to T when T 300 K.
17. lim 18. lim
x씮q x4 x씮q x 3x 6
4
n n3
21–24 ■ Find the derivative of the function at the given number. 37. a n 38. a n
5n 1 n 13
29–30 ■ Find an equation of the tangent line shown in the 43. f1x2 1x 44. f1x2 4x x2
figure. y y
29. 30.
4
y
y
4 y=4x-≈
(1, 3) 1
y=Ϸ
x
1
1
1 (1, 1) 0 x
1 3
0 1 3 x
0 1 2 x 0 1 4 x
45–48 ■ Use the limit definition of area to find the area of the
region that lies under the graph of f over the given interval.
31–34 ■ Find an equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at
the given point. 45. f1x 2 2x 3, 0
x
2
12 Test
x
lim
x씮0 sin 2x
y
1 if x 1 4
if x 1
f 1x2 µ 2
0
x if 1 x
2
4x if 2 x
1
0 1 2 x
0 1 x
Focus on Modeling
Interpretations of Area
The area under the graph of a function is used to model many quantities in physics,
economics, engineering, and other fields. That is why the area problem is so impor-
tant. Here we will show how the concept of work (Section 8.5) is modeled by area.
Several other applications are explored in the problems.
Recall that the work W done in moving an object is the product of the force F
applied to the object and the distance d that the object moves:
W Fd work force distance
This formula is used if the force is constant. For example, suppose you are pushing a
crate across a floor, moving along the positive x-axis from x a to x b, and you
apply a constant force F k. The graph of F as a function of the distance x is shown
in Figure 1(a). Notice that the work done is W Fd k1b a2 , which is the area
under the graph of F (see Figure 1(b)).
F F
work=area
k k
0 a b x 0 a b x
Figure 1
A constant force F (a) (b)
But what if the force is not constant? For example, suppose the force you apply
to the crate varies with distance (you push harder at certain places than you do at
others). More precisely, suppose that you push the crate along the x-axis in the posi-
tive direction, from x a to x b, and at each point x between a and b you apply
a force f1x2 to the crate. Figure 2 shows a graph of the force f as a function of the
distance x.
y
(force)
f
Figure 2 0 a x
b
A variable force (distance)
How much work was done? We can’t apply the formula for work directly because
the force is not constant. So let’s divide the interval 3a, b4 into n subintervals with end-
points x0, x1, . . . , xn and equal width
x as shown in Figure 3(a) on the next page.
The force at the right endpoint of the interval 3xk1, xk 4 is f1xk 2 . If n is large, then
x
is small, so the values of f don’t change very much over the interval 3xk1, xk 4. In other
929
930 Focus on Modeling
words f is almost constant on the interval, and so the work Wk that is done in moving
the crate from xk1 to xk is approximately
Wk ⬇ f1xk 2 ¢x
Thus, we can approximate the work done in moving the crate from x a to x b by
W ⬇ a f1xk 2 ¢x
n
k1
It seems that this approximation becomes better as we make n larger (and so make
the interval 3xk1, xk 4 smaller). Therefore, we define the work done in moving an ob-
ject from a to b as the limit of this quantity as n 씮 q:
W lim a f1xk 2 ¢x
n
n씮q k1
Notice that this is precisely the area under the graph of f between x a and x b as
defined in Section 12.5. See Figure 3(b).
y y
(force) (force) work=area under
Îx
graph of f
0 x‚ x⁄ … … xn x 0 x
Figure 3 xk _ 1 xk
(distance) (distance)
Approximating work (a) (b)
y
(force)
Îx
350
50
0 5 x
xk (distance)
Figure 4 xk_ 1
Interpretations of Area 931
the interval 30, 184. To find this area, we start by finding the dimensions of the
approximating rectangles at the nth stage.
ba 18 0 18
Width: ¢x
n n n
xk a k ¢x 0 k a b
18 18k
Right endpoint:
n n
f1xk 2 f a b 340 a b
18k 18k 2
Height:
n n
324k 2
340
n2
Thus, according to the definition of work we get
So the work done by the man in moving the crate is 4176 ft-lb. ■
Problems
1. Work Done by a Winch A motorized winch is being used to pull a felled tree to
a logging truck. The motor exerts a force of f 1x 2 1500 10x 12 x 2 lb on the
tree at the instant when the tree has moved x ft. The tree must be moved a distance
of 40 ft, from x 0 to x 40. How much work is done by the winch in moving
the tree?
2. Work Done by a Spring Hooke’s law states that when a spring is stretched, it
pulls back with a force proportional to the amount of the stretch. The constant of
proportionality is a characteristic of the spring known as the spring constant. Thus,
a spring with spring constant k exerts a force f 1x 2 kx when it is stretched a
Ï=kx distance x.
A certain spring has spring constant k 20 lb/ft. Find the work done when the
x
spring is pulled so that the amount by which it is stretched increases from x 0 to
x 2 ft.
3. Force of Water As any diver knows, an object submerged in water experiences pres-
sure, and as depth increases, so does the water pressure. At a depth of x ft, the water
pressure is p1x 2 62.5x lb/ft2. To find the force exerted by the water on a surface,
we multiply the pressure by the area of the surface:
force pressure area
932 Focus on Modeling
0 Suppose an aquarium that is 3 ft wide, 6 ft long, and 4 ft high is full of water. The
bottom of the aquarium has area 3 6 18 ft2, and it experiences water pressure of
4 ft p14 2 62.5 4 250 lb/ft2. Thus, the total force exerted by the water on the bottom
is 250 18 4500 lb.
Îx xk
The water also exerts a force on the sides of the aquarium, but this is not as easy to
6 ft x calculate because the pressure increases from top to bottom. To calculate the force on
3 ft (depth) one of the 4 ft by 6 ft sides, we divide its area into n thin horizontal strips of width ¢x,
as shown in the figure. The area of each strip is
length width 6 ¢x
If the bottom of the kth strip is at the depth xk, then it experiences water pressure
of approximately p1x k 2 62.5x k lb/ft2—the thinner the strip, the more accurate the
approximation. Thus, on each strip the water exerts a force of
pressure area 62.5x k 6 ¢x 375x k ¢x lb
(a) Explain why the total force exerted by the water on the 4 ft by 6 ft sides of the
aquarium is
n
lim a 375x k ¢x
n씮q k1
area under the graph of the temperature function over the time period in question.
(a) On a particular day, the temperature (in F) was modeled by the function
D1t 2 61 65 t 251 t 2, where t was measured in hours since midnight. How many
heating degree-hours were experienced on this day, from t 0 to t 24?
(b) What was the maximum temperature on the day described in part (a)?
(c) On another day, the temperature (in F) was modeled by the function
E1t 2 50 5t 14 t 2. How many heating degree-hours were experienced on
this day?
(d) What was the maximum temperature on the day described in part (c)?
(e) Which day was “hotter”?
This page intentionally left blank
Cumulative Review
To get the most out of your precalculus course, you should periodically review what
you have studied over the past several chapters of the textbook. Each new topic
builds on the ideas you have learned before, so it is important that you clearly
understand everything you have studied since the beginning of the course. In the
pages that follow you will find study checklists and multichapter tests that will help
you organize your cumulative review and help you monitor your progress toward
mastery of precalculus mathematics.
Functions
• Independent and dependent variables, domain and range, function notation
• Graph of a function, Vertical Line Test
• Piecewise-defined functions
• Increasing and decreasing functions, average rate of change
• Vertical and horizontal shifting; vertical and horizontal stretching, shrinking,
and reflecting
• Quadratic functions, maximum and minimum values of a function
• Composition of functions
• One-to-one functions, Horizontal Line Test, inverse of a function
CR1
CR2 Cumulative Review
Polynomial Functions
• Zero of a polynomial, multiplicity of a zero, graph of a polynomial, end
behavior
• Synthetic division, Rational Zeros Theorem, factoring a polynomial
• Complex numbers, Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Rational Functions
• Vertical and horizontal asymptotes
• Graph of a rational function
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
• Graph of an exponential function, horizontal asymptote
• Graph of a logarithmic function, vertical asymptote
• Laws of Logarithms, combining and expanding logarithmic expressions
• Solving exponential and logarithmic equations
• Exponential and logarithmic models
A y B y C y D y E y F y
0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x
P t
0 1 x
(d) sin a b
7p 9p
(a) cos (b) tan 135 (c) csc 240
6 2
7
4. Suppose that cos t and tan t 0. Find the values of sin t, tan t, cot t, sec t,
25
and csc t.
CR6 Cumulative Review
y
3
0 π 7π 13π x
3 3 3
_3
7. The figure below shows a model ferris wheel that a child has constructed using a toy
building kit. The wheel has a radius of 40 cm, and the center of the wheel is 45 cm
above the floor. An electric motor turns the wheel at 4 rotations per minute.
(a) Let h 1 t2 be the vertical distance between the point P and the floor at time t.
Express the function h in the form h 1t2 a b cos kt. (Assume that at t 0 the
point P is at the lowest point of its travel.)
(b) The support struts AB and AC are each 50 cm long. Find the distance between B
and C.
B C
x x
13.0 15.2
70* 65*
5.6 20.5
(a) (b)
Cumulative Review CR7
Systems of Equations
• Linear and nonlinear systems of equations
• Substitution, elimination, and graphical methods for solving systems of
equations
CR8 Cumulative Review
x 2 y 2 4y
e
x 2 2y 2 0
2. Find the complete solution of each linear system, or show that no solution exists.
x y z2 x y z2
(a) • 2x 3y z 5 (b) • x 2y 3z 3
3x 5y 2z 11 3x 5y 8z 7
3. Xavier, Yolanda, and Zachary go fishing. Yolanda catches as many fish as Xavier and
Zachary put together. Zachary catches 2 more fish than Xavier. The total catch for all
three people is 20 fish. How many did each person catch?
1 0 1 1 4 3
2
4. Let A c d, B c 1 d, C £ 0 1 § , and D £ 1 5§.
1 5 1 0
2 6
2 0 2 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
(a) Calculate each of the following, or explain why the calculation can’t be done.
A B, C D, AB, CB, BD, det 1B2, det 1C2, det1D 2
(b) Based on the values you calculated for det1C2 and det 1D 2, which matrix, C or D,
has an inverse? Find the inverse of the invertible one.
5. Consider the following system of equations.
5x 3y 5
e
6x 4y 0
(a) Write a matrix equation of the form AX B that is equivalent to this system.
(b) Find A1, the inverse of the coefficient matrix.
(c) Solve the matrix equation by multiplying each side by A1.
(d) Now solve the system using Cramer’s Rule. Did you get the same solution as in
part (b)?
4x 8
6. Find the partial fraction decomposition of the rational function r 1x2 4 .
x 4x 2
7. Sketch the graph of each conic section, and find the coordinates of its foci. What type
of conic section does each equation represent?
6
(a) 9x 2 4y 2 24y (b) r
1 2 cos u
8. Find an equation for the conic whose graph is shown.
y
4
F1(0, 0)
1 F¤(10, 0)
0 2 5 8 x
Sequences
• Formula for a sequence, recursive sequences
• Arithmetic sequences, initial term, common difference, partial sum
• Geometric sequences, initial term, common ratio, partial sum
• Sum of an infinite geometric sequence
Financial Mathematics
• Amount of an annuity
• Present value of an annuity
• Calculating the payment on a loan
Induction
• Principle of Mathematical Induction
• Induction hypothesis, induction step
Binomial Theorem
• Pascal’s Triangle, binomial coefficients
• The Binomial Theorem
Limits
• Definition of a limit
• Estimating limits using a table, estimating limits graphically
• Calculating limits using algebra
• Definition of derivative
• Using the derivative to find tangent lines
Areas
• Using rectangles to estimate area under a curve
• Definition of area under a curve using limits
(c) The arithmetic sequence with initial term a 12 and common difference d 3.
(d) The geometric sequence with initial term a 12 and common ratio r 56.
(e) The sequence defined recursively by a1 0.01 and an 2an1.
2. Calculate the sum.
(a) 35 45 1 65 75 85 . . . 195 4
(b) 3 9 27 81 . . . 310
9
5
(c) a n
n0 2
(d) 6 2 23 29 272 812 . . .
3. Mary and Kevin buy a vacation home for $350,000. They pay $35,000 down and take
out a 15-year mortgage for the remainder. If their annual interest rate is 6%, how much
will their monthly mortgage payment be?
4. A sequence is defined inductively by a1 1 and an an1 2n 1. Use mathemati-
cal induction to prove that an n2.
5. (a) Use the Binomial Theorem to expand the expression A2x 12 B 5.
(b) Find the term containing x 4 in the binomial expansion of A2x 12 B 12.
3 if x 0
if x 0
6. Let f1 x2 µ
2
3 x if 0 x 2
x if x 2
(a) Sketch a graph of f.
(b) Evaluate: (i) f 102 (ii) lim f1x2 (iii) lim f1x2 (iv) lim f1x2 (v) lim f1x 2
x씮0 x씮1 x씮2 x씮2
1 cos x
7. Use a table of values to estimate the limit lim .
x씮0 x2
8. Evaluate the limit, if it exists.
x 2 4x 21 x 2 4x 21 x2 4
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
x씮3 x3 x씮3 x3 x씮2 x 2
9. Let g1 x2 x 3. Find:
(a) The derivative of g
(b) g132, g102, and g1a 2
(c) The equation of the line tangent to the graph of g at the point (2, 8)
10. (a) Sketch the graph of the region in the coordinate plane that lies under the graph of
f 1 x 2 1 x 2 and above the x-axis, between x 0 and x 1.
(b) If A is the area of this region, explain why 1 A 1.5.
(c) Approximate the area of the region with four rectangles, equally spaced on the
x-axis, using left-hand endpoints to determine the heights of the rectangles.
(d) Use the limit definition of area to find the exact area of the region.
This page intentionally left blank
Answers to Odd-Numbered
Exercises and Chapter Tests
59. −4 4
Section 1.3 ■ page 31
61. (a) 100 (b) 73 63. (a) 2 (b) 1 65. (a) 12
1. Trinomial; x 2, 3x, 7; 2 3. Monomial; 8; 0
(b) 5 67. 5 69. (a) 15 (b) 24 (c) 67 71. (a) 79
40 5. Four terms; x 4, x 3, x 2, x; 4 7. 7x 5
(b) 13
45 (c) 19
33 73. Distributive Property 9. 5x 2 2x 4 11. x 3 3x 2 6x 11 13. 9x 103
75. (a) Yes, no (b) 6 ft 15. t 4 t 3 t 2 10t 5 17. x 3/2 x
19. 21t 2 29t 10 21. 3x 2 5xy 2y 2
23. 1 4y 4y 2 25. 4x 4 12x 2y 2 9y 4
Section 1.2 ■ page 21 27. 2x 3 7x 2 7x 5 29. x 4 a 4 31. a 1/b 2
1. 51/2 3. 242 5. 53/5 7. 2a 2 9. (a) 9 (b) 9
3 5
33. 1 3a 3 3a 6 a 9 35. 2x 4 x 3 x 2 3x 2
1
(c) 1 11. (a) 4 (b) 81 (c) 16 13. (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 1
2
37. 1 x 2/3 x 4/3 x 2 39. 3x 4y 4 7x 3y 5 6x 2y 3 14xy 4
A1
A2 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
41. x 2 y 2 2yz z 2 43. 2x1x 2 8 2 85. True 87. False 89. False 91. True
45. 1y 62 1y 92 47. xy12x 6y 32 93. (a)
R1R2
(b) 203 ⬇ 6.7 ohms
49. 1x 12 1x 3 2 51. 12x 5 2 14x 3 2 R1 R2
53. 13x 4 2 13x 8 2 55. 13a 4 2 13a 4 2
57. 13x y 2 19x 2 3xy y 2 2 59. 1x 6 2 2 Section 1.5 ■ page 55
61. 1x 42 1x 12 63. 12x 1 2 1x 2 3 2
2
1. (a) No (b) Yes 3. (a) Yes (b) No 5. 12 7. 18
65. 1x 12 1x 2 12 67. x 1/2 1x 12 1x 1 2 9. 3 11. 12 13. 34 15. 30 17. 13 19. 133 21. 2
69. 1x 2 32 1x 2 1 2 1/2 71. 6x12x 2 3 2 PV RR2 2d b
23. R 25. R1 27. x
73. 1x 4 2 1x 2 2 75. 12x 32 1x 12 nT R2 R a 2c
77. 13x 2 2 12x 3 2 79. 15s t 2 2 1a 3V
81. 12x 5 2 12x 5 2 83. 4ab 29. x
a2 a 1
31. r
B ph
85. 1x 3 2 1x 32 1x 1 2 1x 1 2 V0 2V 20 2gh
87. 12x 52 14x 2 10x 25 2 33. b 2c 2 a 2 35. t
89. 1x 2 2y 2 1x 4 2x 2y 4y 2 2
g
37. 4, 3 39. 3, 4 41. 32 , 52 43. 2, 13 45. 1 16
91. x1x 1 2 2 93. 1y 2 2 1y 22 1y 3 2
114
95. 12x 2 12 1x 2 2 97. 31x 1 2 1x 2 2 47. 72, 12 49. 2 51. 0, 14 53. 3, 5
99. 1a 2 2 1a 2 2 1a 12 1a 1 2
2
101. 21x 2 42 4 1x 22 3 17x 2 10x 82
3 15 1 15
55. 57. 32, 1 59. 61. 92, 12
103. 1x 2 32 4/3 A 13 x 2 3B
2 4
5 113 16 16
105. (d) 1a b c 2 1a b c2 1a b c 2 1b a c 2 63. 65. , 67. 75
2 2 6
69. 2 71. 1 73. No real solution
Section 1.4 ■ page 41 75. 75 , 2 77. 50, 100 79. 4 81. 4 83. 3
x2
1. ⺢ 3. x 4 5. x 3 85. 2 12, 15 87. No real solution
21x 1 2
7.
89. 3 13, 2 12 91. 1, 0, 3 93. 27, 729 95. 32 , 32
1 x2 y x12x 3 2
9. 11. 13. 15. 97. 3.99, 4.01 99. 4.24 s 101. (a) After 1 s and 1 12 s
x2 x1 y1 2x 3 (b) Never (c) 25 ft (d) After 1 14 s (e) After 2 12 s
1 x3 1 x4 103. (a) 0.00055, 12.018 m (b) 234.375 kg/m3
17. 19. 21. 2 23.
41x 22 3x t 9 x1 105. (a) After 17 yr, on Jan. 1, 2019 (b) After 18.621 yr, on
12x 1 2 12x 1 2
27. x 2 1x 1 2 29.
x Aug. 12, 2020 107. 50 109. 132.6 ft
1x 5 2 2
25.
yz
31x 22 3x 7 1 Section 1.6 ■ page 68
1x 3 2 1x 52 1x 12 1x 2 2
31. 33. 35.
x3 160 s
3x 2 u 2 3u 1 2x 1 1. 3n 3 3. 5. 0.025x
3
1x 12 x 1x 1 2
37. 39. 41. 2
2
u1 25
2x 7 x2 5x 6 7. A 3„ 2 9. d 34 s 11. 13. 51, 52, 53
x3
1x 32 1x 4 2 1x 3 2 1x 3 2 x1x 1 2
43. 45. 47. 1
15. 19 and 36 17. $9000 at 4 2 % and $3000 at 4%
5 c 19. 7.5% 21. $7400 23. $45,000 25. Plumber, 70 h;
51. xy 53.
1x 12 1x 2 2 1x 32
49.
c2 assistant, 35 h 27. 40 years old 29. 9 pennies, 9 nickels,
3x 7 yx 1 9 dimes 31. 6.4 ft from the fulcrum 33. (a) 9 cm
a1a h 2
55. 2 57. 59. 1 61. (b) 5 in. 35. 45 ft 37. 120 ft by 120 ft 39. 25 ft by 35 ft
x 2x 1 xy
41. 60 ft by 40 ft 43. 120 ft 45. 4 in. 47. 18 ft 49. 5 m
3 1
12 x2 12 x h2
63. 65. 51. 4 53. 18 g 55. 0.6 L 57. 35% 59. 37 min 20 s
21 x 2 61. 3 h 63. Irene 3 h, Henry 4 12 h 65. 4 h 67. 500 mi/h
1x 22 1x 132
2
x2 2x 3 69. 50 mi/h (or 240 mi/h) 71. 6 km/h 73. 2 ft by
1x 3 2 3
67. 69. 71.
1x 1 2 3/2
1x 12 4/3 6 ft by 15 ft 75. 13 in. by 13 in. 77. 2.88 ft 79. 16 mi; no
21 17 122 y 13 y1y 81. 7.52 ft 83. 18 ft 85. 4.55 ft
73. 2 13 75. 77.
5 3y
4 r2 1 Section 1.7 ■ page 84
1. 5 12, 2, 46
79. 81. 83.
311 152 51 1r 122 2x 1 x
2 3. {4} 5. {2, 1, 2, 4}
7. 14, q 2 9. 1q, 2 4
4 2
Answers to Section 1.8 A3
(−4, 5) 5 (4, 5)
15 21 −2 3
2 2 (−2, 3) (2, 3)
39. 1q, 32 傼 16, q 2 41. 12, 22 3. (a) 113 (b) A 32, 1B 5. (a) 10 (b) 11, 02
−3 6 −2 2
7. (a) 9. (a)
y y
43. 1q, q 2 45. 12, 02 傼 12, q 2 (4, 18)
(6, 16)
0 −2 0 2
8 (0, 8) 6
47. 1q, 1 2 傼 3 3, q 2 49. Aq, 32 B
−8 0 8 x −6 0 6 x
−1 3 −3
2 (−3, −6)
−2 −1 0 1 −2 0 1 3 5
4
_4 0 4 x
−3 −1 2 −1 1
2 (6, _2) 0 x
_4 _3 3
63. 34, 4 4 65. Aq, 72 B 傼 A 72, q B
5
−4 8 −6.001 −5.999 D C
3 12, 32 4 77. 0 x 0 3
1
75.
0 1 x
−1 3 _3 0 A 3 B x
2 2
79. 0 x 7 0 5 81. 0 x 0
2 83. 0 x 0 3
_5
85. 0 x 1 0
3 87.
x
4 4
89. x 2 or x 7
3 3
A4 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
_5 0 5 x
_5
23. y 25. y
_5 0 5 x
_5
5
2
59. x-intercepts 3, 61. No intercepts,
−2 0 2 x
−2 _5 0 5 x y-intercept 9, symmetry about origin
symmetry about y-axis
_5 y y
(2, _3)
P(_1, _4)
63. x-intercepts 2, 65. x-intercept 4,
41. (a) y (b) A 52, 3B, A 52, 3B y-intercept 2, y-intercepts 2, 2,
C symmetry about y-axis symmetry about x-axis
D
4 y y
B
3
_4 0 4 x
A 3
_4 0 x
_5 5
−5 0 5 x
43. No, yes, yes 45. Yes, no, yes
−3
47. x-intercepts 0, 4; y-intercept 0
49. x-intercepts 2, 2; y-intercepts 4, 4
51. x-intercept 4, 53. x-intercept 3,
y-intercept 4, y-intercept 6, 67. x-intercepts 2, 69. x-intercepts 4,
no symmetry no symmetry y-intercept 16, y-intercept 4,
y y
symmetry about y-axis symmetry about y-axis
y y
2 2
5
0 2 x −4 0 4 x
−4
5
_5 5
0 1 x 0 x
_2
1 1
2
−6 6 −1.2 1.2
_4 0 4 x _4 0 4 x
1
_2
_1 −4 −0.8
_2 0 2 x
_2
0 100
99. (a) 5 (b) 31; 25 (c) Points P and Q must either be on
the same street or the same avenue. 101. (a) 2 Mm, 8 Mm
(b) 1.33, 7.33; 2.40 Mm, 7.60 Mm Section 1.10 ■ page 120
1. 21 3. 61 5. 12 7. 92 9. 2, 12,3, 14
Section 1.9 ■ page 109 11. x y 4 0 13. 3x 2y 6 0
1. (c) 3. (c) 5. (c) 15. x y 1 0 17. 2x 3y 19 0
7. 9. 19. 5x y 11 0 21. 3x y 2 0
400 20 23. 3x y 3 0 25. y 5 27. x 2y 11 0
29. x 1 31. 5x 2y 1 0
33. x y 6 0
35. (a) (b) 3x 2y 8 0
−4 10
y
−2 2
−10 −10 5
−3
−50 150
−20 20
37. They all have the 39. They all have the
−1 −2000 same slope. same x-intercept.
15. 17. 8 5 m = 1.5
100 5 m = 0.75
m = 0.25
m=0
−5 5 −2 8
m = −0.25
b=6
−4 6 m = −0.75
b=3
−3 5 −8 b = −3 b=1 −5 m = −1.5
−50 −1 b = −6 b = −1 b = 0
A6 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
7. 35, q 2 5
1 1
57. x y 3 0 59. (b) 4x 3y 24 0 9. 6 11. 72 15. 11 17. 4 19. 16x 3 21. 12xy 8
13. 6
61. 16,667 ft 63. (a) 8.34; the slope represents the increase 4r 5/2
23. x 2y 2 25. 3x 3/2y 2 27. 29. 7.825 1010
in dosage for a one-year increase in age. (b) 8.34 mg s7
31. 1.65 1032 33. 3xy 2 14xy 2 y 3 3x 2 2
1x 22 1x 52 37. 14t 32 1t 4 2
65. (a) y (b) The slope
35.
15 4t2 15 4t2
represents production
39.
1x 12 1x 2 x 1 2 1x 1 2 1x 2 x 12
12000
cost per toaster; the
41.
x 1/2 1x 12 2 45. 1x 22 14x 2 32
9000 y-intercept represents
monthly fixed cost. 43.
6000
47. 2x 2 21x 2 x 22 2 49. 6x 2 21x 3
3000 51. 7 x 53. 2x 3 6x 2 4x
31x 32 x1 1
0 x 55. 57. 59.
500 1000 1500
x4 x4 x1
1
67. (a) t 245 n 45 (b) 76 F 61. 63. 312 213 65. 5 67. No solution
2x
69. (a) P 0.434d 15, where P is pressure in lb/in2 and d is 2 17
depth in feet 69. 2, 7 71. 1, 21 73. 0, 52 75.
3
(b) y (c) The slope is the rate 77. 5 79. 3, 11 81. 20 lb raisins, 30 lb nuts
4 1 1329 32 ⬇ 3.78 mi/h
1
of increase in water pres- 83. 85. 1 h 50 min
sure, and the y-intercept 87. 13, q 2 89. 1q, 62 傼 12, q 2
is the air pressure at the −3 −6 2
surface. (d) 196 ft
5 91. 1q, 22 傼 12, 4 4 93. 32, 84
0 5 x
−2 2 4 2 8
Answers to Chapter 1 Test A7
4
P (2, 0)
_10 _25
_4 0 4 x
_4 123. 2x 3y 16 0 125. 3x y 12 0
127. x 5y 0 129. x 2 y 2 169, 5x 12y 169 0
(b) 1193 (c) A 32, 6B 131. (a) The slope represents the amount the spring
(d) y 127 x 247 (e) 1x 2 2 2 y 2 193 lengthens for a one-pound increase in weight. The S-intercept
y y represents the unstretched length of the spring. (b) 4 in.
(_5, 12) 12 133. M 8z 135. (a) I k/d 2 (b) 64,000
(c) 160 candles 137. 11.0 mi/h
8 8
(2, 0)
4 24
7 _8 0 8 x Chapter 1 Test ■ page 135
0 x
_8 1. (a) _5 3
_4 2
_4
2
0 x
11. (a) 34, 32 _4 3
7
_2
(c) 11, 72 1 7
(d) 11, 44 _1 4
115. Symmetry about y-axis 117. No symmetry
12. Between 41F and 50F 13. 0
x
6
14. (a) 2.94, 0.11, 3.05 (b) 31, 34
y y
4
0 2 x P R
_3 0 3 x
_4
1
0 1 Q x
A8 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
1
0 10 100 x
_4
17. (a) y
_1
0 4 x
(2, −1)
Chapter 2
(c) 13, 12 , 2 y Section 2.1 ■ page 155
1. f 1x 2 21x 32
f 1x 2 1x 52 2
3
3.
(−3, 1) 5. Subtract 4, then divide by 3
7. Square, then add 2
−5 0 x
9.
subtract 1,
1 0
take square root
19. y 2
3x 5 y (input) (output)
subtract 1,
2 1
2 take square root
0 2 x
subtract 1,
5 2
take square root
slope 23 ; y-intercept 5
Answers to Section 2.2 A9
f 1x 2
11. 73. P
x
900
1 8
0 2
1 0 850
2 2
Population
3 8 (× 1000)
800
a ah 1
a 1 a h 1 1a h 1 2 1a 12
31. 5, 5, 0 33. , ,
35. 3 5a 4a 2, 3 5a 5h 4a 2 8ah 4h 2, Section 2.2 ■ page 167
5 8a 4h
37. 1q, q 2 39. [1, 5] 41. 5x 0 x 36 1. 3.
43. 5x 0 x 16 45. 3 5, q 2 47. 1q, q 2 49. 3 52, qB
51. 3 2, 3 2 傼 13, q 2 53. 1q, 0 4 傼 3 6, q 2 55. 14, q 2
y y
0 x −5 0 5 x
_4 4
_4 −3
0 t
A10 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
5
4
0
−4.75
_4 4 x
−0.8
_5 0 5 x
_4
(b) Domain 34, 44, range 3 0, 44
_2
35. (a) 3
17. 19.
y y
5
5
−1 9
−1
_5 0 5 x
0 x
(b) Domain 31, q 2 , range 30, q 2
_5 5
37. 39.
_5
y y
21. 4
y 2
_5 0 5 x
_5 0 5 x
_2
2
0 x
1 41. 43.
−3
45. 47.
(b) Domain 1q, q 2 , range 1q, q 2 y y
29. (a) 6
5 5
−6 6
_5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
−6
−4 4
_7 7
1
0 1 x
−12 _7
2 if x 2 85. A won the race. All runners finished. Runner B fell, but got
53. f 1x 2 • x if 2
x
2 up again to finish second. 87. (a) 5 s (b) 30 s (c) 17 s
2 if x 2 89. y
4
55. (a) Yes (b) No (c) Yes (d) No
57. Function, domain 33, 24, range 32, 24 2 0x
1
59. Not a function 61. Yes 63. No 65. No 2.2 1 x
1.1 3
67. Yes 69. Yes 71. Yes C1x2 e 2.4 1.1 x
1.2
73. (a) (b) o
c=6 c=4
c=2
c=0 c=_2
c=_4
4.0 1.9 x 2.0 2
10 c=0 10 c=_6
0 1 2 x
_5 5 _5 5
Section 2.3 ■ page 179
1. (a) 31, 14, 32, 44 (b) 31, 2 4 3. (a) 32, 14, 3 1, 24
_10 _10 (b) 33, 24, 31, 1 4, 32, 34
(c) If c 0, then the graph of f 1x 2 x 2 c is the same as the
5. (a) 7. (a)
5 10
graph of y x 2 shifted upward c units. If c 0, then the graph
of f 1x 2 x 2 c is the same as the graph of y x 2 shifted
downward c units. _10 10 _2 7
75. (a) (b)
c=0 c=2 10
c=4
10 c=6 _5 _10
(b) Increasing on 30, q 2 ; (b) Increasing on 3 2.5, q 2 ;
_10 10
decreasing on 1q, 04 decreasing on 1q, 2.54
_10 10 9. (a) 11. (a)
20 3
c=_6 _10
c=_4
_10 c=_2 c=0
_3 5
_5 5
(c) If c 0, then the graph of f 1x2 1x c 2 3 is the same as
the graph of y x 3 shifted right c units. If c 0, then the
graph of f 1x 2 1x c 2 3 is the same as the graph of y x 3 _25 _3
_5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
23. (a) Shift left 2 units (b) Shift up 2 units
25. (a) Stretch vertically by a factor of 2
_5 _5 (b) Shift right 2 units, then shrink vertically by a factor of 12
27. g1x2 1x 22 2 3 29. g1x2 5 1x 3
(c) (d) 31. g1x2 0.1 0 x 12 0 2
y y
33. 35.
5
y y
5 5
0 _5 0 5 x
_5 5 x
_5 0 5 x 0 x
_5 5 _5
_5
(e) (f)
37. 39.
y y
y y
5 5
5 5
_5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
_5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
_5 _5
21. (a) y
41. 43.
y y
3 1
_5 0 2 x 10
_3
0 3 x
_3
(_3, 5)
_3
_4 0 2 x
5 _4 0
_5 0 x 4 x 0
_5 5 x _5 0 5 x
_4
_5
Answers to Section 2.5 A13
(d)
in (a) left 5 units; for part
3
(c) shift the graph in (a) left
(b)
5 units and stretch verti-
(c)
(a) cally by a factor of 2; for _5 0 5 x
_8 8
part (d) shift the graph in _3
_2 (a) left 5 units, stretch verti-
cally by a factor of 2, and
then shift upward 4 units. 67. Neither
51. For part (b) shrink the 69. To obtain the graph of g, reflect in the x-axis the part of the
4 (a) (b)
graph in (a) vertically by graph of f that is below the x-axis.
a factor of 31 ; for part (c) 71. (a) (b)
_4 6 shrink the graph in (a) ver- y y
tically by a factor of 31 and
5 5
reflect in the x-axis; for part
(c) _4 (d) (d) shift the graph in (a)
right 4 units, shrink verti-
cally by a factor of 13 , and _5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
then reflect in the x-axis.
_3
53. (a) (b)
y y
73. (a) Shift up 4 units, shrink vertically by a factor of 0.01
(b) Shift right 10 units; g1t 2 4 0.011t 102 2
2 2
0 6 x 0 6 x
57. 59. −3 0 3 x
y 4 2
−3
(c)
3 (b) (a) −2 0 2 x
_5 5
1 2 4
_3 0 3 x
_4 9. (a) f 1x2 1x 22 2 1 (b) Vertex 12, 12
x-intercepts 1, 3, y-intercept 3
_3 (c)
y
61. Even 63. Neither
y
5 2
−2 0 2 x
_5 0 5 x
A14 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
11. (a) f 1x 2 1x 3 2 2 13 (b) Vertex 13, 132 ; 23. (a) f 1x 2 Ax 32 B 2 214
x-intercepts 3 113; y-intercept 4 (b) y
(c) y !_ 32 , 21
4
@
3
6
0 x
−2 2 x _3 3
_2
10
_3 0 3 x
1 5
!_ 2 , 4 @ 2
0 x
_2 0 5 x _4 2
29. Minimum f A 12 B 34
31. Maximum f 13.52 185.75
5 33. Minimum f 10.6 2 15.64
_2 0 1 x 35. Minimum h12 2 8
37. Maximum f 11 2 72 39. f 1x 2 2x 2 4x
41. 1q, q 2 , 1q, 14 43. 1q, q 2 , A 232, qB
19. (a) f 1x2 1x 1 2 2 1 21. (a) f 1x2 1x 1 2 2 2 45. (a) 4.01 (b) 4.011025
(b) (b) 47. Local maximum 2; local minimums 1, 0
49. Local maximums 0, 1; local minimums 2, 1
y y
1
(1, 1) 51. Local maximum ⬇ 0.38 when x ⬇ 0.58;
0
3 local minimum ⬇ 0.38 when x ⬇ 0.58
_1 1 x 53. Local maximum ⬇ 0 when x 0;
_1
0 x
local minimum ⬇ 13.61 when x ⬇ 1.71;
_3 2
local minimum ⬇ 73.32 when x ⬇ 3.21
_2
(_1, _2) 55. Local maximum ⬇ 5.66 when x ⬇ 4.00
57. Local maximum ⬇ 0.38 when x ⬇ 1.73;
(c) Maximum f 11 2 1 (c) Minimum f 112 2
Answers to Section 2.7 A15
5. A1x 2 10x x 2, 0 x 10
f
x _1
19. (b) p1x 2 x119 x2 (c) 9.5, 9.5 21. 12, 12
f+g
length is 40 ft (c) 15 ft to 60 ft
27. (a) R1p 2 3000p 2 57,000p (b) $19 (c) $9.50
_2
p4 2
29. (a) A1x 2 15x a b x (b) Width ⬇ 8.40 ft,
17. (a) 1 (b) 23 19. (a) 11 (b) 119
8 21. (a) 3x 2 1 (b) 9x 2 30x 23
height of rectangular part ⬇ 4.20 ft 23. 4 25. 5 27. 4
31. (a) A1x 2 x 2 48/x (b) Height ⬇ 1.44 ft, 29. 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 8x 1, 1q, q 2 ;
width ⬇ 2.88 ft 33. (a) A1x2 2x 200/x 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2 8x 11, 1q, q 2 ;
(b) 10 m by 10 m 1f ⴰ f 2 1x 2 4x 9, 1q, q 2 ;
35. (a) E1x 2 14 225 x 2 10112 x 2 1g ⴰ g2 1x2 16x 5, 1q, q 2
(b) To point C, 5.1 mi from point B 31. 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 1x 1 2 2, 1q, q 2 ;
1g ⴰ f 2 1x 2 x 2 1, 1q, q 2 ; 1f ⴰ f 2 1x2 x 4, 1q, q 2 ;
Section 2.7 ■ page 219 1g ⴰ g2 1x 2 x 2, 1q, q 2
1. 1f g 2 1x 2 x 2 x 3, 1q, q 2 ; 33. 1f ⴰ g 2 1x 2 , x 2; 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2 4, x 0;
1 2
2x 4
1f g 2 1x 2 x 2 x 3, 1q, q 2 ;
x
1f ⴰ f 2 1x 2 x, x 0, 1g ⴰ g2 1x 2 4x 12, 1q, q 2
1fg2 1x 2 x 3 3x 2, 1q, q 2 ; 35. 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 0 2x 3 0 , 1q, q 2 ;
x3 1g ⴰ f 2 1x2 2 0 x 0 3, 1q, q 2 ; 1f ⴰ f 2 1x2 0 x 0 , 1q, q 2 ;
a g b 1x 2 , 1q, 0 2 傼 10, q 2
f
x2 1g ⴰ g2 1x 2 4x 9, 1q, q 2
2x 1
3. 1f g 2 1x 2 24 x 2 21 x, 31, 24 ; 37. 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 , x 0;
2x
1f g 2 1x 2 24 x 2 21 x, 31, 24 ; 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2
2x
1, x 1;
x1
1fg2 1x 2 2x 3 x 2 4x 4, 31, 24 ;
1f ⴰ f 2 1x 2
x
, x 1, x 12;
4 x2 2x 1
a g b 1x 2 , 11, 24 1g ⴰ g2 1x2 4x 3, 1q, q 2
f
B1x
39. 1f ⴰ g 2 1x2 2x苵, 30, q 2 ; 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2 2x苵, 3 0, q 2 ;
12 12
6x 8
5. 1f g2 1x 2 2
1f ⴰ f 2 1x 2 1 x, 1q, q 2 ; 1g ⴰ g2 1x 2 2x苵, 30, q 2
, x 4, x 0; 9 16
x 4x
2x 8
1f g 2 1x 2 2 , x 4, x 0; 41. 1f ⴰ g ⴰ h 2 1x2 2x 1 1
x 4x 43. 1f ⴰ g ⴰ h2 1x 2 1 1x 52 4 1
1fg2 1x 2 2 45. g1x 2 x 9, f 1x 2 x 5
8
, x 4, x 0;
x 4x
47. g1x 2 x 2, f 1x2 x/1x 42
x4
a g b 1x 2
f
2x
, x 4, x 0 49. g1x 2 1 x 3, f 1x2 0 x 0
7. [0, 1] 9. 13, q 2 51. h1x 2 x 2, g1x2 x 1, f 1x 2 1/x
53. h1x 2 1x, g1x2 4 x, f 1x 2 x 9
3
41. f 1 1x 2 15 1x 2 22 , x 0
43. f 1 1x 2 14 x, x
4 45. f 1 1x2 1x 4 2 3
_4
y y g
_4 4
2 5
g−1
f–¡
_5 0 5 x
_4
f
65. x 0, f 1 1x 2 24 x
_5 0 3 x
67. x 2, h 1 1x 2 1x 2
_5 _2
69.
y
(c) f 1x 2
1
3 1x
1
62
53. (a) (b)
1
y y
0 1 x
2 f 2 f–¡
Increasing on 1q, 04 ,
_5 0 5 t
_5 0 5 x 45. 10
32.67, q 2 ; decreasing on
3 0, 2.674
_3
_5
_2 6
19. 21.
y y _10
_3
_2 Jan. Apr. Jul. Oct. Month
13 2 5 13
27. 29. 61. (a) A1x 2 5 13x x (b) 5 cm by cm
2 2
63. (a) 1f g2 1x2 x 6x 6
y y 2
5 (b) 1f g2 1x 2 x 2 2
(c) 1fg2 1x 2 3x 3 13x 2 18x 8
1 (d) 1f/g2 1x 2 1x 2 3x 2 2/14 3x 2
_3 0 3 x _5 0 5 x (e) 1f ⴰ g2 1x2 9x 2 15x 6
(f) 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2 3x 2 9x 2
31. 33. (iii) 65. 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 3x 2 6x 1, 1q, q 2 ;
y 1g ⴰ f 2 1x 2 9x 2 12x 3, 1q, q 2 ;
1f ⴰ f 2 1x 2 9x 4, 1q, q 2 ;
1g ⴰ g2 1x 2 x 4 4x 3 6x 2 4x, 1q, q 2
67. 1f ⴰ g ⴰ h2 1x 2 1 1x
3
f
3 3
f –¡
_5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
f
_3 _3
f –¡
0
x
_5 5 _5 0 5 x
(c) 54
_3 _3
12. (a) 20 (b) No
_4 4
0 x
_5 5 Focus on Modeling ■ page 243
1. (a) y
7. (a) 3, 3 (b) y
180 Regression line
Height (cm)
2 170
_5 0 5 x 160
_2
150
9. (a) 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 1x 3 2 2 1 (b) 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2 x 2 2
Femur length (cm)
80
80
Age (yr)
50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x
Diameter (in.)
0 20 40 60 80 100 x
(b) y 6.451x 0.1523 (c) 116 years Years since 1900
5. (a) y
Chapter 3
200
Section 3.1 ■ page 262
Chirping rate (chirps/min)
Regression line
1. (a) (b)
150
y y
100 2 16
0 2 x
50 _2
0 x _4 _2 0 4 x
50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°F)
(c) (d)
(b) y 4.857x 220.97 (c) 265 chirps/min y y
7. (a) y
25
Mosquito positive rate (%)
2 8
20
Regression line
0 1 x _1 0 2 x
15 _1
_2
10
3. (a) (b)
5
y y
4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 x
Flow rate (%) _2 0 2 x
9. (a) y _3 _9
0 x
80
Life expectancy (years)
75
70 (c) (d)
y y
65
60
4
55 4
_2 0 1 x
0 1 x
0 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 x _1
_8
1 10 10 9
−2 0 1 x −2 0 2 3 x 0 x
_2 2 3
1
_3 2
_20
33. P1x 2 1x 2 2 2 1x 2 2x 42
15. 17. y
y y
20
1 16
12
_1 0 1 3 x
5
_2 _1 0 2 x
0 x
2 3 _3 _2 2
3
_15
35. P1x 2 1x 2 12 1x 22 1x 2 2
y
19. 21.
y y
2
_1 0 1 x
_2 _2 2
3
4
10 _4
_1 0 1 3 x
0 x
37. y 씮 q as x 씮 q, y 씮 q as x 씮 q
_4 4
_30 39. y 씮 q as x 씮 q
41. y 씮 q as x 씮 q, y 씮 q as x 씮 q
(a) x-intercepts 0, 4; y-intercept 0 (b) 12, 4 2
23. P1x 2 x1x 2 2 1x 3 2 25. P1x 2 x1x 32 1x 42
43.
45. (a) x-intercepts 2, 1; y-intercept 1
11, 22, 11, 02
y y
(b)
4 47. 30 local maximum 14, 162
10
_4 0 4 x 4 _4 12
_2 3 _1 0 1 x
_4 _3
_10
_50
49. 51.
27. P1x 2 x 2 1x 1 2 1x 2 2 29. P1x 2 1x 12 2 1x 12 30 30
y y
1
1 _5 5 _5 5
_1 0 1 x
_1 0 1 2 x _30 _30
_3 3
1 6
_5
−12
55. One local maximum, no local minimum
57. One local maximum, one local minimum 77. (a) 26 blenders (b) No; $3276.22
59. One local maximum, two local minima 79. (a) V1x 2 4x 3 120x 2 800x (b) 0 x 10
61. No local extrema (c) Maximum volume ⬇ 1539.6 cm3
63. One local maximum, two local minima 1600
65.
5 c=5 Increasing the value of c
stretches the graph vertically.
c=2
c=1
_1 1 c= 1
2
0 10
0
_5
Section 3.2 ■ page 270
1. 1x 32 13x 42 8 3. 12x 3 2 1x 2 12 3
67. 5. 1x 2 32 1x 2 x 3 2 17x 112
c=2 Increasing the value of c 11
7. x 1
c=1
5 c=0 moves the graph up.
c=_1 x3
152 4x 4
9. 2x 12 11. 2x 2 x 1 2
2x 1 x 4
_1.5 1.5
49. 1, 12, 3 110 51. A3 15B A3 15Bi 53. 2 55. i 12 57. 3i
51. (a) 2, 2, 3 (b) y
1 13 3 13
59. 2 i 61. i 63. 1
2 12 i 65. i
2 2 2 2
6 16i
67. 69. 1 3i
5 6
0 x
In answers 13–30, the factored form is given first, then the
_1 2
zeros are listed with the multiplicity of each in parentheses.
13. 1x 5i 2 1x 5i 2; 5i 112
_5
_5
25. 1x i2 2 1x i2 2; i 12 2, i 122
27. 1x 1 2 1x 1 2 1x 2i2 1x 2i2 ; 1 11 2, 1 11 2,
59. 1 positive, 2 or 0 negative; 3 or 1 real 2i 112, 2i 11 2
61. 1 positive, 1 negative; 2 real 63. 2 or 0 positive, 0 nega- 29. xAx i 13B 2 Ax i 13B 2; 0 11 2, i 13 12 2, i 13 12 2
tive; 3 or 1 real (since 0 is a zero but is neither positive nor neg- 31. P1x 2 x 2 2x 2 33. Q1x 2 x 3 3x 2 4x 12
ative) 69. 3, 2 71. 3, 1 73. 2, 12 , 1 75. 12 , 15
35. P1x 2 x 3 2x 2 x 2
77. 2, 1, 3, 4 83. 2, 2, 3 85. 32 , 1, 1, 4
87. 1.28, 1.53 89. 1.50 93. 11.3 ft 95. (a) It began 37. R1x 2 x 4 4x 3 10x 2 12x 5
to snow again. (b) No (c) Just before midnight on Saturday 39. T1x 2 6x 4 12x 3 18x 2 12x 12
night 97. 2.76 m 99. 88 in. (or 3.21 in.)
1 i 13 1 i 13
41. 2, 2i 43. 1, 45. 2,
2 2
Section 3.4 ■ page 289
47. 32, 1 i 12 49. 2, 1, 3i 51. 1, 2i, i 13
1. Real part 5, imaginary part 7 3. Real part 23, imaginary
part 53 5. Real part 3, imaginary part 0 7. Real part 0, 53. 3 (multiplicity 2), 2i 55. 12 1multiplicity 22, i
imaginary part 23 9. Real part 13, imaginary part 2 57. 1 (multiplicity 3), 3i 59. (a) 1x 5 2 1x 2 42
11. 5 i 13. 3 5i 15. 6 i 17. 2 2i (b) 1x 5 2 1x 2i2 1x 2i2
19. 19 4i 21. 14 12 i 23. 4 8i 25. 30 10i 61. (a) 1x 1 2 1x 1 2 1x 2 92
27. 33 56i 29. 27 8i 31. i 33. 85 15 i
(b) 1x 1 2 1x 12 1x 3i 2 1x 3i2
35. 5 12i 37. 4 2i 39. 2 43 i 41. i
63. (a) 1x 2 2 1x 2 2 1x 2 2x 4 2 1x 2 2x 42
43. i 45. 1 47. 5i 49. 6
Answers to Section 3.6 A23
41. y y-intercept 1
5 vertical x 1, x 6
1 horizontal y 0
_1 0 x
2
0 1 x 2
0 x
29. 31.
43. y x-intercept 2
y y
y-intercept 34
vertical x 4, x 2
5 2 2
0
horizontal y 0
0 x 3 x
2 −3 0 2 x
−2
_6
A24 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
_6 0 6 x
_6 0 6 x _10
_4 _1
51. y x-intercepts 2, 3 _30
vertical x 3, x 0
6
horizontal y 1
63. y slant y x 1,
vertical x 2, x 2
_6 0 6 x
30
_6
_6
0 6 x
53. y y-intercept 2
vertical x 1, x 3
horizontal y 3
10
65. 30 vertical x 3
_6 0 6 x
_10 10
_10 10
_30
57. y slant y x 2
vertical x 2
69. 10 vertical x 1.5
10 x-intercepts 0, 2.5
y-intercept 0, local
maximum 13.9, 10.4 2
_10 10
0 x
local minimum 10.9, 0.6 2
_6 6
_10
end behavior: y x 4
_20
Answers to Chapter 3 Review A25
71. 10 vertical x 1 5. y
x-intercept 0
y-intercept 0
local minimum 11.4, 3.12
100
31
_3 3 end behavior: y x 2 _1 0 1 x
_100
_5
0 400 10
0
Chapter 3 Review ■ page 316 In answers 13–20, the first polynomial given is the
1. y quotient and the second is the remainder.
13. x 1, 3 15. x 2 3x 23, 94
300
17. x 3 5x 2 17x 83, 422
64 19. 2x 3, 12
21. 3 25. 8
_4 0 4 x
27. (a) 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18
(b) 2 or 0 positive, 3 or 1 negative
_300 29. (a) 4, 0, 4
(b) y
3. y
30
0 4 x
_4 _30
200
_3 1 x
(_1, _32) _30
_200
A26 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
0 x _20
_2 1
_4
73. 30 x-intercept 2
33. (a) 2, 1, 2, 3 (b) y y-intercept 4
vertical x 1, x 2
_6 6 slant y x 1
local maximum
20 10.425, 3.599 2
_30 local minimum
0 x 14.216, 7.1752
_2 2
10
40 19
_1 1 x
_10
_2 0 1 x
10 3 0.25
_5 0 5 x _6 0 6 x
4. (a) 7 i (b) 1 5i (c) 18 i (d) 256 17 25 i
_12
4 (e) 1 (f) 6 2i 5. 3, 1 i
6. 1x 12 2 1x 2i2 1x 2i 2 7. x 4 2x 3 10x 2 18x 9
_20
_6
8. (a) 4, 2, or 0 positive; 0 negative
(c) 0.17, 3.93 80
69. y
2
_5 0 5 x _3 5
_3 3
_80
_9
(d) Local minimum 12.8, 70.32 9. (a) r, u (b) s (c) s
Answers to Section 4.1 A27
6
_10 10 y=2_x
6
25
y=2x
_6 0 6 x
_3 2 _60
3
1
_6 0 x 0 x
_2 2 −2 2
13.
y=7˛
Focus on Modeling ■ page 323 y y=4˛
2
1
_2 0 2 x
25 46
15. f 1x 2 3x 17. f 1x 2 A 14 B 19. III 21. I 23. II
48 x
_5 0 5 x
(1, _1)
(1, _3)
0 30
0 _5
1000
(_1, 6)
0 3.1
2
1 3
1
_2 0 2 x
_2 0 2 x
A28 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
1 (2, 1)
0 40
0 x _3 3
1
_1
_2 0 2 x
_2 0 2 x
_20
˝=x∞
5 25
0 0
100
0
(iii) 10•
69. (a) 100 (b) 482, 999, 1168 (c) 1200 71. 1.6 ft
Ï=2˛
73. $5203.71, $5415.71, $5636.36, $5865.99, $6104.98,
$6353.71 75. (a) $16,288.95 (b) $26,532.98
˝=x∞
(c) $43,219.42 77. (a) $4,615.87 (b) $4,658.91
50
(c) $4,697.04 (d) $4,703.11 (e) $4,704.68 (f) $4,704.93
0
(g) $4,704.94 79. (i) 81. (a) $7,678.96 (b) $67,121.04
The graph of f ultimately increases much more quickly than g.
(b) 1.2, 22.4 Section 4.2 ■ page 349
53.
c=4 c=2 The larger the value of c, the 1. Logarithmic form Exponential form
5 c=1 more rapidly the graph
c=0.5 increases. log8 8 1 81 8
c=0.25 log8 64 2 82 64
_3 3 log8 4 23 82/3 4
_1
log8 512 3 83 512
log8 81 1 81 18
27. (a) 5 (b) 27 29. (a) 100 (b) 25 31. (a) 2 (b) 4 69. 1 domain 10, q 2
33. (a) 0.3010 (b) 1.5465 (c) 0.1761 35. (a) 1.6094 vertical asymptote x 0
(b) 3.2308 (c) 1.0051 37. y log5 x 39. y log9 x _1 20
horizontal asymptote y 0
41. II 43. III 45. VI local maximum ⬇ 12.72, 0.37 2
47. 49. 14, q 2, ⺢, x 4
y y
5 _3
y=4˛
1
71. The graph of f grows more slowly than g.
73. (a) c=4 (b) The graph of
f 1x2 log1cx2 is
2.6
y=ø› x 0 x c=3
1
_1 c=2
c=1 the graph of
f 1x2 log1x2
_2 0 5 x
_2 shifted upward
_10 100 log c units.
_2
_3
63. (a) P c/W k (b) 1866, 64
65. (a) M 2.5 log B 2.5 log B0
A30 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
_1.5
87. (a) n1t 2 150e 0.0004359t (b) 97.0 mg (c) 2520 yr 3. (a) Yes (b) Yes, the scatter plot appears linear.
89. (a) n1t 2 1500e 0.1515t (b) 7940 91. 7.9, basic 93. 8.0 7.5
_5
17
Focus on Modeling ■ page 393 0
0 18 0 3
1780 2020
0 −3 −3
Chapter 5 67. sin t 35, cos t 45, csc t 53, sec t 54, cot t 43
69. cos t 115/4, tan t 115/15, csc t 4,
Section 5.1 ■ page 406
sec t 4 115/15, cot t 115
7. 45 9. 212/3 11. 3 15/7 13. P A 45, 35 B 71. Odd 73. Odd 75. Even 77. Neither
15. PA15/3, 23 B 17. PA 12/3, 17/3B 79. y10 2 4, y10.252 2.828, y10.50 2 0,
19. t p/4, A 12/2, 12/2B ; t p/2, 10, 1 2 ; y10.752 2.828, y11.00 2 4, y11.252 2.828
t 3p/4, A 12/2, 12/2B ; t p, 11, 0 2 ; 81. (a) 0.49870 amp (b) 0.17117 amp
t 5p/4, A12/2, 12/2B ; t 3p/2, 10, 1 2 ;
t 7p/4, A 12/2, 12/2B ; t 2p, 11, 0 2
Section 5.3 ■ page 429
21. 10, 1 2 23. A 13/2, 12 B 25. A 12, 13/2B 1. 3.
27. A 12, 13/2B 29. A 12/2, 12/2B
y y
1
3
0 3π 6π x
π 0 π x
_3 3
_1
_1
53. 55.
3 1.2
0 π 5π x 0 π x
13π
2 2 6 6
_0.2 0.2
_1 _2
_0.5 0.5
y y
4 5 57.
7
0
π π x 0 π 3π x _6.28 6.28
_4 4 12 4
_4 _5 _7
0 x _225
1 3
_2 2
0 π 7π x
6 6
_3
A34 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
0 π x 0 x
_2.8 _π π
2 2
_1.5
1 π
_20 20 _4 1
_π 0 π x 0 π 5π x
4 4
_1 _5
115
90 5π 0.5 7π 1
_6 6
0 π x π 0 π x
6 _2 2
0 1 x _1
80
1
5 5 1
_4 0 4 x π 0 π x
_π 0 π x _π 0 π x _2 2
_1
_5 _5
Answers to Section 5.5 A35
1
31. p 33. 3 51. p/2
y y y
4
1 5
0 π x 0 x π 0π 2π x
_3
1 1 _3 6 3
4 3
_5
4
35. 3 37. p/2 55. (a) 1.53 mi, 3.00 mi, 18.94 mi
y y (b) y
5
5 4
0 1 x
1 0 1 x π 0 π x 2
_3 3
_2 2
_4
(c) d1t2 approaches q
y y 2
4 4
0 π t
0 x 0 x 6
π π π π
_2 2
_2 2
_4 _4
_2
2 5
0 10π 20π t
1 x 0 x 3 3
5 11 π π
_6 _3
6 6 6
_1
y y
0.25
14π
9
3
1 0 2π t
9
5π 0 π 7π x 0 0.5 x
_ 4 4 4 _0.25
_3
A36 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
8
t
9 0 9 7.8
_8 3π- 8
0 1 t
10
_5
27. (a) 8900 (b) about 3.14 yr 29. d1t2 5 sin15pt2
31. y 21 sin a t b y (feet)
p
9. y 10 sin a t b 11. y 6 sin110t 2
2p
3 6
13. y 60 cos14pt2 15. y 2.4 cos11500pt2 21
0 1 2 t _21
_10
_1
_0.3
Answers to Chapter 5 Test A37
33. (a) 3, p, 1 35. (a) 1, 4, 13 57. 3.5 The graphs are related by
(b) y (b) y graphical addition.
3 1
_3.14 3.1
1-π
0
0 1 x x
_ 13
3 _ 31 11
3 _3.5
1+π
59. 1.76, 1.76 61. 0.30, 2.84
_3
_1 63. (a) Odd (b) 0, p, 2p, . . .
(c) (d) f 1x 2 approaches 0
(e) f 1x 2 approaches 0
1
37. y 5 sin 4x 39. y 12 sin 2pAx 13 B
41. p 43. p
y y _20 20
5
_1
67. y 4 cos 1 p6 t2
2
65. y 50 cos116pt2
_π 0 π x 0 π x
2
π 0 π 3π x π 5π x
_4 4 4 4 4
13π
_4 3
0 π π x 0 π x
4 2 3
_5 _2
49. (a) 51. (a)
1.5 1.5
8. p 9. p/2
y y
_50 50
_6.28 6.28
1 π 1
4
_0.5 _1.5
0 3π x 0 π x
(b) Period p (b) Not periodic _1 4 _1 4
0 1
20
y=30 sin(0.52t)+50
_18 0 1 12 t
Focus on Modeling ■ page 463 (b) y 30 sin10.52t 2 50 where y is the owl population in
year t (d) y 25.8 sin10.52t 0.022 50.6
1. (a) and (c) y
9. (a) and (c) y y=74.5 cos(0.57(t-4.5))+83.5
2
100
0 1 14 t
_2
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 29 t
y=2.1 cos(0.52t) Years since 1975
(b) y 2.1 cos10.52t 2 (b) y 74.5 cos10.571t 4.522 83.5, where y is the average
(d) y 2.05 sin10.50t 1.55 2 0.01 daily sunspot count, and t is the years since 1975
(e) The formula of (d) reduces to (d) y 67.65 sin10.62t 1.65 2 74.5
y 2.05 cos10.50t 0.022 0.01.
Same as (b), correct to one decimal.
3. (a) and (c) y Chapter 6
25
Section 6.1 ■ page 474
1. 2p/5 ⬇ 1.257 rad 3. p/4 ⬇ 0.785 rad
5. 5p/12 ⬇ 1.309 rad 7. 6p ⬇ 18.850 rad
9. 8p/15 ⬇ 1.676 rad 11. p/24 ⬇ 0.131 rad
5 13. 210 15. 225 17. 540/p ⬇ 171.9
0 0.1
19. 216/p ⬇ 68.8 21. 18 23. 24
1.0 1.5 t
y=12.05 cos(5.2(t-0.3))+13.05
25. 410, 770, 310, 670
27. 11p/4, 19p/4, 5p/4, 13p/4
(b) y 12.05 cos15.21t 0.322 13.05 29. 7p/4, 15p/4, 9p/4, 17p/4 31. Yes 33. Yes
(d) y 11.72 sin15.05t 0.24 2 12.96 35. Yes 37. 13 39. 30 41. 280 43. 5p/6
(e) The formula of (d) reduces to 45. p 47. p/4 49. 55p/9 ⬇ 19.2 51. 4 53. 4 mi
y 11.72 cos15.051t 0.26 22 12.96. 55. 2 rad ⬇ 114.6 57. 36/p ⬇ 11.459 m
Close, but not identical, to (b). 59. (a) 35.45 (b) 25 61. 50 m2 63. 4 m
5. (a) and (c) 65. 6 cm2 67. 13.9 mi 69. 330p mi ⬇ 1037 mi
y
71. 1.6 million mi 73. 1.15 mi 75. 360p in2 ⬇ 1130.97 in2
80 77. 32p/15 ft/s ⬇ 6.7 ft/s 79. (a) 2000p rad/min
70 (b) 50p/3 ft/s ⬇ 52.4 ft/s 81. 39.3 mi/h 83. 2.1 m/s
60 85. (a) 10p cm ⬇ 31.4 cm (b) 5 cm (c) 3.32 cm
50 (d) 86.8 cm3
40
y=22.9 cos(0.52(t-6))+62.9
Section 6.2 ■ page 484
0 1 11 t
1. sin u 45, cos u 35,
(b) y 22.9 cos10.521t 6 22 62.9,
tan u 43, csc u 54, sec u 53, cot u 34
3. sin u 4041 , cos u 41 , tan u 9 , csc u 40 , sec u 9 ,
9 40 41 41
where y is temperature (F) and t is months (January 0)
(d) y 23.4 sin10.48t 1.36 2 62.2
cot u 40
9
Answers to Section 6.4 A39
5. sin u 2 113/13, cos u 3113/13, tan u 23, (c) 1.4 9. 12 11. 12/2 13. 13 15. 1 17. 13/2
csc u 113/2, sec u 113/3, cot u 32 19. 13/3 21. 13/2 23. 1 25. 12 27. 2 29. 1
7. (a) 3 134/34, 3134/34 (b) 35, 35 (c) 134/5, 134/5 31. Undefined 33. III 35. IV
9. 252 11. 13 13/2 13. 16.51658 37. tan u 21 cos2 u/cos u 39. cos u 21 sin2 u
15. x 28 cos u, y 28 sin u
17. cos u 45, tan u 34, csc u 53, sec u 54, cot u 43 41. sec u 21 tan2 u
43. cos u 45, tan u 34, csc u 53, sec u 54,
cot u 43
5 45. sin u 35, cos u 45, csc u 53, sec u 54, cot u 43
3
47. sin u 12, cos u 13/2, tan u 13/3,
sec u 2 13/3, cot u 13
¨
49. sin u 3 15/7, tan u 3 15/2, csc u 715/15,
19. sin u 12/2, cos u 12/2, tan u 1, sec u 72, cot u 215/15
csc u 12, sec u 12 51. (a) 13/2, 13 (b) 12, 13/4 (c) 34, 0.88967
53. 19.1 55. 66.1 57. 14p/3 2 13 ⬇ 2.46
61. (b)
1
63. (a) A(u) 400 sin u cos u
(b) 300
21. sin u 3 15/7, cos u 27, tan u 315/2,
csc u 715/15, cot u 2 15/15 7
¨ 2
45*
52*
16
35
33. 35.
3π 3
π 10 0
8 180.34
106
30.95 33.5 69. 42
π
5
3π 145.90
Section 6.4 ■ page 506
8
12.82
1. 318.8 3. 24.8 5. 44 7. ⬔C 114, a ⬇ 51, b ⬇ 24
9. ⬔A 44, ⬔B 68, a ⬇ 8.99
37. sin u ⬇ 0.45, cos u ⬇ 0.89, tan u 0.50, csc u ⬇ 2.24, 11. ⬔C 62, a ⬇ 200, b ⬇ 242
sec u ⬇ 1.12, cot u 2.00 39. 230.9 41. 63.7
C
43. x 10 tan u sin u 45. 1026 ft 47. (a) 2100 mi
(b) No 49. 19 ft 51. 38.7 53. 345 ft 55. 415 ft, 152 ft
57. 2570 ft 59. 5808 ft 61. 91.7 million mi
63. 3960 mi 65. 0.723 AU
68*
Section 6.3 ■ page 495 50*
A B
230
1. (a) 30 (b) 30 (c) 30 3. (a) 45 (b) 90 (c) 75
5. (a) p/4 (b) p/6 (c) p/3 7. (a) 2p/7 (b) 0.4p
A40 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
151.7 ft
ft
0
.2 f
1. 28.9 3. 47 5. 29.89 7. 15 150 ft
5.
149.5 ft
19
9. ⬔A ⬇ 39.4, ⬔B ⬇ 20.6, c ⬇ 24.6 t
1sin x cos x 2
cos x sin x _6.28 6.28
RHS
sin x cos x _1
A42 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
16 12 12 16
1. 3.
4 4 1
16 12
5. 2 13 7.
4 0 π x
16 12 4
9. 13 2 11.
4
13. 12/2 15. 2 17. 13
1
tan 2x tan x
67. LHS tan12x x 2 The graph of f lies between the graphs of y 2 cos t and
1 tan 2x tan x y 2 cos t. Thus, the loudness of the sound varies between
y 2 cos t.
1 tan2x tan x
2 tan x
1 1 2tantanx2x tan x
2 tan x tan x11 tan2x2 Section 7.4 ■ page 557
RHS 1. (a) p/6 (b) p/3 (c) Not defined
1 tan x 2 tan x tan x
2
69. LHS 1cos2x sin2x 2 1cos2x sin2x2 3. (a) p/4 (b) p/4 (c) p/4
5. (a) p/2 (b) 0 (c) p 7. (a) p/6
cos2x sin2x RHS
(b) p/6 (c) Not defined
2 sin 3x cos 2x sin 3x
71. LHS RHS 9. (a) 0.13889 (b) 2.75876
2 cos 3x cos 2x cos 3x
11. (a) 0.88998 (b) Not defined 13. 14 15. 5
2 sin 5x cos 5x
73. LHS RHS 17. p/3 19. p/6 21. p/3 23. 13/3 25. 21
2 sin 5x cos 4x 27. p/3 29. 45 31. 13
12
33. 135 35. 15/5 37. 24 39. 1
2 sinA x 2 y B cosA x 2 y B sinA x 2 y B
25
a kp b 33. 4 a kp b
1 p 2p kp
29. 31. 4kp 35.
2 6 3 3
_π π
p 2p 5p 4p
37. 2kp, 2kp, 2kp, 2kp
6 3 6 3
p kp 3p kp p 5p 7p 11p 13p 17p
_2.5 39. , 41. , , , , ,
8 2 8 2 9 9 9 9 9 9
A44 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
p 3p 5p 7p p 2p 4p 5p 2p 4p 1 cos x 1 cos x
43. , , , 45. , , , 47. 0, , 13. LHS RHS
6 4 6 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 sin x sin x sin x
49. (a) 1.15928 2kp, 5.12391 2kp 15. LHS 12 3cos11x y 2 1x y 22
cos11x y2 1x y 22 4
(b) 1.15928, 5.12391
(a) 1.36944 2kp, 4.91375 2kp
12 1cos 2y cos 2x 2
51.
(b) 1.36944, 4.91375
53. (a) 0.46365 kp, 2.67795 kp 12 31 2 sin2y 11 2 sin2x 2 4
(b) 0.46365, 2.67795, 3.60524, 5.81954 12 12 sin2x 2 sin2y 2 RHS
55. (a) 0.33984 2kp, 2.80176 2kp sin x # 1 cos x 1 cos x
17. LHS 1 1
(b) 0.33984, 2.80176 cos x sin x cos x
112k 1 2 p, 2 2 59. a kp, 13 b
p 1
57. 1 1 RHS
3 cos x
y y
19. LHS cos2 2x 2 sin 2x cos 2x sin2 2x
1 sinA2 # 2x B RHS
5
2 sin x cos x 2 cos2x 1
1
21. LHS
0 π x sin x cos x
2 1
π x _5 2 cos x 2 cos x RHS
cos x
tan x tan 4p
23. LHS RHS
1 tan x tan p4
p 3p 5p 7p 9p 11p 13p 15p 25. (a) 1.5 (b) Yes
61. , , , , , , ,
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
p 2p 7p 8p 13p 14p p 7p 3p 11p
63. , , , , , 65. , , , 67. 0 _3.14 3.14
9 9 9 9 9 9 2 6 2 6
kp p 2kp p 5p 2kp
69. 71. , kp,
2 9 3 2 9 3 _1.5
73. 0, 0.95 75. 1.92
77. 0.71 79. 0.94721 or 89.05279 81. 44.95 27. (a) 4 (b) No
83. (a) 34th day (February 3rd), 308th day (November 4th)
(b) 275 days 85. (b) 1.047 ⬇ 60
_6.28 6.28
cos2x tan2x 1 p 5p p 5p 2p 4p
5. LHS 2
cot2x RHS 31. 0, p ,33. 35. , 37. ,
sin x sin2x cos2x 6 6 3 3 3 3
cos x cos x p 2p 3p 4p 5p 7p p p 5p 7p 3p 11p p
7. LHS 39. , , , , , 41. , , , , , 43.
sin x RHS
cos x 11 sin x 2
1 1
cos 3 3 4 3 3 4 6 2 6 6 2 6 6
cos x x
cos2x sin2x 45. 1.18 47. (a) 63.4 (b) No (c) 90 49. 1
22 13
9. LHS sin2x 2
cos2x cos2x sin2x RHS 2
sin x cos2x 12 13
51. 12 1 53. 12/2 55. 12/2 57.
2 sin x cos x 2 sin x cos x 2 sin x 4
11. LHS RHS 110 1
3 A 12
1 2 cos x 1
2 2
2 cos x 2 cos x 59. 2 61. 2
15B 63. 2A3 2 12B/6
9
Answers to Section 8.1 A45
Chapter 8
π 0 π x 0 x
_2 2
_1 1 Section 8.1 ■ page 586
1. π
!4, 4 @
3. 7π
!6, _ 6 @
_1 π
_2
Domain 3 1, 14
π
Domain ⺢ 4
O O
x 3
8. (a) u tan1 (b) u cos1 7π
_ 6
4 x
2p 4p p p 5p 3p 5. 4π 7. π
9. (a) , (b) , , , !_2, 3 @ !3, 2 @
3 3 6 2 6 2
40
10. 0.57964, 2.56195, 3.72123, 5.70355 11. 41
4π
3 π
2
O
O
Focus on Modeling ■ page 578
a 3, b , a 3, b
3p 5p
1. (a) y 5 sin a t b
p 2 2
(b) y
2 5
a 1, b , a 1, b
9. 7π
!_1, 6 @ 5p p
7π
6
6 6
O
0 x
1 7
59. y 13x
O 1
O 1
(2, π) O 1 (2, 0) O _1
1
3π
!2, 2 @ 39. 0
u
4p
3
19. 21.
π
!6, 2 @
_3.5 1.5
(_2, 0)
O _3
1
23. 25.
π
!2, 2 @ (_3, 0) (_3, π)
O O 1 1
1
(4, π)
O 1
a b 2a 2 b 2
3π
51. a , b ,
!2, 2 @ π
!_6, 2 @
2 2 2
53. (a) Elliptical 7000
27. 29.
_9000 12000
(π, π)
O O 1
10 _7000
(b) p; 540 mi
Answers to Section 8.3 A47
a cos i sin b
z⁄ z¤=5
z¤=2-i 1 1 p p
8-2i
z1 2 6 6
59. z1 4 a cos b
11p 11p
17. Im 19. Im
i sin
6 6
z2 12 a cos b
3p 3p
i sin
i
i 4 4
z1z2 4 12 a cos b
0 7p 7p
_1 1 Re 0 1 Re
i sin
12 12
2 12 a cos b
z1 13p 13p
i sin
z2 12 12
a cos b
21. Im 23. Im 1 1 11p 11p
i sin
z1 4 6 6
z1z2 40 a cos b
7p 7p
i sin 0 1 Re
6 6
10 a cos b
z1 5p 5p
i sin „¤ „‹
z2 6 6
2 a cos b
25p 25p
i sin
77. 2 12 a cos i sin b ,
p p Im
18 18
12 12
91. 21/6 a cos b , 21/6 a cos b,
5p 5p 13p 13p
i sin i sin
2 12 a cos b
13p 13p
i sin i „⁄ 12 12 12 12
12 12
21/6 a cos b
0 21p 21p
„¤
1 Re
i sin
12 12
3 a cos b,
7p 7p „⁄
i sin i
8 8
0 Re 2
3 a cos b,
1
11p 11p
i sin „‹
8 8
3 a cos b
0 x
15p 15p „¤ _2
i sin 0 1 x
8 8
5. y
12 12 Im
81. 1, i, i i „¤
2 2 „‹ „⁄
„› „‚ 0 7 x
0 1 Re
_2
v-2u
„fi „‡
„fl
(b) a 213, b
33. 5, 53.13 35. 13, 157.38 37. 2, 60 11. (a) y 5p
39. 15 13, 15 41. 2i 3j 43. (a) 40 j 6
(b) 425i (c) 425i 40j (d) 427 mi/h, N 84.6 E
(c) a 213, b
p
45. 794 mi/h, N 26.6 W 47. (a) 10i (b) 10i 17.32j Ó_3, œ∑3Ô
1 6
(c) 20i 17.32 j (d) 26.5 mi/h, N 49.1 E
49. (a) 22.8i 7.4j (b) 7.4 mi/h, 22.8 mi/h _3 0 3 x
51. (a) 具5, 3典 (b) 具5, 3典
53. (a) 4 j (b) 4 j 55. (a) 具7.57, 10.61典
(b) 具7.57, 10.61典
T1 ⬇ 56.5i 67.4j, T2 ⬇ 56.5i 32.6 j 4
57. 13. (a) r
cos u sin u
y
(b)
Section 8.5 ■ page 624
4
1. (a) 2 (b) 45 3. (a) 13 (b) 56
5. (a) 1 (b) 97 7. (a) 5 13 (b) 30
9. Yes 11. No 13. Yes 15. 9 17. 5 19. 125
21. 24 23. (a) 具1, 1典 (b) u1 具1, 1典, u2 具3, 3典
25. (a) 8 12, 32 9 (b) u1 8 12, 32 9, u2 8 32, 12 9
27. (a) 8 185, 245 9 (b) u1 8 185, 245 9, u2 8 285, 215 9
0 4 x
3 12 3 12
(b) A6 13, 6B (b) a , b
2 2
5. (a) 7. (a) y
17. (a)
5π π
!4 Ϸ3, _ 3 @ !3, 2 @
8 (8, 8)
5π O (6, 0)
_ 3 O
1
3π
!3, 2 @
0 8 x
(b) 1x 2 y 2 3x 2 2 91x 2 y 2 2
(b) A2 13, 6B (b) a 8 12, b
p
19. (a)
4
(c) a 8 12, b
5p
4
(b) a 12, b
5p O
9. (a) y 2
4
0 x
(c) a 12, b
_8
p
4
Ó_6œ∑2, _6œ∑2Ô (b) 1x 2 y 2 2 3 16x 2y 2
_8
A50 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
(1, π) (1, 0)
O _1+i i
_1 0 1 Re
(c) 12 a cos b
(b) x 2 y 2 1 3p 3p 3p
(b) 12, i sin
23. (a) 4 4 4
35. 8A1 i13B 37. 321 A1 i13B
π
!1, 2 @
13
39. 2 1211 i 2 41. 1, 12 i
2
43. 113, 具6, 4典, 具10, 2典, 具4, 6典, 具22, 7典
45. 3i 4j 47. 110, 22 49. (a) 14.8i 0.4 j 2 104
O (1, 0) (b) 4.8 104 lb, N 85.2 E 51. 5, 25, 60
53. 2 12, 8, 0 55. Yes 57. No, 45 59. (a) 17 137/37
(b) 8 102
37 , 37 9
17
(c) u1 8 102
37 , 37 9, u2 8 37 , 37 9
17 9 54
61. 6
(b) x 2 y 2 x y
25. 0
u
6p 27. 0
u
6p
Chapter 8 Test ■ page 629
1. (a) A4 12, 412B (b) A4 13, 5p/6B, A413, 11p/6B
1 5
2. (a) circle
_0.75 1.25 _4 6
_1 _5
O 8
29. (a) Im
4+4i (b) 1x 42 2 y 2 16
3. (a) Im
i
1+Ϸ3 i
0 1 Re i
0 1 Re
0 3 Re
7. (a) 具19, 3典 (b) 5 12 (c) 0 (d) Yes 5. Infinitely many solutions
8. (a) y y
0 2 x
0 1 x
5p
7. 12, 2 2 9. 13, 12 11. 12, 12 13. 13, 52 15. 11, 3 2
(b) 8, 9. (a) 14i 6 13 j (b) 17.4 mi/h, N 53.4 E
6
10. (a) 45 (b) 126/2 (c) 52 i 12 j 11. 90 17. 110, 92 19. No solution 21. No solution
23. Ax, 13 x 53 B 25. Ax, 3 32 xB 27. 13, 72
29. Ax, 5 56 xB 31. 15, 102 33. No solution
Focus on Modeling ■ page 632
35. 13.87, 2.74 2 37. 161.00, 20.00 2 39. a b
1 1
,
1. (a) R 18/p ⬇ 5.73 (b) 691.2 mi a1 a1
3. (a) x ⬇ 12.23, y ⬇ 6.27 (b) x ⬇ 3.76, y ⬇ 8.43
41. a b 43. 22, 12 45. 5 dimes, 9 quarters
1 1
(c) x ⬇ 15.12, y ⬇ 3.85 (d) x ⬇ 4.31, y ⬇ 2.42 ,
ab ab
5. (a) 1.14 (b) 1.73 (c) 36.81 7. (a) 1.48 47. Plane’s speed 120 mi/h, wind speed 30 mi/h
(b) 1.21 (c) 1.007 49. Run 5 mi/h, cycle 20 mi/h 51. 200 g of A, 40 g of B
53. 25%, 10% 55. $16,000 at 10%, $32,000 at 6% 57. 25
Chapter 9
Section 9.3 ■ page 657
Section 9.1 ■ page 642 1. Linear 3. Nonlinear 5. 11, 3, 22
1. 13, 1 2 3. 14, 162 , 13, 92 5. 12, 2 2 , 12, 2 2 7. 14, 0, 3 2 9. A5, 2, 12 B
7. 125, 5 2 , 125, 52 9. 11, 2 2 11. 13, 4 2 , 13, 42 x 2y z 4 2x y 3z 2
13. 12, 12 , 12, 1 2 , 12, 1 2, 12, 12 11. • y 4z 4 13. • x 2y z 4
15. A1, 12B, A1, 12B, A 12, 272 B, A 12, 272 B 17. 12, 32 2x y z 0 3y 7z 14
12, 4 2 , A 52, 74 B 21. 10, 02 , 11, 1 2 , 12, 42 23. 14, 02 15. 11, 2, 12 17. 15, 0, 12 19. 10, 1, 22 21. 11 3t, 2t, t2
23. No solution 25. No solution 27. 13 t, 3 2t, t 2
19.
12, 22 27. 16, 2 2 , 12, 6 2 29. No solution
29. A2 2t, 23 43 t, tB 31. 11, 1, 1, 22
25.
31. A 15, 2B, A 15, 2B, A 15, 2B, A 15, 2B 33. $30,000 in short-term bonds, $30,000 in intermediate-term
33. A3, 12 B, A3, 12 B 35. A 15, 13 B 37. 10.33, 5.332 bonds, $40,000 in long-term bonds 35. Impossible
39. 12.00, 20.002 , 18.00, 02 41. 14.51, 2.172, 14.91, 0.972 37. 250 acres corn, 500 acres wheat, 450 acres soybeans
43. 11.23, 3.872 , 10.35, 4.212
45. 12.30, 0.702 , 10.48, 1.19 2 47. 12 cm by 15 cm Section 9.4 ■ page 673
49. 15, 20 51. 1400.50, 200.25 2 , 447.77 m 53. 112, 82 1. 3 2 3. 2 1 5. 1 3
x 3
7. (a) Yes (b) Yes (c) e
Section 9.2 ■ page 649 y5
1. 12, 2 2
x 2y 8z 0
(b) No (c) •
3. No solution
y y
9. (a) Yes y 3z 2
00
5
x 0
11. (a) No (b) No (c) • 00
_5 5 y 5z 1
1
0 x
x 3y „ 0
0 x
1
z 2„ 0
13. (a) Yes (b) Yes (c) d
_5 01
00
A52 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
45. £ 1 0 1 0§ ≥ 2 ¥ £5§
x
0 0 2 1
x3
1 0
21. ≥ ¥
0 3 1 1 4 1 1
x4 23. x 8, y 12
0 1 1 0
3 21 27 6
47. Only ACB is defined. ACB c d 1 0 0 1
2 14 18 4
25. x 126, y 50 27. x 38, y 9, z 47
49. (a) 34,690 1,690 13,210 4 (b) Total revenue in Santa 29. x 20, y 10, z 16 31. x 3, y 2, z 1
Monica, Long Beach, and Anaheim, respectively. 33. x 3, y 2, z 2 35. x 8, y 1, z 0, „ 3
51. (a) 3 105,000 58,0004 (b) The first entry is the total
37. c d c d
7 2 3 1 1 1
amount (in ounces) of tomato sauce produced, and the second 39.
entry is the total amount (in ounces) of tomato paste produced. 10 3 5 2a 1 1
53. 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
41. ≥ ¥ ; inverse does not exist for x 0
x
0 3 0 1 2 1 1 2
1 2 0 0 3 0
(a) F V x x2
1 3 2 3 2 0
1 e x 0
2£e e 2x 0 § ; inverse exists for all x
0 3 0 0 2 1 1 x
43.
1 2 0 1 3 1
0 0 1
Answers to Section 9.9 A53
sin x 3 1 1 x1 1
45. c d ; inverse exists for all x
cos x
1x 22 2 1x
33. 35.
sin x cos x x2 32 2 x2 3 x
0 1 1 2x 5 5 1 x2 1
2 2
1x 12 2
37. 2 39. 2
47. (a) £ 2 3
2 0 § (b) 1 oz A, 1 oz B, 2 oz C x x2 x 1 x 1 x
1 32 3 x1 ab ab
1 41. x
2
2 43. A ,B
(c) 2 oz A, 0 oz B, 1 oz C (d) No x2 x 1 2 2
x y 2z 675
49. (a) • 2x y z 600 Section 9.9 ■ page 726
x 2y z 625 1. 3.
1 1 2 x 675 14 3
4 14 y y
47. 0, 1, 2 49. 1, 1 1
2x − y = 8
100a 10b c 25 0 1 x
1600a 40b c 40
(b) y 0.05x 2 3x
9. 11.
Section 9.8 ■ page 720 y y
A B A B C
1x 2 2
1. 3.
x1 x2 x2 2
x4
4x + 5y = 20
A Bx C Ax B Cx D
5. 2 7. 2 2
x3 x 4 x 1 x 2 1 y = x2 + 1
A B C D 0 x 1
1
12x 5 2 2 12x 5 2 3
9.
x 2x 5 0 x
1
Ex F Gx H
2 2
x 2x 5 1x 2x 5 2 2
1 1 1 1 13.
11. 13. y
x1 x1 x1 x4
2 2 1 1
15. 17.
x3 x3 x2 x2 2
3 2 12 3
2
19. 21. 0 x
x4 x2 2x 1 4x 3 2
2 3 1 2 1 1
23. 25. 2
x2 x2 2x 1 x1 x x
x2 + y2 = 25
1 3 2 1 2
29. 3
12x 3 2 2
27.
2x 3 x x x2 15. y
12 x 1 17. x 2 y 2 4
4 4 2 1
1x 1 2 2 1x 1 2 3
31.
x2 x1
A54 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
0 x 0 x −5 13
3 2
0 3 x
x+y=0 −4
x+y=4 y = 2x − 5
bounded
not bounded not bounded
23. 25. 43.
y y 10
y=x+3
3x + 2y = 9 (0.6, 3.4)
y = 9 − x2
( 53 , 2) (2, 5) −4 10
3x + 5y = 15 (6.4, −2.4)
1 (−3, 0)
1 −6
0 1 x 0 x
1
45. x number of fiction books y
0 1 x
47. x number of standard y
(− 2, − 2)
packages
bounded bounded y number of deluxe
31. 33. packages
(70, 100)
y 3x − y = 0 y 1
4 x 8 y
80
5
(0, 128)
x+y=7 • 34 x 38 y
90 50
x−y=2
x + 2y = 14 x=5 x 0, y 0 0 50 x
(6, 4) (120, 0)
2
x (5, 2)
2
(−1, −3)
1 Chapter 9 Review ■ page 728
0 1 x
1. 12, 12 3. A 12, 74 B, 12, 22
5. 12, 1 2 7. x any number
not bounded bounded y 27 x 4
35. 37. y y
y y
x + 2y = 12 5
x2 + y2 = 8
y=x+1 x=2
(2, 2)
(−1, 132) (103, 133) 1
_5 0 5 x
1 0 1 x
3
x+1=0
0 1 x _5
0 3 x
(2 2, 0)
bounded bounded
Answers to Chapter 9 Test A55
3x + y = 6
1
0 1 x
1
1
0 1 x
0 1 x
11. 13, 32 , 12, 8 2 13. A 167 , 143 B 15. 121.41, 15.93 2 101. 103.
17. 111.94, 1.39 2 , 112.07, 1.442 19. (a) 2 3 y y
x 2y 5
(b) Yes (c) No (d) e
y 3 1
x 8z 0
21. (a) 3 4 (b) Yes (c) Yes (d) • y 5z 1
0 1 x
1
0 0 0 1 x
y 3z 4
23. (a) 3 4 (b) No (c) No (d) • x y 7
x 2y z 2 105. 107.
25. 11, 1, 2 2 27. No solution 29. 18, 7, 102 y
31. No solution 33. 11, 0, 1, 22
y
x2 + y2 =9 y=x+4
35. x 4t 1, y t 1, z t
37. x 6 5t, y 12 17 3t2 , z t (− 3 2 2, 3 2 2 ) 2 4
x + 2y = 12
12. 15, 5, 42 11. FA0, 201 B; y 201 ; 15 13. FA 321 , 0B; x 321 ; 18
1 1 1 1 x2 y
(b) 2 y
1x 12 2
13. (a)
x1 x2 x x 3
14. (a) (b)
1
y y
y = 2x + 5
x − y = −2 4
_10 0 x
x2 + y = 5 _1
_1 0 1 x
x + 2y = 4
(2, 4)
2x + y = 10 19. 21.
1 1
2x + 4y = 28
3
0 3 x _3 1
_3 3
_0.5 _1
5. 3 tables, 34 chairs
7. 30 grapefruit crates, 30 orange crates 23.
9. 15 Pasadena to Santa Monica, 3 Pasadena to El Toro, 0 Long 4
Beach to Santa Monica, 16 Long Beach to El Toro
11. 90 standard, 40 deluxe
13. $7500 in municipal bonds, $2500 in bank certificates, _2 1
$2000 in high-risk bonds
15. 4 games, 32 educational, 0 utility
_4
0 1 x p=4
1
_2
_2 0 2 x
1 _1
p=1 p= 2
4
5 ; 10, 6 15/3; 6, 4
y y _5 _7
3
x2 y2 y2
2 29. 1 31. x 2 1
25 9 4
2
_5 0 5 x x2 y x2 y2
_2 0 2 x 33. 1 35. 1
9 13 100 91
2
_3 _2
x2 y 64x 2 64y 2
37. 1 39. 1
25 5 225 81
41. 10, 2 2 43. 11, 02
9. V14, 0 2 ; FA2 13, 0B;
y
11. VA0, 13B; FA0, 13/2B; y
y y
2 1
_3 0 3 x
2
_1 0 1 x
_2
0 4 x 0
_4 _2 2 x
_2
_2 45. (a) 6 (b) Common major
k=4 axes and vertices;
13. V11, 0 2 ; FA13/2, 0B; 15. VA0, 12B; FA0, 13/2B; k=10 eccentricity increases
13/2; 2, 1 13/2; 2 12, 12 k=25 as k increases.
y y k=50
_12 12
2
1
_1
x2 y2
0 x 47. 1
_1 1
_1 0 1 2.2500 1016 2.2491 1016
x2 y2
_1
49. 1 51. 5 139/2 ⬇ 15.6 in.
_2
1,455,642 1,451,610
2
_1 3
0 x _5 5 x
_3 3
x2 y2 x2 y2
19. 1 21. 1 _3
25 16 4 8 _2
2 2
x y
23. 1
256 48
A58 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
9. V11, 0 2; FA12, 0B; 11. V10, 32 ; FA0, 134B; Section 10.4 ■ page 781
y x y 35 x 1. Center C12, 12 ; 3. Center C10, 52 ;
y y foci FA2 15, 1B ; foci F1 10, 12 , F2 10, 92 ;
5 vertices V1 11, 12 , V2 15, 12 ; vertices V1 10, 02 , V2 10, 10 2 ;
3
major axis 6, minor axis 4 major axis 10, minor axis 6
y y
3 _3 0 3 x
x _5 5 x
_3 3
0 _5
_3 _5 x
5
_1
13. VA2 12, 0B; FA110, 0B; 15. VA0, 12 B; FA0, 15/2B;
y 12 x y 12 x 5. Vertex V13, 1 2 ; 7. Vertex VA 12, 0B ;
y y focus F13, 12 ; focus FA 12, 161 B ;
5
directrix y 3 directrix y 161
2 y y
_1 0 1 x
x 3
_5 5 _3 3 x
3
_2
_2 _3 0 x
_5 _2
x2 y2 y2 x2
17. 1 19. 1
11. Center C11, 0 2 ;
4 12 16 16
9. Center C11, 32 ; foci
x2
4y 2
1 F1 16, 32 , F2 14, 32 ; vertices foci FA1, 15B ;
V1 14, 32 , V2 12, 32 ; asymptotes vertices V11, 1 2 ;
21.
9 9
23. 25. y 43 1x 12 3 asymptotes y 12 1x 12
8 8 y y
2
_8 8 _8 8
2 x
1
_8 _8
0 1 x
x2 y2 x2
27. 1 29. y 2 1
1x 5 2 2
9 16 3
y2
y2 5y 2 5x 2 13. x 2 14 1y 42 15. 1
31. x2 1 33. 1 25 16
17. 1 y 12 2 x 2 1
25 64 256
2 2
x2 y x2 y
35. 1 37. 1 19. Ellipse; C12, 02 ; 21. Hyperbola;
16 16 9 16 FA2, 15B; V12, 32 ; C11, 2 2; F1 A 32, 2B, F2 A 72, 2B;
39. (b) x y c /2
2 2 2
major axis 6, VA1 15, 2B ; asymptotes
43. (b) 10 minor axis 4 y 12 1x 12 2
k=12 y y
k=8
As k increases, the
asymptotes get
k=4
4
steeper. 1
k=1
0 1 x
_5 5
0
0 4 x
45. x 2 y 2 2.3 1019
Answers to Section 10.5 A59
23. Ellipse; C13, 5 2 ; 25. Hyperbola; C13, 0 2 ; 13. (a) Hyberbola 15. (a) Parabola
FA3 121, 5B; F13, 5 2;V13, 42 ; (b) X 2 Y 2 16 (b) Y 12 X 2
V1 12, 52 , V1 18, 52 ; asymptotes y 43 1x 32 (c) f 45 (c) f 45
major axis 10, minor axis 4 y y
y y
Y
Y
X
0 3 x 6
6
_6
0 6 x
_5 1 x
_6 6
0 1 x _6
X
4 5
Y
(1, 3 ) X 4
_4
_5 0 5 x 4 x
0 4 x 1
_4
0 x _5
1
X
6 6
Y
X
_9 _12
_6 6 x _6 6 x
y2
39. 1 x
18,062,500 18,040,000 1 _2 6
7. X 2 13XY 2 0
9. 7Y 2 48XY 7X 2 40X 30Y 0 11. X 2 Y 2 2
A60 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
_3 0 3 x
(1,0) (_2,π) (1,π)
O O
_3
3π 1
!2, 2 @
(b) x 11 y (b) y 1
x
9. (a) 11. (a)
y y
19. (a) 12 , ellipse 21. (a) 52 , hyperbola
(b) π
!2, @ (b) 3
2
1
(3, 0)
O
O _3 0 3 x
3π _1 0 1 x
!1, 2 @
7 π _1
!_ 3 , 2 @ _3
3π
(b) x 3 y 2 (b) x 2 y 2 4, x 0
!6, 2 @
1 1
1
(b) r 1
4 3 cos a u b
p
3
0 1 x
_0.5 1
0 1 x
_0.5 (b) y x 2, 0
x
1 (b) y 2x 2 1, 1
x
1
Answers to Chapter 10 Review A61
_2 5
1 1
0 x 0 1 x
1
_3
_20 20 0 a x
0 1 x _1
(b) x y 1, 0
x
1 23. x 4 t, y 1 12 t
25. x 6 t, y 7 t 27. x a cos t, y a sin t
31. 33. 55. x a1sin u cos u cot u 2 , y a11 sin2u 2
y y 57. (a) x a sec u, y b sin u
(b) 3
3
3
_10 10
_2 0 2 x
_3 0 3 x
_3
_3
_3
x 22ay y 2
37. 39. 59. y a a cos a b
2.5 6 a
61. (b) 15
_23 23
_2.5 _6
(b) 2.5 _2 2
0 x
0 1 x
_2
_2.5 2.5
_2
_2.5
A62 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
5. V12, 22 ; FA 74, 2B; 7. V12, 3 2; F12, 22 ; 21. C14, 02; V1 18, 02 , 23. C13, 1 2;
x 94 y 4 V2 10, 02 ; FA4 4 12, 0B; VA3, 1 12B;
y y asymptotes y 1x 42 FA3, 1 2 15B;
asymptotes y 13 x,
2
y 13 x 2
2 y y
_1 0 x 2
4
_2 0 2 x
_2 _2
1
_3 0 3 x
_4 0 1 x
y2 x2
25. y 2 8x 27. 1
2 16 9
1x 42 1y 22
1 2 2
_2 0 2 x _4 0 4 x 29. 1
_2
16 4
31. Parabola; 33. Hyperbola;
F10, 2 2 ; V10, 1 2 FA0, 12 12B; V10, 122
y y
_3
_18
1 x
1
0 x
_3 3 35. Ellipse; FA1, 4 115B; 37. Parabola;
4 , 8B; V164, 8 2
_4
VA1, 4 2 15B FA 255
y y
0 x
2 x _3 3
39. Ellipse; FA3, 3 1/ 12B; y
_3
V1 13, 42 , V2 13, 22
0 3 x
_3
Answers to Chapter 10 Test A63
(c) f 45
(b) 1x 1 2 2 1 y 12 2 1, 1
x
2, 0
y
1
10 y
Y
X
k=8
k=4 2 73. x 12 11 cos u 2, y 12 1sin u tan u 2
_10 10
2
_2 x Chapter 10 Test ■ page 814
k=2
_2 1. F10, 32, y 3 2. V14, 02 ; FA2 13, 0B; 8, 4
_10 k=1
y y
2
2
57. (a) Ellipse 59. Ellipse
(b) 1X 1 2 2 4Y 2 1 _4 0 4 x
(c) f 30 _2
_4 0 4 x
y 5 _2
1 X
Y
_5
1 x
(b)
20
_8
1y 32 2 y2
1 6. 1x 22 2
1
! 2 , π@ x2
_15 15 4. y 2 x 5. 1
O 1 16 9 3
1x 3 2 2 A y 12 B 2 1x 22 2 1y 422
_10
7. 1 8. 1
9 4 8 9
y y
65. (a) e 2, hyperbola 67. (a) 3
y
3π
!_4, 2 @
0 x 4
6
4 π 2
! 3 , 2 @
_2 _3
O 0 x _2 0 x
1
_2
(b) x 2y y 2
A64 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
9. 1 y 4 2 2 21x 4 2 y (d) y
(feet)
2
_4 0 4 x
100
_4
0 1000 x
(feet)
√ 20 sin2u
5. 7. No, u ⬇ 23
2g
2 2
y x
10. 1 11. x 2 4x 8y 20 0
9 16
X2 Y2 Chapter 11
12. 34 in. 13. (a) Ellipse (b) 1
3 18
(c) f ⬇ 27 y Section 11.1 ■ page 830
Y
1. 2, 3, 4, 5; 101 3. 21, 13, 14, 15; 101
1
5. 1, 14, 19, 161 ; 10,000
1
100
7. 0, 2, 0, 2; 2 9. 1, 4, 27, 256; 100
2 X 11. 3, 2, 0, 4, 12 13. 1, 3, 7, 15, 31 15. 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
17. (a) 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, 31, 35, 39, 43
_2 2 x (b) 45
_2
12 12 3 4 6
1 19. (a) 12, 6, 4, 3, 5, 2, 7 , 2, 3, 5
14. (a) r (b) Ellipse
1 0.5 cos u (b) 14
1
0 11
1 1 1 1
21. (a) 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 12
(b) 3
1x 3 2 2 y2
15. (a) (b) 1, x 3
9 4
y
2
0 11
999 100
3. (a) 25, 54, 58, 165 , 325 (b) 12
65. a x k 67. 212 12/2
1 n n
2
63. a
k1 k1k 1 k0 (c) a n
69. (a) 2004.00, 2008.01, 2012.02, 2016.05, 2020.08, 2024.12
(b) $2149.16 71. (a) 35,700, 36,414, 37,142, 37,885, 38,643
(b) 42,665 73. (b) 6898 75. (a) Sn Sn1 2000 1
(b) $38,000
0 1 n
_1
Section 11.2 ■ page 837
1. (a) 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 (b) 2
(c) a n 5. an 3 ⴢ 5n1, a4 375 7. a n 52 A 12 B n1, a 4 165
15 9. Geometric, 2 11. Geometric, 21 13. Not geometric
15. Geometric, 1.1 17. 6, 18, 54, 162, 486; geometric,
10
common ratio 3; an 6 ⴢ 3n1 19. 41, 161 , 641 , 256 1 1
, 1024 ; geometric,
common ratio 14; a n 14 A 14 B n1 21. 0, ln 5, 2 ln 5, 3 ln 5, 4 ln 5;
5
not geometric 23. 3, a5 162, an 2 ⴢ 3n1
25. 0.3, a 5 0.00243, a n 10.3 2 10.3 2 n1
, a n 144 A 121 B n1
0 1 n
27. 121 , a 5 144 1
1k 12 3 31k 12 7 4 1k 12 12k 8k 82
2 2
21k 12 2 1k 22 2
2
So P1k 12 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of
So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k2 . Thus, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P1n2 holds for all n.
Mathematical Induction, P1n2 holds for all n.
5. Let P1n 2 denote the statement
11. Let P1n2 denote the statement
n1n 1 2 1n 2 2 1 # 2 2 # 22 . . . n # 2n 23 1 1n 1 22n 4 .
1 # 2 2 # 3 . . . n1n 1 2
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 1 # 2 2 31 04 .
.
3
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then
1 # 11 1 2 # 11 2 2
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 1 # 2 . 1 # 2 2 # 22 . . . k # 2k 1k 12 # 2k1
3
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then 23 1 1k 1 22k 4 1k 1 2 # 2k1
Induction
hypothesis
1 # 2 2 # 3 . . . k1k 1 2 1k 1 2 1k 2 2 2 1k 1 22k1 1k 12 # 2k1
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Now 27. Let P1n2 denote the statement F3n is even.
8k1
3k1
8#8 3#3
k k
Step 1 P112 is true since F3ⴢ1 2, which is even.
8 # 8 18 5 2 # 3 8 # 18 3 2 5 # 3
k k k k k Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Now, by the definition of the
Fibonacci sequence
which is divisible by 5 because 8k 3k is divisible by 5 (by the
induction hypothesis) and 5 ⴢ 3k is clearly divisible by 5. So F31k12 F3k3 F3k2 F3k1
P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of Mathe- F3k1 F3k F3k1
matical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n.
F3k 2 # F3k1
19. Let P1n 2 denote the statement n 2 . n
But F3k is even (by the induction hypothesis) and 2 ⴢ F3k1 is
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 1 21. clearly even, so F31k12 is even. So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k2 .
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then Thus, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds
for all n.
k 1 2k 1 Induction hypothesis
29. Let P1n2 denote the statement
F 21 F 22 . . . F 2n Fn # Fn1.
2 2k k
Because 1 2k
2 # 2k 2k1
Step 1 P112 is true since F 12 F1 ⴢ F2 (because F1 F2 1).
So P1k 12 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then
Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n.
F 21 F 22 . . . F 2k F 2k1
21. Let P1n2 denote the statement 11 x 2 n 1 nx for
Fk # Fk1 F 2k1 Induction hypothesis
x 1.
Fk1 1Fk Fk1 2
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 11 x 2 1 1 1 # x.
Definition of the
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then Fk1 # Fk2 Fibonacci sequence
25. Let P1n2 denote the statement x y is a factor of x n y n. So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of
Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n 2.
Step 1 P112 is true since x y is a factor of x 1 y 1.
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Now
33. Let P1n2 denote the statement Fn n.
x k1 y k1 x k1 x ky x ky y k1 Step 1 P152 is true since F5 5 (because F5 5).
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Now
x k 1x y2 1x k y k 2 y
Fk1 Fk Fk1 Definition of the Fibonacci sequence
But x k 1x y 2 is clearly divisible by x y and 1x k y k 2 y is
divisible by x y (by the induction hypothesis), so their sum is k Fk1 Induction hypothesis
divisible by x y. So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the k1 Because Fk1 1
Principle of Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n.
So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of
Mathematical Induction, P1n2 holds for all n 5.
A68 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
5
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then
a1 b a1 b . . . a1 b a1 b
1 1 1 1
0 1 n 1 2 k k1
1k 12 a 1 b
1
13. (a) 34, 98, 27 81 243
16 , 32 , 64 Induction hypothesis
k1
(b) a n (c) Geometric, common
ratio 32 1k 1 2 1
4
0 n
Step 1 P11 2 is true since a1 2 ⴢ 31 2 4.
1
Step 2 Suppose P1k2 is true. Then
a k1 3a k 4
15. Arithmetic, 7 17. Arithmetic, 5 12
19. Arithmetic, t 1 21. Geometric, 274 312 # 3k 22 4 Induction hypothesis
23. 2i 25. 5 27. 814 29. (a) An 32,00011.05 2 n1 2 # 3k1 2
(b) $32,000, $33,600, $35,280, $37,044, $38,896.20,
$40,841.01, $42,883.06, $45,027.21 31. 12,288 So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of
35. (a) 9 (b) 6 12 37. 126 39. 384 Mathematical Induction, P1n2 holds for all n.
41. 02 12 22 . . . 92 71. Let P1n 2 denote the statement n! 2n for n 4.
3 32 33 350 33 100
43. 2 3 4 . . . 51 45. a 3k 47. a k2k2
2 2 2 2 k1 k1
Step 1 P14 2 is true since 4! 24.
49. Geometric; 4.68559 51. Arithmetic, 5050 15
Answers to Section 12.1 A69
n1n 1 2 12n 1 2
12 22 . . . n2 .
6
111 12 12 # 1 1 2
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 12
0 50
.
6
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then
Chapter 12
1 2 . . . k 2 1k 1 2 2
2 2
Section 12.1 ■ page 889
k1k 12 12k 1 2
1k 12 2 Induction hypothesis 1. 41 3. 31 5. 1 7. 1 9. 0.51 11. 12 13. (a) 2
6 (b) 3 (c) Does not exist (d) 4 (e) Not defined
k1k 1 2 12k 12 61k 1 2 2 15. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) Does not exist (d) 2 (e) 0
(f) Does not exist (g) 1 (h) 3 17. 8 19. Does not
6
1k 1 2 3 k12k 1 2 61k 12 4
exist 21. Does not exist
23. (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) 4 y
6
1k 1 2 12k 2 7k 62
4
6
1k 1 2 3 1k 12 1 4 3 21k 12 14
1
6
0 1 2 x
0 1 2 x
A70 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
_1 1
_3 3
_1
_20
(b) 0.667
x f1x 2 x f1x2 25. 24 ft/s 27. 12a2 6 m/s, 18 m/s, 54 m/s, 114 m/s
29. 0.75/min
0.1 0.71339 0.1 0.61222 31. (a) 38.3 gal/min, 27.8 gal/min (b) 33.3 gal/min
0.01 0.67163 0.01 0.66163
0.001 0.66717 0.001 0.66617 Section 12.4 ■ page 915
0.0001 0.66672 0.0001 0.66662
1. (a) 1, 2 (b) y 1, y 2 3. 0 5. 52 7. 34 9. 2
(c) 2 11. Does not exist 13. 7 15. 14 17. 0 19. 0
3
27. 0 29. Does not exist 31. Does not exist 21. Divergent 23. 0 25. Divergent 27. 32 29. 8
33. (a) 1, 2 (b) Does not exist 31. (b) 30 g/L
(c) y
Section 12.5 ■ page 924
1. (a) 40, 52
y y
1 y=Ï y=Ï
5 5
0 1 x
0 x 0 x
5 10 5 10
Section 12.3 ■ page 906
1. 3 3. 11 5. 24 (b) 43.2, 49.2
7. y x 1 9. y x 4 3. 5.25 5. 223 35
7. (a) 77
60 , underestimate (b) 25
12 , overestimate
y y
y y
y = −x + 4
y = x + x2 1.5 1.5
2 2
x
y = x-1 1.0 1.0
0
2 x 0 2 x 0.5 0.5
y = −x − 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
Answers to Cumulative Review A71
y y y y
0 1 5 x
2 2 2 2
5
0 1 x
0 1 x
_1.5 1.5
2. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) 0 (e) 0 (f) 0 (g) 4 (h) 2 10. (a) 4 (b) ln 2, ln 4 11. (a) $29,396.15
(i) Does not exist 3. (a) 6 (b) 2 (c) Does not exist (b) After 6.23 years (c) 12.837 years
(d) Does not exist (e) 14 (f) 2 4. (a) f¿1x2 2x 2 12. (a) P1t 2 120e 0.0565t (b) 917 (c) After 49.8 months
(b) 4, 0, 2 5. y 16 x 32 6. (a) 0 (b) Does not exist
89
7. (a) 25 (b) 113 Cumulative Review Test for Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8
■ page CR5
Focus on Modeling ■ page 931 1. (a) 15/3 (b) 2/3 (c) 15/2 (d) 3 13/5
1. 57,333 13 ft-lb 3. (b) Area under the graph of 2. (a) 2110/7 (b) 7/3 (c) 3110/20
p1x2 375x between x 0 and x 4 (c) 3000 lb 3. (a) 13/2 (b) 1 (c) 213/3 (d) 1
(d) 1500 lb 5. (a) 1625.28 heating-degree hours 4. sin t 24/25, tan t 24/7, cot t 7/24, sec t 25/7,
(b) 70 F (c) 1488 heating-degree hours (d) 75F csc t 25/24 5. (a) 2, p, p/4 (b) y
_2
Cumulative Review Test for Chapters 2, 3, and 4
■ page CR2 1sec u 12 1sec u 12
1. (a) 1q, q2 (b) 34, q2 (c) 12, 0, 0, 2, 2 13, undefined
9. (a) LHS
tan u 1sec u 12
(d) x 2 4, 1x 6, 4 h 2 (e) 12 sec2 u 1 tan2 u
(f) f ⴰ g x 4 1x 4, g ⴰ f 0 x 2 0 , f 1g11222 0, RHS
tan u 1sec u 12 tan u 1sec u 1 2
g1f 11222 10 (g) g11 x2 x 2 4, x 0
(b) RHS 1 11 2 sin 2 2u 2 2 sin 2 2u 212 sin u cos u2 2
LHS
A72 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
π
¨=3π
4
¨= 4
_2 0 2 x
F1 10, 02,
¨=π
2 ¨=0
(b) y
F2 18, p2,
2
hyperbola
6 6
(b) z„ 12 acos i sin b 6 12 6 12i,
p p
4 4
1x 52 2 y2
z/„ acos b i
1 3p 3p 1
i sin 8. 1
3 2 2 3 16 9
9. y
10. (a) y
2 acos b
3 35p 35p
2 i sin _1
18 18
16. (a) y
u (b) u v 具3, 4 典, (b) x y2 1, parabola
(b) 2u v 具11, 2 典,
2
(b) u 100.3,
Cumulative Review Test for Chapters 11 and 12
(b) projvu 具 45, 85 典
0 2 x
■ page CR10
(c) 82
1. (a) 157 , 20 1
41 , 2
99
(b) 340 81
, 7984 , 0 (c) 372, 115
2 , no limit
(d) 12A 6 B , 12A 6 B , 0 (e) 0.64, 5242.88, no limit
v
5 6 5 19
3. Xavier 4, Yolanda 10, Zachary 6 10. (a) y (b) A lies between the 1 1
4. (a) A B impossible; C D 2 square in the first quadrant,
0 4 2
C 1 4 4 S ; AB c 2 d ; CB impossible;
9 1 5 with corner at the origin, which
has area 1, and the trapezoid
4 2 0
1 1 1 1 with corners (0, 0), (1, 0),
(1, 2), and (0, 1), which has
BD c d ; det(B) impossible; det(C) 2;
1 2 1
area 32 .
12 1 12
det(D) 0 0 1 x (c) 78/64 (d) 4/3
Index
Abel, Niels Henrik, 282 angle of depression, 482 Arithmetic sequences, 833–838
Absolute value, 8–10 angle of elevation, 482 defined, 833
of complex numbers, 597–598 angle of incidence, 570 partial sums, 834–836
equations, 54, 91 angle of inclination, 482 Arrow, Kenneth, 682
properties of, 9 angle of refraction, 570 Arrow diagram, of functions, 150
Absolute value function, 162, 166 defined, 468 Assets, division of, 834–835
Absolute value inequalities, 81–82 quadrantal, 490 Associative Property, 3
Addition reference, 491–492 Astroid, 808
of complex numbers, 286 standard position of, 470–471 Asymptotes, 300–302
graphical, 215 supplement of, 504 defined, 301
of inequalities, 76 Angular speed, 473–474 horizontal, 301, 304–306, 307, 308,
of matrices, 676–678 Annual percentage yield, 366, 367 910–911
of polynomials, 25 Annuities of hyperbolas, 763–764, 767
of rational expressions, 37–38 calculating amount of, 848–850 of rational functions, 303–306, 307,
of vectors, 608, 610, 611 in perpetuity, 853–854 308
Addition and subtraction formulas, present value of, 850–851 slant, 309–310
535–541 Aphelion, 760, 801 vertical, 301, 303–308, 434–436,
Additive identity, 4 Apolune, 761 886–887
Adleman, Leonard, 308 Approval voting, 682 Atmospheric pressure formula, 368
Agnesi, Maria Gaetana, 802 Arccosine function, 553 Augmented matrix, 635, 662–663
Ahmes (Rhind papyrus scribe), 716 Archimedes, 69, 414, 748–749, 902 Automotive design, 256
Airplane design, 245 Architecture, conics in, 771–775 Average rate of change, 174–178, 904
Algebraic errors, avoiding, 40–41 Arcsine function, 551 Avogadro’s number, 23
Algebraic expressions, 24–33, 35 Arctangent function, 555 Axes. see also Rotation of axes
AM (amplitude modulation) radio, 428 Area of a conic, 797
Ambiguous case, of solving triangles, of circular sector, 472–473 of ellipses, 754, 755
503–505, 508 of a triangle, 494–495, 512–513, of hyperbolas, 762
Amortization schedule, 854 711–712, 714–715 of parabolas, 745–748
Amplitude, 421 Area problem, calculus, 916–925 polar axis, 582
decaying, 428 approximating area with calculator, 925 real and imaginary, 596
harmonic motion and, 443 under a curve, 922–924 Axis of symmetry, parabolas, 744
period and, 423–425 defined, 920–922
variable, 427–428 estimating using rectangles, 917–918 Back-substitution, solving linear
Amplitude modulation (AM) radio, 428 under graphs, 929–931 equations, 652, 653
Analogy, used in problem solving, limit of approximating sums, 919–920 Base, change of, 355–356
138–139 Areas, formulas for, inside front cover Base 10 logarithm, 346–347
Ancillary circle of ellipse, 760 Argument of complex number, 598 Bearing, 511
Angle measure, 468–478 Aristarchus of Samos, 480 Beer-Lambert Law, 364, 394
Angles. see also Trigonometric functions, Aristotle, 54 Bell, E.T., 678
of angles Arithmetic mean, 838 Bernoulli, Johann, 805
I1
I2 Index
Frequency modulation (FM) radio, 428 GIMPS (Great Internet Mersenne Prime Halley, Edmund, 894
Functions, 146–247 Search), 824 Hamming, Richard, 39
algebra of, 214–215 Global Positioning System (GPS), 643, Hardy, G.H., 840
average rate of change and, 174–178 656–657 Harmonic mean, 837
combining, 214–222 Golden ratio, 829 Harmonic motion, 417, 442–454
common examples of, 148–149 Googol, 352 damped, 449–451, 569
composition of, 216–219 Googolplex, 352 modeling periodic behavior, 443–448,
defined, 149–150 Grads, measuring angles with, 478 459–462
demand, 232 Graphical addition, 216 simple, 443, 575
domain of, 153 Graphical solutions, 104–108 Harmonic sequences, 837
equations of, 164–165 compared with algebraic method, 104, Heating degree-hour, 932–933
evaluating, 151–152 105–106 Heaviside, Oliver, 885
even, 188–189, 193, 222 for equations, 104–108 Heaviside function, 885
extreme values, 193–203 for inequalities, 108 Herons’ Formula, 512–513
graphing, 158–170, 306–312, 315, for systems of equations, 640–641 Hilbert, David, 103, 708
329–332 using graphing calculator, 102–104 Hilbert’s tenth problem, 678
greatest integer, 162 Graphing calculators Hipparchus, 479
identity, 233 approximating area with, 925 Homogenous coordinates, 794
increasing/decreasing, 173–174 choosing viewing rectangle, 426–427 Hooke’s Law, 127, 134, 931
inverse, 226–230 for extreme values of functions, Horizontal asymptotes, 301, 304–306, 307,
iterates of, 223–224 198–200 308, 910–911
limits of, 882–890 pitfalls of, 890 Horizontal lines, 115, 225, 226
logistic, 223 for trigonometric graphs, 425–428 Horizontal line test, 225, 226
methods for representing, 153–154 using, 102–104 Horizontal shifts, of graphs, 183–185
modeling with, 203–213 zoom and trace features of, 884–885 Horizontal stretching and shrinking, of
modeling with, guidelines for, 205 Graphing devices. see Graphing graphs, 187–188
objective, 736, 737, 738 calculators Huygens, Christian, 805
odd, 188–189, 193, 222 Graphing functions, 158–170 Hyperbolas, 743, 762–770
one-to-one, 225–226, 228–230 exponential functions, 329–332 with center at origin, 763–764
relations and, 171–172 rational functions, 306–312, 315 confocal, 769–770
transformations of, 182–193 Graphs conjugate, 769
trigonometric. see Trigonometric of complex numbers, 596–598 constructing, 774
functions of equations of two variables, 90–91 degenerate, 781
Fundamental identities, 414–415, 493, 528 of nonlinear inequalities, 721–723 equation of, 766–767
Fundamental Principle of Analytic of polar equations, 587–596 finding tangent line to, 901
Geometry, 90, 93 of polynomials, 251–260 geometric definition of, 762
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, 291 reflecting, 185–186 rotating, 784–785
shifted, 776–780 shifted, 778–780
Galilei, Galileo, 816, 817 shifts, horizontal, 183–185 sketching, 764–767
Galois, Evariste, 273, 282 shifts, vertical, 182–183, 184–185 with transverse axis, 764–766
Galton, Sir Francis, 247 stretching and shrinking, 186–188 Hyperbolic cosine function, 337
Gateway Arch, 331 of systems of inequalities, 723–728 Hyperbolic sine function, 337
Gaudi, Antoni, 771 Gravity, Newton’s Law of, 46, 126, 388 Hypocycloid, 808
Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 294, 665, 834–835 Greater than ( ), 6 Hypothesis, induction, 856
Gaussian elimination, 652–653, 664–667 Greatest integer function, 162–163, 166
Gauss-Jordan elimination, 667–668 Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search Identities
Gear ratio, 517 (GIMPS), 824 addition and subtraction formulas for,
General conic equation, simplifying, Great Trigonometric Survey of India, 505, 537
785–787 525 Pythagorean, 414, 493, 528
Geometric mean, 845 Grouping, factoring by, 31 reciprocal, 413, 414, 493, 528
Geometric sequences, 838–846 Growth constant, 223 trigonometric, 413, 414–415, 492–494,
Geometry, analytic, 742–819. see also 527, 528–534, 563–564
Conics; Ellipses; Hyperbolas; Half-angle formulas, 541, 543–546 Identity function, 233
Parabolas; Parametric equations Half-life of radioactive elements, 373–374 Identity matrices, 689–690
I6 Index
functions with no limit at infinity, 913 Logarithmic form, 342–343 Equality of matrices, 767
at negative infinity, 910, 912 Logarithmic functions, 327, 342–352 identity matrices, 689–690
Limits of sequences, 913–915 applications of, 365–366, 376–379 inverse of matrices, 689–693, 695
defined, 913 common (base 10) logarithms, 346–347 matrix equations, 681–682, 694–697
finding, 914–915 family of, 344 multiplication, 678–683, 700
limits of recursive sequences, 916 graphs of, 343–346 no Zero-Product Property for, 699
Linear and Quadratic Factors Theorem, natural logarithms, 347–349 rotating images in plane, 792–794
297–298 properties of, 343 rotating points in plane, 792
Linear depreciation, 122 Logarithmic model, 397 rotation of axes formulas, 791
Linear equations, 115. see also Systems of Logarithmic scales, 376–379 singular matrix, 693
linear equations Logarithms, Laws of, 352–358 square roots of matrix, 687
applying to rate of change, 118–120 Logistic command, in calculator, 392, 397 stochastic matrices, 683
graph of, 115–116 Logistic curves (or logistic growth model), sum, difference, and scalar product,
solving, 45–46 334, 339, 392–393, 397 767–778
two-intercept form of, 121 Logistic function, 223 transition matrix, 688–689, 697
Linear factors, 297–298 Logistic population growth, 878–879 Matrices, solving linear equations,
Linear fractional transformations, 302–303 Longbow curve, 808 662–675
Linear functions Long division augmented matrix, 635, 662–663
composing, 222 partial fractions and, 720 elementary row operations, 663–664
defined, 158 of polynomials, 265–267 Gaussian elimination, 664–667
graphs of, 166 LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation), 768 matrix defined, 662
as mathematical models, 239–242 Lorenz Contraction Formula, 898 reduced row-echelon form, 665,
Linear inequalities, 77, 724 Lotka, Alfred J., 696–697 667–668
graphing systems of, 724–726 Lower bounds, 276, 278 row-echelon form, 665–667
Linearizing Matrix equations, 681–682, 694–697
exponential data, 389–390 Machine, function as, 150 linear programming for, 735–741
power data, 390 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 746 local, 199, 260
Linear programming, 735–741 Magnitude modeling with functions to find,
guidelines for, 737 of an earthquake, 377–378 207–208
Karmakar’s technique, 737 of a star, 358 Maximum command, in calculators, 200
Linear speed, 473–474 of vectors, 608, 610 Maximum value(s), maxima, 195–198,
Line of sight, 482 Main diagonal, of matrices, 689 203
Lines, 111–123 Major axes, of ellipses, 754, 755 Mean
of best fit, 240–242 Majority voting, 682 arithmetic, 838
family of, graphing, 118 Mandelbrot, Benoit, 600, 605 geometric, 845
general equation of, 115 Mandelbrot set, 605–607 harmonic, 837
parallel, 116–117 Manning Equation, 23–24 Mersenne numbers, 824
perpendicular, 117–118 Mathematical models, 58–75 Midpoint formula, 90
point-slope form of equation of, constructing, 59–67 Mill, John Stuart, 112
113–114 defined, 239 Minimum command, in calculators, 200
slope-intercept form of equation of, 114 finding line of best fit, 240–242 Minimum value(s), minima, 195–198, 203
slope of, 111–113 functions as, 203–213 local, 199, 260
slope as rate of change, 118–120 guidelines for, 58–59 modeling with functions to find,
vertical and horizontal, 115 guidelines for modeling functions, 205 209–210
Lissajous figure, 806 linear functions as, 239–242 Minor axes, of ellipses, 754, 755
Lithotripsy, reflection property used in, logarithmic model, 397 Modeling. see also Mathematical models
759 measuring fit, 242–243 with area, 929–931
LnReg command, in calculator, 397 using inequalities, 82–84 cylindrical projection, 630–631, 632
Local extrema, of polynomials, 260–261, variation, 123–129 defined, 203
265 Matijasevič, Yuri, 678 with equations, 58–75
Local maximum, 199, 260 Matrices, algebra of, 675–687. see also exponential, 369–376, 386–387,
Local minimum, 199, 260 Determinants 390–392
loga, 342 applied to computer graphics, 683–684, force and velocity, 612–615
Logarithmic equations, 361–364 700–703 harmonic motion, 442–454
I8 Index
Modeling (continued ) Newton’s Law of Cooling, 375–376, 381, relation as collection of, 171
with linear systems, 646–648, 656–657, 878 Origin (O), 6, 87, 582
672–673 Newton’s Law of Gravitation, 46, 126, 388 hyperbola with center at, 763–764
logarithmic, 376–379 n-leaved rose, 591, 594 symmetry with respect to, 95
with logistic functions, 392–393 n! (n factorial), 863
mapping world, 630–633 Nodes, standing wave, 576–577 p, value of, 414
path of a projectile, 816–818 Noether, Emmy, 710 Parabolas, 640, 721, 743, 744–752
with polynomial functions, 320–323 Nonlinear equations, 45 confocal, 782
population growth, 327, 369–373, Nonlinear inequalities, 77–81 constructing, 772–774
386–387, 392–393 graphing, 721–723 family of, 749
with power functions, 388–392 guidelines for solving, 79 focal diameter of, 748, 749
prey/predator models, 432–433, 464, Notation focal point of, 750
696–697 exponential, 13, 16–17 geometric definition of, 744
with recursive sequences, 874–876 scientific, 16–17 graph of, 91
standing waves, 576–577 set-builder, 7 graph of shifted, 777–778
stereographic projection, 631, 632, 633 sigma, 828–830 with horizontal axis, 747–748
surveying, 522–525 summation, 828 latus rectum of, 748
traveling waves, 575–576 use in problem solving, 138 as quadratic function, 194
using linear programming, 735–741 Nowak, Martin, 824 sketching, 748–749
using matrix equations, 696–697 nth root, 18–19 with vertical axis, 745–746
Modulus of complex numbers, 597–598 of complex number, 601–602 Parallax, 487
Monomials, 24, 250, 251–252 Numbers Parallel lines, 116–117
Mortgage payments, 852 complex. see Complex numbers Parameters, 57, 656, 801, 803
amortizing a mortgage, 854 converting sound, pictures, and text into, Parametric curve, graphing, 805–806
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 746 30 Parametric equations, 801–810
Multiple angles, trigonometric functions imaginary, 285–286 for cycloid, 804–805
of, 566–567 inverse, 5 eliminating parameter, 803
Multiplication irrational, 2 graphing parametric curves, 805–806
of algebraic expressions, 26 negative, 4 for path of projectile, 816–818
of complex numbers, 286, 599–600 ordered pair of, 87 plane curves and, 801–802
of functions, 214 polygonal numbers, 847–848 polar equations in parametric form, 806
of inequalities, 76 prime, 824, 825 Pareto, Vilfredo, 357
of matrices, 678–683, 700 rational, 2–3 Pareto’s Principle, 357
of polynomials, 25–26 real. see Real numbers Partial fraction decomposition, 716–720
of rational expressions, 36 Reference, 404–406, 411–412 Partial fractions, 715–721
of vectors by scalars, 608, 611 representing functions with, 154 Partial sums, of sequences, 827–828,
Multiplicative identity, 5 square, 847 834–836, 840–841
Multiplicities, zeros and, 259, 293–295 using geometric shapes to represent, 847 Pascal, Blaise, 805, 858
Numerators, 5 Pascal’s triangle, 861–863, 864
Napier, John, 346 rationalizing, 40, 895 Pattern recognition, 138, 847–848
Nash, John, 850 Numerical method Paulos, John Allen, 242
Natural exponential functions, 332–334 finding values of functions with, 412 Pendulum, law of the, 127
Natural logarithms, 347–349 for finding zeros, 283–284 Pentagonal numbers, 847
Natural numbers, 2 to find trigonometric ratios, 480 Perfect square, 30, 48
Nautical mile, 476 Perihelion, 760, 801
Navigation Objective function, 736, 737, 738 Perilune, 761
bearings, 511 Oblique asymptotes, 310 Period
LORAN, 768 Oblique triangles, 501 amplitude and, 423–425
Negative exponents, 13, 16 Odd functions, 188–189, 193, 222 harmonic motion and, 443
Negative numbers, 4 One-sided limits, 887–888, 895–897 Periodic behavior, modeling, 443–448,
square roots of, 287–288 One-to-one function, 225–226 459–462
Negative of image, 687 finding inverse of, 228–230 Periodic functions, 419, 427, 431
Newton, Sir Isaac, 758, 766, 816, Orbits. see Planetary orbits Periodic properties, 434
894–895, 902 Ordered pair, of numbers, 87 Periodic rent, 849
Index I9
Sigma notation, 828–830 Standard position, of angles, 470–471 modeling with, 646–648, 656–657,
Signs, of trigonometric functions, 411, 490 Standing waves, 576–577 672–673
Similarity and similarity ratio, in Stars, modeling brightness of, 446 several variables, 651–661
trigonometry, 499–501 Step functions, 163, 170 two variables, 644–651
Simple harmonic motion, 443, 575 Stereographic projection, 631, 632, 633 using Cramer’s rule for solving,
Sine Stochastic matrices, 683 708–711
addition and subtraction formulas for, Substitution, Principle of, 26 writing as matrix equations, 681–682
535, 536, 541 Substitution, trigonometric, 532
curves, 422, 428, 461–462 Substitution method Table command, in calculators, 824
double-angle formula for, 542, 786 for solving linear systems, 637–638 Tables, finding limits using, 884–885
formula for, 488 using direct substitution for finding Taking cases, 139
half-angle formula for, 544 limits, 893–894 Tangent, 488, 547
inverse, 551–552 Subtraction addition and subtraction formulas for,
Law of, 501–508 of complex numbers, 286 535, 541, 560
product-sum formula for, 546 of inequalities, 76 double-angle formula for, 542
sum of sines and cosines, 538–539 overview of, 4 half-angle formula for, 544
sum-to-product formula for, 547 of polynomials, 25 inverse, 554–556
trigonometric ratios, 479 of rational expressions, 37–38 to parabola, 773, 774
Sine function, 408 of vectors, 608 trigonometric ratios, 479
applications, 432–433 Subtraction and addition formulas, Tangent function, 408
graphing, 418–420 535–541 graphing, 434–439
graphing transformations of, 420–425 Summation notation, 828 special values of, 410
periodic properties of, 419 Summation variable, 828 tangent curves, 437–438
shifted curves, 423–425 Sums Tangent line, 898–902
special values of, 410 of cubes, 30 to a hyperbola, finding, 901
SinReg command, in calculator, 461, 462 of functions, 214 Taussky-Todd, Olga, 672
Sinusoidal curves, 422, 431 of infinite geometric series, 843–844 Taylor, Brook, 436, 834
Slant asymptotes, 309–310 limits of approximating, 919–920 Tchebycheff, P.L., 549
Slope of matrices, 676–678 Tchebycheff polynomials, 549
indicating rate of change, 118–120, 175 partial sums of sequences, 827–828, Terminal points
of lines, 111–113 834–836, 840–841 reference numbers and, 404–406
Slope-intercept form of equation of a line, of powers, 858–859 on unit circle, 401–404
114 of sequences, properties of, 830 of vectors, 607
Slope of the line tangent to a curve, of sines and cosines, 538–539 Terminal side, of angles, 468
899–900 Sum-to-product formulas, 547 Terminal velocity, 338
Snell’s Law, 570 Supplement of angle, 504 Terms
Solutions. see Roots Surveying, 522–525 combining like, 25
Sound. see also Harmonic motion using triangulation for, 504–505 of polynomial, 24
intensity levels of, 347, 378–379 Symmetry, 95–96 Terms, of sequences
inverse square law for, 382 tests for, 591–592 defined, 822
Special Product Formulas, 26–27, 34 Synthetic division, 267–268 finding, 823–824, 834, 840
Special Theory of Relativity, 816 Systems of equations, 635, 636–644 for recursive sequences, 825
Species, study of survival of, 688–689 elimination method for solving, Test points, graphing, 255, 256, 257, 722
Species-Area relationship, 357–358 638–640 Test values for intervals, 78
Sphere, area of, 156 graphical method for solving, 640–641 Thales of Miletus, 482
Splines, polynomial curves, 249, 252, 256 modeling with, 646–648 Theodolite, 504
Spring constant, 127, 452, 931 substitution method for solving, Theory of Relativity, 157, 710, 816
Square matrix, 704–708 637–638 Tide, modeling height of, 459–462
Square numbers, 847 Systems of inequalities, graphing, Torricelli’s Law, 156, 232, 325
Square roots, 17–19 723–728. see also Inequalities Total internal reflection, 570
of negative numbers, 287–288 Systems of linear equations Trace command, in calculators, 106, 199,
nth root and, 18–19 dependent and inconsistent, 644–646, 725, 884–885
Squaring function, 150 654–656 Transformations
Standard form, of equation of a circle, 93 graph of, 654 of exponential functions, 331, 333
I12 Index
Transformations (continued) Trigonometric identities, 527, 528–534 expressing in terms of i and j, 611–612
of functions, 182–193 of angles, 492–494 geometric description of, 607–608
by matrix multiplication, 700 basic types of, 528 horizontal and vertical components, 609,
of monomials, 251–252 proving, 529–532 612
of rational functions, 302–303, 315–316 quadratic equations and, 563–564 modeling velocity and force, 612–615
of sine and cosine functions, 420–425 of real numbers, 413, 414–415 orthogonal, 619–620
Transition matrix, 688–689, 697 simplifying, 528–529 perpendicularity, checking for, 620
Translation of image, 794 Trigonometric ratios, 467, 478–479, 480, properties of, 611
Transverse axes, of hyperbolas, 762, 481, 488 use of, 607
764–766 Trigonometric substitution, 532 wind as, tacking against, 626
Traveling waves, 575–576 Trinomials, 24 zero, 608, 611
Triangles Triple-angle formula, 543 Velocity
ambiguous case, 503–505, 508 Trochoid, 808 estimating, 907
area of, 494–495, 512–513, 711–712, Tsu Ch’ung-chih, 414 instantaneous, 904–905
714–715 Turing, Alan, 103, 178 modeling, 612–614
Pascal’s triangle, 861–863, 864 Two-intercept form of linear equation, 121 terminal, 338
right triangle trigonometry, 467–468, Two-sided limits, 895 of traveling waves, 575–576
478–487 Vertical asymptotes, 301, 303–308,
solving height problems, 62–63 434–436, 886–887
Unbounded regions, of planes, 725
solving oblique, 501 Vertical axes, of parabolas, 745–746
Unbreakable codes, 308–309
special, 479–481 Vertical lines, 115
Unions
Triangular form, of linear systems, Vertical line test, 163–164
of intervals, 8
651–652 Vertical shifts, graphs, 182–183, 184–185
of sets, 7
Triangular numbers, 847 Vertical stretching and shrinking, graphs,
Unit circle, 400–408
Triangulation, for surveying, 504–505 186–187
points on, 400
Trigonometric equations, 527, 561–570 Vertices
reference numbers, 404–406, 411–412
Trigonometric functions, inverse, 527–528, of ellipses, 754, 755
terminal points, 401–404
550–559, 567–568 of feasible region, 737, 739
Unit vector, 611
Trigonometric functions, of angles, of hyperbolas, 762, 766–767
Universal machine, 178
466–525 of parabolas, 744
Upper and Lower Bounds Theorem,
defined, 488 of systems of inequalities, 723, 724
276–277, 278
reference angle and, 491–492 Viète, François, 49, 498
Upper bounds, 276, 278
relationship to trigonometric functions Viewing rectangle, of graphing calculator,
of real numbers, 489 102
signs of, 490 Value of f at x, 150 Voltage, measuring, 448
Trigonometric functions, of real numbers, Variables Volterra, Vito, 696–697
398–465 correlation of, 242–243 Von Neumann, John, 178
of angles, 409 defined, 24 Voting, fair methods, 682–683
defined, 408 dependent and independent, 150
domains of, 411 leading, 668 Wankel, Felix, 809
even-odd properties, 413–414 in linear systems, 644–661 Wavelet theory, 30
relationship to trigonometric functions summation, 828 Waves
of angles, 489 Variation, modeling standing, 576–577
signs of, 411 direct, 123–125 traveling, 575–576
trigonometric identities, 413, 414–415 inverse, 125–126 Weather prediction, 562
unit circle, 400–408 joint, 126 Weber-Fechner Law, 378
values of, 411–414, 436 Variation in sign, 255 Whispering galleries, reflection property
Trigonometric graphs Vectors, 581–582 used in, 759
of cosecant and secant functions, algebraic operations on, 610–611 Witch of Maria Agnesi (curve), 809
439–440 analytic description of, 609–612 Words, representing functions with, 153,
graphing devices used for, 425–428 angle between, 619 154
of sine and cosine functions, 418–420 calculating components of, 621–622 Work
of tangent and cotangent functions, direction of, 608, 609, 612, 620–622 calculating with dot product, 623–624
434–439 dot product of, 617–620 modeled by area, 929–931
Index I13
C1