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SSC 105 Module Teacher in Absentia
SSC 105 Module Teacher in Absentia
SET THEORY
A set is any collection of ‘well-defined’ objects. Well-defined in the sense that it is always clear
what the objects that make up a particular set are. The objects that make up a set could be
letters, ideas, colours, numbers, signs, symbols, .... and are usually called the elements or the
members of a set. We use upper case letters [capital letters] to denote the sets. Examples A, B,
X, Z, N, C, R, Q, M, K .... One way of identifying a set is to list its members into a pair of braces,
separated by commas.
Set Forms
Tabular Form: When the elements or members are listed or stated, e.g.
A = {1, 2, 3}, P = {4, 7} B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Builder Form: When the elements are not listed but with the properties to which they can be
determined. Examples are shown below:
This is another way of identifying a set stating the property which all its elements possess in
‘common’.
P = sets of powers of 2
Thus P = { 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , … ..}
Q = { −3 < 𝑥 < 4} – meaning numbers between -3 and 4 only i.e not including -3 and
4
Thus Q = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
R = { −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4}
meaning numbers from -3 and 4 inclusive
R = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
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N = { −3 ≤ 𝑥 < 4}
meaning numbers from -3 to 4 but 4 is not inclusive
N = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
Y = { 𝑥: 𝑥 is an odd number}
Y is a set of elements 𝑥such that 𝑥 is odd number
Thus Y = {1, 3, 5, 7, ....}
M = { | 𝑥 is integer}
meaning set of elements 𝑥 such that 𝑥 is a whole number.
Thus M = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ....}
Cardinality of a set
The number of elements in a set a is denoted by n(A) and called the cardinality of set A. Any
element that is repeated is usually counted once.
A finite set contains a definite number of elements while an infinite set has an
indefinite/limitless number of elements.
If A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...}
F = { ..., -3, -1, 1, 3, 5, ...}
X = {whole numbers between 10 and 100}
Y = { fraction between 1 and 2}
Then A and X are finite set n(A) = 5; n(X) = 91; while B, F and y are infinite sets.
A set that contains no element is called a NUL SET or an EMPTY SET and is denoted by ∅ or { }.
A set that contains only one element is called a SINGLETON SET.
Examples: A = {33}; Q = {k}; M = {-1/2}; K = {1}; T = {0}; F = {∅} are singeleton sets
Two sets A and B are equivalent sets if n(A) = n(B). That is A and B contain the same number of
elements. Two sets are said to be equal if every element of A is also an element of B and every
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element of B is also an element of A. That is, A and B are equal if they contain exactly the same
elements. Then we write: A = B
Note: sets can be equal if they have the same basic elements irrespective of the order/position
or number of such element.
a) In A =n {1, 2, 3}; B = 2, 3, 1}
A = B (regardless of the position)
b) If A = {1, 2, 3}; B = {1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 3}
A = B as the same basic elements are present
Subsets: A set that contains elements that are part of a bigger set, e.g. a class is a subset of the
students in a school. Simply put, a set X is a subset of a set Y if every elements of X is also an
element of set Y and we write X ⊂ Y, where X could be equal to Y, we write: X ⊆ Y.
A subset can be proper or improper. It is a proper subset if it is not empty and it is part of
another set i.e. it is not equal to it.
Superset:- A set that contains another set. E.g. if B is a subset of A, then A is a superset of B, i.e.
if B ⊂ A, then A ⊃ B
Power sets: The power set of a set A denoted by P(A) and given by: P(A) = {p: p ⊂ A}
That is, P(A) is a collection of all the subsets of set A.
The power set of a given set A is the set of all possible subsets of A. It is denoted by p(A).
E.g. if B = {2,3} the power set of B is:
P(A) = { {2,3}, {2}, {3}, ∅ }
Similarly if A = {a, b,c} the power set A is: P(A) = { {a, b, c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c} {a}, {b}, {c}, ∅ }
Remarks:
1. The number of subsets in a power set is 2𝑛 where n is the number of members in the given
set. E.g for set B with two elements, number of subsets is 22 = 4. For A which has three
elements, number 5, 9, 10}of subsets is 23 = 8
2. ∅ and the set itself are automatic members of a power set.
1. If A = {a, e, w, u}
B = {a, e, u, r, s, w} the A ⊂ B
2. If however every element in X is an element in Y and Y does not have any other element(s)
that are not in X, then X is said to be equal to Y,
X ⊂ Y, Y ⊂ X ⇒ X = Y. E.g If
T = {f, o, e, w}
R = {f, o, w, e}
Here T ⊂ R and R ⊂ T : T = R
Universal set: if all the sets iin a given discussion are to be subsets of a fixed over all set U, then
U is called the universal set. Alternatively, universal set can be defined as overall set that
contains all possible members. Examples: if A = {3, 5, 6, 7, 8}, B = {a, b, c, d} the universal set
U = {a, b, c, d, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
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COMPLEMENT OF A SET
If A is a subset of the universal set U, then the set of element in U that is not A and is denoted
by AI or Ac similarly, a set can be regarded as complement if it contains elements that are not
common to the universal and given sets. This is denoted as the prime of C. Let the universal set
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .....};
A = {3, 5, 9} and B = {2, 4, 5, 9, 10}
Then AI = {1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10}
and BI = {1, 3, 6, 7, 8}
also, if U = {1, 2, 3, 4}
A = {1, 3}
Then A or AC = {2, 4} called A prime or complement.
I
Example: Let
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}
A = {a, b, e, f, g}
B = { b, c, d, f, g, h}
Find (a) AI (b) BI (c) AI – BI (d) (A U B)I
Solution:
1. AI = {c, d, h}
2. BI = {a, e}
3. AI – BI = {c, d, h}
4. (A U B)I = {a, b, c, d, e, f,, g, h}I = ∅
The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B is the set containing all the elements
common to A and B. Thus A ∩ B = {[𝑥: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}. Two sets that have no element in
common are said to be disjoint sets. For example, the intersection of sets such as P and Q is
denoted as P ∩ Q.
Thus if A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {2, 3, 5, 7}
A ∩ B = {3, 5, 7}
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Set can also be united. The union is possible when the elements between two or more sets can
be arranged in a definite order without repetition. Union of A and B is denoted by A U B.
For A = {1, 4} and B = {2, 3}, A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
For P = {1, 2, 3} and Q = {2, 3, 5}; P U Q = { 1, 2, 3, 5}
Note that 2 and 3 occurs in the two cases are not repeated in the union set. The union set of A
and b denoted by A U B, is the set containing all the elements in A and B without repetition.
Thus A U B = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵}
Example
Solution
(b) AI = {1, 2, 3, 5, 8}
BI = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10}
i. AI ∩ BI = {1, 2, 5, 8}
ii. AI U BI = {11, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10}
Interpretation of Sets
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Set of A = A
Set of elements not in A = AI
Set of the elements in A and B = A ∩ B
Set of the elements in A or B = (A U B)I
Set of the elements that are not in A or not in B = AI U BI = (A ∩B)I
Set of elements that are not in A and not in B = AI ∩ BI = (A U B)I
neither A nor B = not A not(or) not B = AI ∩ BI
This is a method of illustrating set information in circles drawn within a rectangle, called Venn
diagram. It is also a pictorial representation of sets, is often useful in indication and verifying
relationship between two sets. One of such pictorial representation is the Venn diagrams are
drawing which illustrate how sets are related. It consists of a rectangle as universal set and
circles as subsets. By shading appropriate areas, all combination of sets can be represented
pictorially.
(1) (2)
U U
A B A B
A ∩ B when A ∩ B ≠ ∅
AUB
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(3) U (4)
U
A B B
A ∩ B when A ∩ B = ∅ A U B when A ⊂ B
U
(5)
A ∩ B when A ⊂ B
Representation of set:
2. Complement of a set:
This is represented by shading the outermost part of a circle denoting a given set. This is
because elements in A is the same as the elements common to A and universal
A
A = innermost part of the circle
AI = outermost part or shaded region
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A B
U
4. Union of sets: i.e elements within the given sets without repetition.
A B
Unions with no intersection, thus n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) i.e all elements are involved
A B
Apart from the properties represented by Venn diagram, there are other combinations that can
be illustrated in the same manner.
Examples include:
AI U B, A U BI, AI ∩ B, (A ∩ B)I, etc.
This can be done by representing each set by different shading lines such as vertical and
horizontal or incline and vertical, where the illustration tends to be complicated, extract of a
rule called De-Morgan’s rule which shall be dealt with.
(i)
A B A B
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AI = vertical shading
B = horizontal shading
AI U B = all shaded regions as shown
(ii)
A B A B
U OR U
A B
AI = vertical shading
BI = horizontal shading
AI U BI = all shaded with the exception of A ∩ B. Alternatively, AI U BI = (A ∩ B)I by De Morgan’s
law. Also, (A ∩ B)I = U – (A ∩ B). i.e universal with the exception of A ∩ B.
A B A B
U U
AI = vertical shading
BI = horizontal shading
AI ∩ B = B only
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A B A B
U U
Two Sets
A B
q
p r U
A = {p,q}, B = {q,r}
(3) As (A U B) = {p, q, r}
(A U B) = A ∩ BI + A ∩ B + AI ∩ B
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(A U B) = (A – A ∩ B) + A ∩ B + (B – A ∩ B)
(A U B) = A + B – n(A ∩ B)
n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)
n(U) = n(A U B) + n(A U B) + n(A U B)I = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B) + n(A U B)I
Three sets
A B
p q
t U
r
u s w
v
c
A = {p, q, r, u}
B = {q, t, r, s}
C = {u, r, s, v}
(A ∩ B ∩ ) = {r}
(A ∩ B) = {q, r}
(A ∩ C) = {u, r}
(B ∩ C) = {r, s}
Also,
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1. q + r = A ∩ B, q = A ∩ B – r, i.e A ∩ B ∩ CI = A ∩ B – (A ∩ B ∩ C)
:- n(A ∩ B ∩ CI) = n(A ∩ B) – n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
i.e elements in A and B only is A and B (total) – intersection of A, B with other set
2. u + r = A ∩ C, U = A U C – r, i.e A ∩ BI ∩ C = A ∩ C – (A ∩ B ∩ C)
: - n(A ∩ BI ∩ C) = n(A ∩ C) – n(A ∩ B ∩ C) elements in A and C (total) – intersection of A, c
with other set.
Similarly, elements in B and C only is B and C (total) – intersection of B,C with other set, i.e
n(AI ∩ B ∩ C) = n(B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
3. p + q + r + u = A
p = A – (q +r + u) = A – (A ∩ B + u) = A – (A ∩ B) – u
i.e A ∩ BI ∩ CI = A – A ∩ B – [(A ∩ C) –n(A ∩ B ∩ C)]
A ∩ BI ∩ CI = A – (A ∩ B) – (A ∩ C) + (A ∩ B ∩ C)
: - n(A ∩ BI ∩ CI) is n(A) – n(A ∩ B) – n(A ∩ C) + (A ∩ B ∩ C)
elements in A only = A (total) – intersection of A with one other set + intersection of the
three.
Similarly, B only = n(AI ∩ B ∩ CI)
n(AI ∩ B ∩ CI) is n(B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(B ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
C only: n(AI ∩ BI ∩ C)
n(AI ∩ BI ∩ C) is n(C) – n(C ∩ A) – n(C ∩ B) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
4. As (A U B U C) = {p,, q, r, s, t, u, v}
(A U B U C) = { A, s, t, v} as A = {p, q, r, u}
(A U B U C) = A + (AI ∩ B ∩ C) + ( AI ∩ B ∩ C) + (AI ∩ B ∩ CI) + (AI ∩ BI ∩ C)
(A U B U C) = A + (B ∩ C – A ∩ B ∩ C) + (B – A ∩ B – B ∩ C + A ∩ B ∩ C) + ( C – C ∩ A – C ∩ B +
A∩B∩C
(A ∩ B ∩ C) is A + B + C – (A ∩ B) – (B ∩ C) – (A ∩ C) + (A ∩ B ∩ C)
n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
n(U) = n(A U B U C) + n(A U B U C)I
n(U) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A U B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) + n(A U B U C)I
Set Laws
Note:
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1. Union and complements are each commutative. The production of the same result
between the given sets when interchanged or with the order of arrangement reversed,
e.g.
(a) A U B = B U A (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
2. Associative: union and intersection are each associative: production of the same result
between the given sets and the results produced when different pairs are combined.
(a) A U B U C = (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)
(b) A ∩ B ∩ C = (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
3. Distributive law: union and intersection each distribute over the other. The production of
the same result between the given sets and the results obtained when a set is shared
over other sets.
(a) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)
(b) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C
Special Relationships
4. For idempotent law: relationship between two identical sets to produce one of them, e.g
(a) A U A = A (b) A ∩ A = A
5. Identity Law: relationship between where one is produced as the output, e.g.
(a) A U ∅ = A (b) A U ⋃ = ⋃
(c) A ∩ ⋃ = A (d) A ∩ ∅ = ∅
6. Complement law: relating to complement set or combination of a set with its
complement.
(a) (AI)I = A (b) A U AI = A (c) A ∩ AI = ∅
7. Absorption law: relationship between sets where one is a subset of the other to produce
one of them.
E.g A U (A ∩ B) = A and A ∩ (A U B) = A
8. De-Morgan’s law: expansion of compliments of joint sets
(a) (A U B)I = AI ∩ BI
(b) (A ∩ B)I = AI U BI
(a) [A ∩ (A ∩ BI)]I = AI U (A ∩ B)
= (AI U A) ∩ (AI U B) ⇒ distributive
= ⋃ ∩ (AI U B) = (AI U B) as (⋃ ∩ N = N)
(b) [A ∩ (AI ∩ BI)]I = AI U (A U B) = (AI U A) U B (non-distributive) = ⋃ U B = ⋃
(c) AI ∩ (A ∪ B)I = AI ∩ (AI ∩ BI) = AI ∩ AI ∩ BI = AI ∩ BI = (A U B)I
Alternatively: AI ∩ (A U B)I = [A U (A U B)]I = (A U B)I
(d) (AI U BI) ∩ (A ∩ B) = (A ∩ B)I ∩ (A ∩ B) = PI ∩ P = ∅
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Prove that A ∩ (B – C) = (A ∩ B) – (A ∩ C)
Solution:
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 − 𝐶) ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 − 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 − 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 − 𝐶)
Solution
The difference, A – B is given by: A – B = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ A and 𝑥 ∉ B}. that is A – B, consists of all the
elements in set A that are not elements of set B.
Examples
Solution
(d) B – C = {7, 10, 12} (e) C – B = {4, 8} (f) A – C = {1, 6, 7, 11, 12}
Consider the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, …, 10} and the subsets P = {2, 3, 7, 8, 10} and Q = {3,
4, 6, 7}. The Venn diagram to illustrate this information is
P Q
2 3 4
U
8 10 7 6
9
5
Example:
Out of the 400 students in the final year in a secondary school, 300 are offering Biology and
190 are offering both Biology and Chemistry
Solution
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U(400)
B (300) C(190)
300 − 𝑥 𝑥 190 − 𝑥
(b) U(400)
B (300) C (190)
300 − 𝑥 𝑥 190 − 𝑥
70
A school has 37 vacancies for teachers, out of which 22 are for English language, 20 for
history and 17 for fine Art. Of these vacancies, 11 are for both English language and
history and fine art and 7 for English language and fine art.
Using a Venn diagram, find the number of teachers who must be able to teach
11 − 𝑥
e h ℎ = 𝐻𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
𝑥 𝑒 + 11 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 7 − 𝑥 = 22
7−𝑥 8−𝑥 𝑒 + 18 − 𝑥 = 22
𝑒 =4+𝑥
f 𝑓 + 7 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 8 − 𝑥 = 17
F (17) 𝑓 + 15 − 𝑥 = 17
𝑓 =2+𝑥
ℎ + 11 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 8 − 𝑥 = 20
ℎ + 19 − 𝑥 = 20
ℎ =1+𝑥
a) 𝑒 + 11 − 𝑥 + ℎ + 7 − 𝑥 + +8 − 𝑥 + 𝑓 = 37
4 + 𝑥 + 11 − 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 + 7 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 8 − 𝑥 + 2 + 𝑥 = 37
4 + 11 + 1 + 7 + 8 + 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 37
33 + 4𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 37
4𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 4
𝑥=4
b) 𝑓 = 2 + 𝑥 (c) No required = 11 − 𝑥
=2+4 = 11 − 4
=6 =7
Example: 3/4 of the girls in a school play Handball, 4/7 play Volleyball. Every girl plays at least one
of these games. If 27 girls play both games, how many girls are in the school?
Let 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑙𝑠
4 3
𝑥 − 27 + 27 + 𝑥 − 27 = 𝑥
7 4
4 3
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 27 = 𝑥
7 4
16𝑥 + 21𝑥 − 28 × 27 = 28𝑥
16𝑥 + 21𝑥 − 28𝑥 = 37𝑥 − 28𝑥 = 28 × 27
𝑥 = 28 × 3 = 84
Example:
During one year in a school, 5/8 of the students had measles, ½ had chicken pox and 1/8 had
neither. What fraction of the students had both measles and chicken pox?
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Solution
5 1 1
5 1 −𝑥+𝑥+2−𝑥+8 = 1
M (8) C (2) 8
5 − 8𝑥 + 8𝑥 + 4 − 8𝑥 + 1 =
8 5 1
−𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥
8 2 −8𝑥 + 10 = 8
1
𝑥=4
Example: A group of students were asked whether they liked History, Science or geography.
Their responses are shown in the table below.
Solution
U(T)
H(h) S(s)
3
20 ## 16
7
4 2
18
G (g)
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b) T = 20 +3 + 16 + 4 + 7 + 2 + 18 + 3 = 73
c) S = 3 + 7 + 2 + 16 = 18
d) n(exactly two subjects) = 3 + 4 + 2 = 9
e) n(at least two subjects) = 3 + 4 + 7 + 2 = 16
Classroom assignment
II. 70 freshmen at Tai Solarin college of education were interviewed and the following
results were obtained. 36 take mathematics, 32 take physics, 32 take chemistry; 16 take
chemistry and physics; 16 take physics and mathematics; 14 take chemistry and
mathematics; 6 take all 3 subjects. How many students take:
(a) Mathematics and neither chemistry nor physics?
(b) Physics only
(c) Chemistry only
(d) None of the subjects
III. Of 165 candidates in an examination, 125 take mathematics, 70 take physics and 85 take
chemistry; 42 take physics and mathematics; 40 take physics and chemistry; 56 take
mathematics and chemistry. How many students take
(a) All three subjects?
(b) Exactly two subjects?
Worked examples
3. P and Q are subsets of the universal set U defined as U ={𝑥: 𝑥 is an integer and 1 < 𝑥 <
15}
P = {𝑥: 𝑥 is odd} and Q = { 𝑥: 𝑥 is prime} find n(PI ∩ QI)
4. If U = {e, f, g, h, p, q, r, s}
M = {e, h, q, s}, N = {h, p, r}
I
Find M U N I
In a science class of 42 students, each student offers at least one of mathematics and physics. If
22 students offer physics and 28 students offer mathematics, find how many students offer
physics only
Solution
U = 42, n(P U M)I = 0
as students must offer at least one of the subjects, n(P) = 32, n(M) = 28
if P ∩ M = x, the P ∩ MI = 22 – x
M ∩ PI = 28 – x
P (22) M (28)
x U = 42
(P U M)I = 0
but U = (P U M) with (P U M)I = 0
: n(U) = n(P) + n(M ∩ PI)
or n(U) = n(M) + n(P ∩ MI)
i.e 42 = 28 + n(P ∩ MI)
n(P ∩ MI) = 42 – 28 = 14
Alternatively,
n(U) = 42, n(P U M)I = 0, n(P) = 22, n(M) = 28
n(U) = n(P) + n(M) – n(P ∩ M) with (P U M)I
i.e 42 = 50 − n(P ∩ M)
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42 = 50 – n(P ∩ M)
n(P ∩ M) = 50 – 42 = 8
physics only = n(P ∩ MI) = n(P) – n(P ∩ M) = 22 – 18 = 14
In a class of 40 students, 24 play football, 18 play volleyball, and 6 do not play any game. How
many students play both football and volleyball?
Solution
Four members of a school first eleven cricket team are also members of the first fourteen rugby
team. How many boys play for at least one of the two teams?
a 4 b
𝑎 = 11 − 4 = 7
𝑏 = 14 − 4 = 10
the boys that played for at least one of the teams is equal to
C U R = a + 4 + b = 7 + 4 + 10 = 21
Example
In a youth club with 94 members, 60 like modern music and 50 like traditional music. The
number of members who like traditional and modern music is there times those that do not
like any type of music. How many members like only one type of music?
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Solution
M (60) T (50)
60 − 3𝑥 3𝑥 50 − 3𝑥 U = 94
(M U T)I = 𝑥
Example: The Venn diagram, below shows the number of students who study Economics,
Geography and P.E at teachers college. How many students studied at least two of the three
subjects?
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Out of 25 teachers, 16 are married and 15 are women. If 6 of the men are married, how
many of the women are not married?
Solution
In this, marriage, men and women are involved as a man cannot be a woman, the three
can’t be intersected. Thus it is a set problem that involves 3 elements but with no
intersection of the three.
Solution
10 − 6 = 4 6 𝑥 𝑈(25)
Let 𝑥 = women that are not married, from 25 teachers given 15 are women
: men = (25 – 15) = 10
Thus 4 + 16 + 𝑥 = 25
(men only + married + women only = Union)
𝑥 = 25 − 20 = 5
Exercises
1. The venn diagram below represents a universal set U of the integers and its subsets
P and Q. List the elements
(a) P U Q (b) P ∩ Q (c) U ∩ Q (d) P U 𝑈
P Q
2 3 4
U
8 10 7 6
9
5
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2. A company employs 79 people, 52 of whom are men, 38 people including all the
women are clerical staff. Draw a Venn diagram suitable to show the information.
Otherwise find the number of men that are clerical staff.
M (52) CS (38)
W
𝑥 U = 79
D=0
3. Of the pupils surveyed at the end of a term, 128 had applied for university of ibadan
95 for Lagos and 94 for Nsukka. 42 had applied for Ibadan and Lagos, 24 for Nsukka
and Ibadan, while 8 had applied for all three. How many pupils took part in the
survey?
4. In a school certificate exam where there are 48 students, 20 offer physics, 23 offer
chemistry, 30 offer biology, 11 offer both physics and chemistry, 9 offer both
chemistry and biology and 10 offer both physics and biology.
(a) Find the number of students that offer all the three subjects
(b) Find the number that offer only physics
(c) find the number that offer only one subject
(d) find the number that offer two subject combination
Solution
n(U) = 48, n(P) = 20, n(C) = 23, n(B) = 30, n(P ∩ C) = 11, n(C ∩ B) = 9, n(P ∩ B) = 10
a) n(U) = n(P U C U B) where nobody offers none
:-n(U) = n(P U C U B) = n(P) + n(C) + n(B) – n(P ∩ C) – n(P ∩ B) – n(C ∩ B) + n(P
∩ C ∩ B)
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48 = 20 + 23 + 30 – 11 – 10 – 9 + n(P ∩ C ∩ B)
n(P ∩ C ∩ B) = 5; all three subjects = 5 students
b) only physics = n(P ∩ CI ∩ BI) = n(P) – n(P ∩ C) – n(P ∩ B) + n(P ∩ C ∩ B)
= 20 – 11 – 10 + 5 =
c) only one subject = physics only + chemistry only + biology only
Chemistry only = n(PI ∩ C ∩ BI) = n(C) – n(P ∩ C) – n(C ∩ B) + n(P ∩ C ∩ B)
= 23 – 11 – 9 + 5 = 23 – 15 = 8
I I
Biology only = n(P ∩ C ∩ B) = n(B) – n(C ∩ B) – n(P ∩ B) + n(P ∩ C ∩ B)
= 30 – 9 – 10 + 5 = 16
numbers that offer only a subject = 4 + 8 +16 = 28
d) number that offer two subjects combination: means physics and chemistry
only, physics and biology only, or biology and chemistry only
Physics and chemistry only = n(P ∩ C ∩ B) = n(P ∩ C) – n(P ∩ C ∩ B) = 11 – 5 =
6
Physics and biology only = n(P ∩ B ∩ CI) = n(P ∩ B) – n(P ∩ B ∩ C) = 10 – 5 = 5
Biology and chemistry only = n(PI ∩ C ∩ B) = n(C ∩ B) – n(P ∩ C ∩ B) = 9 – 5 =
4
number that offer two subjects in combination is equal to 6 + 5 + 4 = 15
5. In a survey of 290 newspaper readers, 181 read the Daily times, 142 read the
Guardian, 117 read The Punch and each of the three reads at least one of the three
newspapers. If 75 read The Daily Times and The Guardian, 60 read The Daily Times
and Punch and 54 read The Guardian and Punch,
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate this information
(b) How many readers read
i. all the three papers
ii. Exactly 2 of the papers
iii. Exactly one of the papers
iv. The Guardian alone
6. There are 70 women in a club. Each plays at least one of the following games:
volleyball, basketball and table tennis. 20 play volleyball only, 10 play basketball only
and 6 play table tennis only. 4 play all the three games and equal number play two
games only.
(a) Illustrate this information in a Venn diagram
(b) Find the number of women who play volleyball
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V B
20 𝑥
4
𝑥 𝑥
6
Solution
T
(a) n(U) = 70
n(V ∩ B ∩ TI) = 𝑥
n(B ∩ T ∩ VI) = 𝑥
n(V U B U T)I = 0
n(V ∩ T ∩ BI) = 𝑥
(a) n(U) = n(V U B U T) as nobody plays none
n(U) = n(V) + 10 + 𝑥 + 6
70 = (20 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 4) + 10 + 𝑥 + 6 = 40 + 3𝑥
3𝑥 = 70 − 40 = 30
𝑥 = 10
(b) number of women who plays volleyball is equal to
20 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 4 = 24 + 2𝑥 + 4 = 24 + 2(10) = 24 + 20
no of women who plays volleyball = 44
7. There are 150 people in an international medical conference, 40 are Africans, 70 are
women and 110 are doctors. 12 of the women are Africans, 46 of the doctors are women
and 31 of the Africans are doctors.
if 5 of the African men are not
(a) How many of the doctors, African women are doctors?
(b) How many of the men are neither African nor doctors?
A (40) W (70)
12 − 𝑥
5 a
𝑥 U (150)
31 − 𝑥 46 − 𝑥
Analytical method
n(U) = 150 b
D (110)
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n(A) = 50
n(W) = 70
n(D) = 110
n(W ∩ A) = 12
n(A ∩ D) = 31
n(A ∩ M ∩ DI) = 5
as man is not in the data given, a suitable is needed.
Also men = those that are not women
: M = WI
: n(A ∩ M ∩ DI) =
:- n(A ∩ WI ∩ DI) = 5
(a) African women that are doctors = n(A ∩ W ∩ D)
but n(A ∩ WI ∩ DI) = n(A) – n(A ∩ W) –n(A ∩ D) + n(A ∩ W ∩ D)
5 = 40 − 12 − 31 + n(A ∩ W ∩ D)
n(A ∩ W ∩ D) = 5 − 40 + 12 + 31 = 8
(b) men that are neither Africans nor doctors, i.e union complement
But, n(U) = n(A U W U D) + n(A U W U D)I
n(U) = n(A) + n(W) + n(D) – n(A ∩ W) – n(W ∩ D) + n(A ∩ W ∩ D) + n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI)
150 = 40 + 70 + 110 − 12 − 31 − 46 + 8 +n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI)
150 = 139 + n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI)
n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI) = 150 – 139 = 11
Alternative method
Venn diagram
let 𝑥 = n(A ∩ W ∩ D)
n(D ∩ W) = 46
n(A ∩ D) = 31, n(W ∩ A) = 12, n(A ∩ M ∩ DI) = 5
(a) men that are neither African nor Doctor is n(M ∩ AI ∩ DI) as M = WI
men that are neither Africans nor doctors is n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI)
i.e elements not in the three sets in union complement
𝑎 = 70 − (46 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 12 − 𝑥)
𝑎 = 70 − (58 − 𝑥)
𝑎 = 70 − 58 + 𝑥 = 12 + 𝑥
Thus n(U) = n(D) + 5 + 12 − 𝑥 + 𝑎 +n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI)
n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI) = 150 – 139 = 11
In a certain class, 22 pupils take one or more of chemistry, Economics and Gov’t 12 take
Economics (E), 8 take gov’t (G) and 7 take chemistry (C) nobody takes Economics and Chemistry
and 4 pupils take Economics and Gov’t
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(a) using set notation and the letters indicated above, write down the two statements in the
last sentence
(b) Draw a venn diagram to illustrate the information
(c) How many pupils take
i. both chem and gov’t
ii. Govt only
Solution
(a) i. Nobody takes economics and chemistry means n(E ∩ C) = 0 or E ∩ C = ∅
4 pupils takes economics and gov’t means n(E ∩ G) = 4
ii. Let 𝑥 represent n(C ∩ G)
U = 56
Each of the 56 pupils in the fourth year of a small school studies at least one of the subjects:
H
History, English and Agriculture. Of the 14 pupils who studyEAgric, 4 also study History and
English, 3 study neither nor history and 5 study English but not history. Of the 42 pupils who do
not study Agric, 6 study both history and English, 𝑥 study only history and 2𝑥 study only English
(a) Draw a Venn diagram and show the number of pupils in each school. Hence, find
i. the value of 𝑥
ii. The total number of pupils studying English
𝑥 6 2𝑥
4
𝑦 1
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n(A) = 14
of the 14 pupils that study Agric, 4 also study History and English means n(A ∩ H ∩ E) = 4
of the 14 pupils that study Agric, 3 study neither History nor English means
n(A ∩ (H U E)I) = 3 or n(AI ∩ HI ∩ EI) = 3
of the 14 pupils that study Agric, 5 study English but not History means
n(A ∩ E ∩ HI) = 5
n(AI) = 42
of the 42 pupils that do not study Agric, 6 study both history and English means
n(AI ∩ H ∩ E)
of the 42 pupils that do not study Agric, 𝑥 study only history,
n(AI ∩ H ∩ EI) = 𝑥,
n(AI ∩ H ∩ EI) = 2𝑥
let H ∩ A ∩ EI = 𝑦
then 𝑦 + 4 + 1 + 3 = 14
𝑦 + 8 = 14
𝑦=6
Also, 𝑥 + 6 + 4 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 6 + 3 = 56
3𝑥 = 56 − 20 = 36
𝑥 = 12
Total number of students studying English is equal to
2𝑥 + 6 + 4 + 1 = 2(12) + 11 = 24 + 11 = 35
Miscellaneous Examples
1. Given that
R = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
S = {3, 4, 5} and
R = {4, 6, 8, 10}, then U is ?
2. In a class of 40 students, each student offers at least one of physics or chemistry. If the
number of students that off physics is three times the number that offer both subjects
and the number that offer chemistry is twice the number that offer physics, the number
of students that offer physics only is?
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Solution
n(U) = 40 = n(P U C) + n(P U C)I
n(P U C)I = 0, n(U) = 𝑥
n(P) = 3𝑥
n(C) = 2(3𝑥) = 6𝑥
n(P ∩ CI) = ?
n(P U C) = n(P) + n(C) – (P ∩ C)
40 = 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 − 𝑥
40 = 8𝑥
𝑥=5
Physics only = n(P ∩ CI) = n(P) – n(P ∩ C)
3𝑥 − 𝑥 = 3(5) − 5 = 15 − 5 = 10
3. In a certain exam, 72 offered maths, 64 English and 63 French. 18 offered both maths and
English, 24 maths and French and 20 English and French. 8 candidates offered all three
subjects. How many candidates were there for the examination?
v. A ∩ B when A ⊂ B
Solution
i. U ii.
U
A B B
AUB
A ∩ B when A ∩ B ≠ ∅
iii. U Iv. U
A B B
A U B when A ⊂ B
v. U
A ∩ B when A ⊂ B
(ii) Let P = {𝑥: 𝑥 is an odd number divisible by 3}, find the cardinality
11. Given that P = {𝑥: 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 16} 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑. Find the cardinality of P.
If Fig 1 is: Fig 2:
n(A) n(B)
n(A)
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i. If A and B are two different set as shown in fig (1) such that
A ∩ B ≠ ∅, then n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)
Thus, given that n(A ∩ B) = 4, n(A ∩ BI) = 18, n(AI ∩ B) = 10 and U = A U B. draw a
Venn diagram to illustrate the information above and use it to find
(i) n(A) (ii) n(B) (iii) n(A U B)
Solution
A B
The venn diagram representing
18 4 10 the given information is shown
as above
i. n(A) = 18 + 4 = 22
ii. n(B) = 4 + 10 = 14
since A ∩ B ≠ ∅
iii. n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B) = 22 + 14 − 4 = 32
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12. In a class of 500 students, 200 took math, 180 took physics and 70 took maths and
physics. Find
(I) the number of students that did not take either of the two subjects
(II) the number of students that took mathematics only
(III) the number of students that took physics only
n(M ∩ P) = 70
13. In a survey of 100 housewives, it was discovered that each woman used at least one
brand of three detergents (Omo, Surf and elephant) 42 of them used Ono detergent, 50
used Surf detergent, 48 used Elephant detergent, 12 if them used Omo and Surf, 18 used
Elephant and Surf and 13 used elephant and Omo detergent.
i. How many of them used the three brands of detergents?
ii. How many of them used Elephant detergent only?
14. List all the elements of the following sets
i. R = {𝑥| 2𝑥 2 − 50 = 0}
ii. T = {𝑥| 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 25 < 𝑥 ≤ 40}
Ans: i. R = {-5,5}
ii. T = {27, 29, 31, 33, 37, 38}
15. Describe the following in words
i. A = {Jan, March, May, July, August, October, December}
ii. B = {8, 12, 16, 20, 24}
Ans: i. A = {𝑥| 𝑥 is the month of the year with 31 days}
ii. B = {𝑥| 𝑥 is a multiple of 4 and 8≤ 𝑥 ≤ 24}
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If F = {2, 3, 6, 8, 10}
G = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
H = {3, 6, 7, 8}
Find i. F – G ii. (G – F) ∩ H
Ans: i. {2, 8, 10}
ii. {7}
Given that
U = {p, q, r, s, t, u, v}
R = {q, s, u, v}
T = {q, r, s, t, v}
W = {r, s, t, u, v}
Find i. (R ∩ TI) U W ii. (RI U T) ∩ W iii. T – RI
Ans: i. {r, s, t, u, v}
ii. {p, q}
iii. {q, r, s}
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INDICES
> Use the relationship between indices and logarithms to solve problems
a3. The letter a is called the base while the 2.(am)P = amp e.g. (92)3 = 92x3 = 96
below:
3
iii a m x b m a x b e.g. (53 x 43 ) 2 (5x4) 6
n mn
a) 5 x 5 x 5 =5
(axb) n a n x b n e.g. (5 x2) 3 53 x 23
b) 7 x 7 x 7 x 7 x 7 x 7 x 7 x 7 =78 iv.
5
In 53, the number 5 is the base and 3 is the 1 1
6. a n n a 0 a n e.g 4 3 3 and
a 4
index or power or Exponent. In m3, the base
8
is m and index is 3. 8 x 2
x2
Also, 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 5 x 5 x 5= 24 x i 1
7. a k
k a e.g 6 2
6 and
3
5.
1
64 3
3 64
The analysis and simplification depend on
as enumerated below. 3
81 4 4 813 81
4
3
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5 27
3 / 2
5 81m 8 3/ 4
(7) 5
2/3
(8) 8
2/3 81
(9)
16
10. If mk =nk, then m = n e.g x3 =83 x
(10)
152n 1 x 25n x92n
=8 0.0642 / 3 (11) (12) 282m2 49m4
75n x 3n 1 x 452n
(ii) 16
3 5
Examples: Evaluate (i) 81 4 4 (iii) 13.
8 66 x
813 33 27 or 34 4 33 27
3
4
i.
Equations involving indices: indicial
5 / 4 1 1 1 1 Equations
ii. (16) 5 / 4 4( 5 / 4) 5
16 2 2 32
The basic principle is that
iii. 32 1/ 5
2 5( v5)
2 2 1
Equal bases Equal Indices, and
if x m y m x y
43
v. 2 x2 2
4 3
2 7
Let 2 n m
m 2 x 2 15m 8
2m 2 15m 8
2m 2 15m 8 0
2m 2 16m 8 0
2m m 8 1m 8 0
m 8 2m 1 0
m 8 0 2m 1 0
m 8 or m 1
2
Then, 2 m
x
2x 8
2 x 33
x3
when m 1 2 x 1
2, 2
2 x 2 1
x 1
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f 8 2 2 8 x 4 4
x 3 3
3 x 12 30
3 12
2 2
2 8
x2 2
3 3n
3x 3 3
x 1 2 0 2 2
2 8 2
x3 0 n 3 1 1 3x 3 12
2 2
x 03 2 8
x 3 3x 15
2 8
24 x 30
24 24
10
x 5 11
8 4 4
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Example 5:
(a) (25) x1 64 5 2 , find x
6
(b)3x 27 c If 3x 9 , find x
d 5x1 5x 150,
find x
(e) 8 64 x 4 , express x u=in terms of y
2x 3y
1
(f) Solve for x, if 5 x 40 x 2
1
(g) Solve for x if x 9 9 x 2
1
(i) 8 x 2
25
92 x1 1
(j) If , find x
27 x1 9
31n 1
(k) If 2n , find n
9 9
1
(l) Solve x 2 27 1 x
81
5 . 5 5n 150
x 1
3 3
3 9
x 3
2 2
5n 51 1 150
x
5 2 x 2
5 6 x3
3x 9 5 x 6
2x 2 6 150
3x 32 6
2x 6 2 5n 25
x2
2x 8 5n 52
x8 n2
2
x4
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(e) 82 X 64 X 43 y ( g ) x 9 9 x1/ 2
2 3( 2 x ) 2 6 x 2 2 ( 3 y ) ( f ) 5 x 40 x 1 / 2
Square both sides
26 x 26 6 y x 40 x 2 9 2. 9 x1/ 2
6x 6 6 y x 1 / 2 5 x2
I 1 / 2 9 21
6x 6 6 y X 8 x 1/ 2
6 x 3 / 2 ( 2 / 3) 8 ( 2 / 3) x 21/ 2 93
x 1 y x 82 / 3 x 3 / 2 93
23( 2 / 3) 2 2 4` x 3 / 2 x 2 / 3 9 3( 2 / 3)
x 9 2 81
8 x 1
2 92 x 1 1
(h) 10 y 52 y 2 4 y 1 1 (i) (j)
25 27 x 1 9
(2 x 5) y 52 y 2 x 22 y 2 1 2
x 2 8
(2 5) y ( 2 5) 2 y _ 2 1 25 322 x 1 1
10 y 102 y _ 2 1 x 2
2 1 33 x 1 32
25 8
10 y 102 y _ 2 100
1
10 y 2 y 2 100 x 2 34 x _ 2 32
100
103 y _ 2 100 33 x 3 1
x 102
2
4 x 2 3 x 3 2
3 3
3y 2 0 x 10
3y 0 2 34 x 2 33 x 32
3y 2 4 x 2 3x 1
4 x 3x 1 2
3 3
y2 x 3
3
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Y 2 12Y 32 0
Y ( y 4) 8( y 4) 0
( y 8) ( y 4) 0
y 8 or 4
2x y
2x 8
2 x 23
x3
2 x 22
x 2 or 3
Classroom activity 10
Logarithm
Introduction
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The logarithm of a positive number N to the base a is defined as the power of a which is
equation N. Thus if ax = N, then x is the logarithm of N to the base a, written as
x loga N
In the same vein, the logarithm to base a, of a number P, is the index x to which a must be raised
to be equal to P. Thus if P = ax then x is the logarithm to the base a of P. We write thus as x =
logaP. The relations logaP = x and ax = p are equivalent to each other. The form p = ax is called
index form, while the form logaP = x is the logarithmic form. You should be able to change from
the index form to the logarithmic form and vice versa.
1. Write each of the following index forms in the logarithmic forms:
(a) 125 = 53 (b) 1 = 49o (c) 81 = 92
Solution
(a) If 125 = 53 then log5 125 = 3 (b) if 1 = 49o then log491 = 0
(c) If 81 = 92 then log981 = 2
2. Write each of the following logarithmic form in their index forms:
(a) log232 = 5 (b) log10 (0.001) = -3 (c) log1/2(0.125) = 3
Solution
(a) If log232 = 5 then 32 = 25
(b) If log10(0.001) = 3 then 0.001 = 10-3
(c) If log1/2(0.125) = 3 then 0.125 = (½3
Two special logarithms since ao = 1 for all a 0, since a1 = a for all a. This log81 = 0
Log55=1
Loga1=0
Loga9=1
Laws of Logarithms
Because logarithms are indices, the laws of logarithms are similar to the laws of Indices
M
(i) log(MN) = logaM + logaN (ii) log a log a N log a N
N
log a M
(iii) loga(M)P = PlogaM (iv) log N M (v) aloga n n
log a N
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1
(vi) log a n
log n a
Example:
(iii) log3 24 log3 15 log3 10 (iv) log 1 27 (v) 5 log32 8 (vi)
32
(1) (i) log 2 (ii) log2 0.25
9
log 9 2 log 1
3 (vii) 82 log8 2 2 log 2
3 5
(viii) 53 log 5 22 log 2
2 3
log 36 log 4
log 8
(2) (i) (ii) log7 98 log7 18 log7 9 (iii) log4 2 log4 34 log4 0.25 (iv)
log 12 log 3
48 4 170 1 1
log10 2 log10 log10 (v) log10 a 3
log10 a 1 log10 a 7 (vi)
17 7 147 4 12
(iv) log x 8 3
Solution 25
log 2 0.25 log 2
(i) log 2 32 x (iii) 100
2 x 32 2x
1
2 x 25 4
x 5 2 2 2
x
x 2
or
(ii) log3 24 log3 15 log3 10
25
24 15 log 2 0.25 log 2
log3 100
10 11
log3 36 log 2
4
log3 62 2 log3 6 log 2 log 2 4
1
0 log 2 4 0 log 2 22
0 2 log 2 2 0 2(1)
(iv) log11` 27 y 0 2 2
9
y
1
27
9
32 y 33
2y 3
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15 5 x 1 log 34 4 log 3
2 log8 X 2 log8
3(1)
1 log 33 2 log 3
15 3 log8 X 2 log8 3
5
log8 X log8 32
X 9
Find : 53 log 5 2 2 log 2 3 then,
2
(viii)(2i)
log 8 Y 2 2 log 2 5
log 12 log 3 log 2 Y log 2 2 2 log 2 5
log 23 log 2 Y 2 log 2 5 log 2 2
log 3 4 log 3 log 2 Y 2 log 2 5(1)
3 log 2 log 2 Y 2 log 2 5
log 3 log 4 log 3 log 2 Y log 2 52
3 log 2 3 Y 25
11
2 log 2 2 2
XY 9 25
225
17 49 147
48 49 170
log10
17 16 147
log10 10 1
r
8 2
N
r
log 2 2(8 2 ) S
log 2 2(8 2 ) 4 r
r
r
log 2 2 log 2 8 2 4 r
log 2 2 r log 2 8 4 r
2
1 r 4r
2 log 2 23
1 3r log 2 2 4 r
2
1 3r 4r
2
3r r
4 1
2 1
3r 2r
3
2
r 3
2 1
r 6
6
8 2
N
N 83 512
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101 2 x x 8 3
2 x 10
1 ( 3)
x 2
3
x5 3
x 2
23
log10 100 3 2
3 23
x 2 3
2
3(5)
3 2
3 23
log10 10 1 x 2 3
2
15 15 x 22 4
49
1
16 log
log 3 16
log 7 log 7
4 4
2
7 7
log 2 log
4 4
log 7 7
4 log
4
2
log10 2x 2
5 x 2 log 10
10
log 3x2
2
8 x 1 log 2
2
2 x 2 5 x 2 10 3x 8 x 1 2
2
2 x 5 x 2 10 0
2
3x 3 8 x 1 2 0
2 x 2 5 12 0 3x 2 8 x 3 0
2 x 2 8 x 3x 12 0 3x 2 9 x x 3 0
2 xx 4 3x 4 0 3x 2 x 3 1x 3 0
x 42 x 3 0 x 33x 1 0
x 4 0 or 2 x 3 0 x3 0 0r 3x 1 0
x 4 0r 3 x 3 0r x 1
2 3
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Algebraic Equations
Linear Equations
A linear equation is one in which the highest power of the variable/unknown is 1. To solve a linear
equation we perform one or more of the following ‘’operations’’.
Example 1
Solutions
(a) 𝑥 − 3 = 8 (c) 5𝑥 + 6 = 3𝑥 − 14
Add 3 to both sides Collect like terms
𝑥−3+3 = 8+3 5𝑥 − 3𝑥 = −14 − 6
𝑥 = 11 2𝑥 = −20
Divide each side by 2
𝑥 = −10
(e) Ata’s sister, Aina is seven years younger than he is. Twenty years ago, Aina’s age was only three-
quarters of Ata’s age . How old is Aina now?
(f) A father is now three times as old as his son. Twelve years ago, he was six times as old as his
son. How old is the son now?
𝑥−2 3𝑥−4
(g) Solve the equation 3
− 4 =1
2 3 5
(h) 𝑦−1
+ 𝑦+1 = 𝑦
2(𝑧−1) 3(2𝑧+1) 𝑧−2
(i) Solve: 3 − 4 = 5
(j) A man drove from B to C, a distance of 48𝑘𝑚, in 45 minutes. Where the surface is good, he
drives at 72𝑘𝑚/ℎ; where it is bad at 48𝑘𝑚/ℎ. Find the number of the km at the good surface.
(k) A certain sum of money consists of 30 coins some of which are 10 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 pieces and the rest of
which are 5 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 pieces. If the total value of the coins is ℵ2, find the number of 10 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜
pieces.
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATION:
Sometimes it is more convenient if we introduce a second letter to represent another unknown.
One equation in the unknown is satisfied by as many pair of values as we wish, but if we have
two equations in two unknowns, they usually have only one pair of solutions.
Solve: 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 12
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = −1
One can solve by substitution or elimination method.
Multiply (i) by 4 and (ii) by 3. This produce equations in which the coefficients of 𝑥 are equal.
Sometimes it is easier to choose multipliers so that the coefficient of 𝑦 become equal
12𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 48 ----------------(iii)
12𝑥 − 9𝑦 = −3 ---------------(iv)
And subtract (iv) from (iii), so that the term of 𝑥 disappear.
17𝑦 = 51
:.𝑦 = 3
Substitute in (i): 3𝑥 + 6 = 12
. : 3𝑥 = 6 and 𝑥 = 2.
Example: The expression (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦) is equal to 8 when 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 2, it is equal to 13 when
𝑥 = 2and 𝑦 = 3. Find its value when 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = 2.
3 2
Solve : 𝑟 − 𝑠 = 1 ---------(i)
8 2
𝑟
− 𝑠 = 10 ----------(ii)
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4
Hence 𝑥 = 19 𝑜𝑟 4
4 89
∴𝑥= ,𝑦 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = −1 .
19 19
4 89
Hence the points of intersection are (19 , 19) and (4, −1).
Solve: 𝑦 − 2𝑥 = −2, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 19
Solve the equations: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 13, 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 = −6
The expression (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥) is 8 when 𝑥 = 2 and 27 when 𝑥 = 3. Find its values when 𝑥 = −1.
A number of two digits is increased by 54 when the digits are reversed . The sum of the digits is
12. Find the number
A tobacconist bought a certain number of pipes at 𝑁1.50 each and others at 𝑁1.70 each. Had
he bought half at 𝑁1.50 and twice as many at 𝑁1.70, his bill would have been 𝑁196 instead of
the 𝑁188 which he actually paid. How many pipes did he buy altogether ?
2. A motorist travels 15𝑘𝑚 to the litre of petrol and 600𝑘𝑚 to the litre of oil. He estimates that an
animal distance of 600𝑘𝑚 will cost him 𝑁102 on petrol and oil. In fact, he used twice as much oil as he
estimated and the cost was 𝑁108. Find the cost of a litre of petrol.
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Suppose the cost of a litre of petrol is 𝑥 kobo and the cost of a litre of oil is 𝑦 kobo.
In travelling 600km, he estimates to use 400 litres of petrol and 10 litres of oil.
The cost of these is (400𝑥 + 10𝑦)𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜.
∴ 400𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 10200
He actually used 20 litres of oil.
∴ 400𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 10800
Subtract (i) from (ii) , 10𝑦 = 600
𝑦 = 60
Substitute in (i) , 400𝑥 + 600 = 10200, 400𝑥 = 9600
𝑥 = 24
The cost of a litre of petrol is 24 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜
Check; 400 litres of petrol at 24 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 cost 𝑁96
10 litres of oil at 60 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 cost 𝑁6
20 litres of oil at 24 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 cost 𝑁12 .
The estimated cost is 𝑁102
The actual cost is 𝑁108
Classwork
1. The sum of the ages of a father and the son is 52 years. Eight years ago, the father was eight
times as old as his son. How old is the father now?
1
2. The charge for electricity is 3 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 per unit for lighting and 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 per unit for heating. A man’s
2
bill for a quarter
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QUADRATIC EQUATION
3𝑦
4. 𝑦 2 − 2
II Completing The Square
5. 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥
(𝑥 − 3)2 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 3) 6. 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 9 7. 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9
Hence, 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = (𝑥 − 3)2 − 9 Example: By completing the square,
(𝑥 − 3)2 − (−3)2 solve the equation 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 1 =
So, given 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 we can complete the 0
1
square . The key is 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥). First check that the factorization method
Example: Complete the squares for cannot be used. Now make the coefficient of 𝑥
(a) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 unity.
3 1 3 1
(b) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − = 0 i.e. 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 =
2 2 2 2
Now complete the square on the left hand side:
3 2 3 2
2
(a) 𝑥 + 3𝑥 = (𝑥 + 2
) − (+ 2) 3 2 9 1
(𝑥 − ) − =
3 9 2 4 16 2
(𝑥 + ) − 3 2 1 9 17
2 4 Hence (𝑥 − 4) = 2 + 16 = 16
Coefficient of 𝑥 is
3 17
1
+3, (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥) is +
3 We now take the sequence root: 𝑥 − = ±√
4 16
2 2
(b) We can only complete the square if √17
𝑥=±
the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is 1. So we 4
Both square roots must be taken, so we write
rewrite the expression as 2 (𝑥 2 −
± (+𝑜𝑟−)
𝑥 1
).The coefficient of 𝑥 is now − 2. 3 √17 3±4.123
2 Hence 𝑥 = 4 ± 4
= 4
1 7.123
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 2(𝑥 2 − 𝑥) The two roots are therefore = 1.78 or
2 4
1 2 1 2 −1.123
− 4 = −0.28, correct to 2d.p
2 [(𝑥 − ) − ( ) ]
4 4
Note that as √17 is irrational, the roots can only
1 2 1 be found approximately.
2 [(𝑥 − ) − ]
4 16 Example: Solve 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
1 2 1 2 1
2 (𝑥 − ) − Rewrite 𝑥 2 − 3 𝑥 = − 3
4 8
1 2 2 1 2
Check this by expanding the bracket i.e. (𝑥 − 3) = − 3 + 9 = − 9
Taking the square roots:
Exercise:
1 −2
𝑥− = ±√
Complete the squares of the 3 9
following 2
However, no real number equals 𝑥 − √− 9. The
𝑏 2 𝑏 2 𝑐
(𝑥 + ) −( ) =− We must first put the equation into standard
2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏2 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 form. Remove the fractions by multiplying both
Or (𝑥 + 2𝑎) = − 𝑎 + 4𝑎2 = 4𝑎 2 sides by the L.C.M 2(𝑥 + 2)
Taking the square roots: Then 2(𝑥 + 4) = (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 2)
𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 2𝑥 + 8 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 10
𝑥+ =±
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑥 + 8 = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10
𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10 − 2𝑥 − 8 = 0
𝑥=− ±
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2 = 0
𝟐
−𝒃 ± √𝒃 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 Then: 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑐 = 2.
𝒙=
𝟐𝒂 Hence 𝑥 =
−5±√25−4(1)(2) −5±√17
= 2 =
−5±4.123
Roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 2 2
−5+4.123 −0.8777
𝑐=0 The roots are 2
= 2 = −0.444
If you use this formula to solve a quadratic −5−4.123 −9.123
And 2
= 2 = −4.56
equation, make sure you know the formula
correctly and use the appropriate values of a, b
Each correct to2 decimal places.
and c. Always write down these values first.
Example:
Note : Most likely you would prefer to solve
Solve the equation
quadratic equation by the formula, if the
(a) 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 1 = 0
method of factorisation does not work. On the
(b) 1 − 3𝑥 2 = 5𝑥
whole, it is the most direct method . However it
is essential for later use to know how to
(a) 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = −3, 𝑐 = −1
complete the square on expressions like 𝑎𝑥 2 +
−(−3)±√(−3)2 −4(2)(−1)
Hence 𝑥 = 2×2 𝑏𝑥; such as find the maximum or miminum
3 ± √9 + 8 3 ± √17 values of the quadratic functions or dealing
𝑥= =
4 4
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Examples: Examples:
If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0, find
the values of (a) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 (b) 𝛼 − 𝛽 (c) 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 If 𝛼, 𝛽 are the roots of 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1 = 0,
1 1 construct equations whose roots are:
(d) + (e) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 (f) 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 (g) 𝛼 4 − 𝛽 4
𝛼 𝛽 1 1 1 1
From the given equation we know that 𝛼 + 𝛽 = (a) 5𝛼, 5𝛽 (b) 𝛼 2 , 𝛽 2 (c) 𝛼 + 𝛽 , 𝛽 + 𝛼 (d) 𝛼 , 𝛽
1 Use the form
and 𝛼𝛽 = −1. Each of the function (a) – (g)
2
𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 + (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 ) = 0
must be expressed in terms of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽
to derive the equation. In case each the sum and
only. Note the methods used.
product of the new roots is expressed in terms of
5
2 2 2
𝛼 + 𝛽 , 𝛼𝛽. From the given equation 𝛼 + 𝛽 = −
3
(a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 = (𝛼 + 𝛽) − 2𝛼𝛽 1
1 9 ,𝛼𝛽 = − .
3
= +2 = (a) Sum of new roots = 5𝛼 + 5𝛽 = 5(𝛼 + 𝛽)
4 4
(b) 𝛼 − 𝛽 cannot be found directly we use 5 25
= 5 (− ) = −
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽 3 3
Product of new roots (5𝛼)(5𝛽) = 25𝛼𝛽
1 1 4 17
− 4(−1) = + = 1 25
4 4 1 4 25 (− ) = −
3 3
√17 25 25
Hence 𝛼 − 𝛽 = ± 2
depending on whether Hence the required equation is 𝑥 2 + − = 0
𝑥 3
𝛼 > 𝛽 or 𝛼 < 𝛽. 3𝑥 2 + 25 − 25 = 0
(c) 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 − 𝛽) (b) Sum of new roots 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽
1 √17 √17 25 2 31
= (2) ( ) = (taking 𝛼 > 𝛽) + =
2 4 9 3 9
1 1
1 1 𝛽+𝛼 2 1 Product = 𝛼 2(𝛽 2 ) = (𝛼𝛽)2 =
(d) 𝛼
+𝛽 = 𝛼𝛽
= −1
= −2 9
2 31 1
3 3 So the new equation is 𝑥 − 𝑥+ =0
(e) 𝛼 ± 𝛽 .These can be factorized. Note 9 9
9𝑥 2 − 31𝑥 + 1 = 0
the results for future use. 1 1
(c) Sum of new roots = (𝛼 + ) + (𝛽 + )
𝛼 ± 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 ± 𝛽)(𝛼 2 ∓ 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 )
3 𝛽 𝛼
to determine an unknown coefficient in the 10. Find the values of 𝑝 which the equation
equation. (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 𝑝 has roots which differ by 2.
Example: 11. If the roots of the 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 differ by 1,
One root of the equation 27𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 8 = 0 is show that they are
𝑎−𝑏
and −
𝑎+𝑏
, and prove
2𝑎 2𝑎
known to be the squares of the other. Find 𝑏. 2
that 𝑏 = 𝑎(𝑎 + 4𝑐).
Let, the roots be 𝛼 and 𝛼 2. 12. One root of the equation 2𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is
𝑏 8
Then 𝛼 + 𝛼 2 = − and 𝛼 × 𝛼 2 = three times the other root. Prove that 3𝑏 2 =
27 27
8
𝛼3 = 32𝑐.
27
2
𝛼= More Examples
3
Then 𝛼 + 𝛼 = −2 𝑏 Types of roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 +
27
2 4 𝑏 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 given by
+ =−
3 9 27 −𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑏 = −30. 𝑥= are either equal or distinct
2𝑎
according to the value of 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐. Three
Examples: restrictions can be placed on the value of the
discriminant (𝐷).
1. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 = 5, calculate 1. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐, the roots real and coincident ,
the values of the following:
(i.e. we have equal roots);
(a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 (b) 𝛼𝛽 (c) 𝛼 − 𝛽 (d) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 (e)
1 1 2. If 𝑏 2 > 4𝑎𝑐, the roots are real and distinct (i.e.
𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 (f)𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 (g) +
𝛼 𝛽 we have different roots);
2. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of the given equations, 3. If 𝑏 2 < 4𝑎𝑐, the roots are complex and distinct,
construct new equations whose roots are (i) (i.e. we have different have roots ).
1 1
2𝛼 , 2𝛽 (ii) 𝛼 2 , 𝛽 2 (iii) , (iv) 𝛼 3 , 𝛽 3 (v) 𝛼 +
𝛼 𝛽
1,𝛽 + 1
3. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − Examples:
5 = 0, form the equation whose roots are 2𝛼 − Check or determines the nature of roots of the
1
, 2𝛽 − .
1 following quadratic equations:
𝛽 𝛼
(i) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0
4. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0, form (ii) 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 0
𝛼 𝛽
the equation whose roots are , (iii) 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 0
𝛽 𝛼
2
5. One root of the equation 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is
double the other root. Find 𝑐 . The 𝐷 enables us to determine the position of the
6. If 𝛼, 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, show graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 relative to the x – axis, it
that 𝛼(𝛼 + 1)(𝛽 + 1) = 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 is called a discriminant solution:
7. If the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 10 = 0 1. 𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = −3 , 𝑐 = −2
are 𝛼 and 𝛽, and 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 2𝑎; find the 𝐷 = 9 − 4(1) × −2 = 9 + 8 = 17 > 0
possible values of k. The roots of the equations are real and distinct.
8. Find the quadratic equation with roots 𝛼 and 𝛽, 2. 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 0
given that 𝛼 − 𝛽 = 2 and 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = 3. 𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = −6 , 𝑐 = 9
𝐷 = 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−6)2 × 4 × 1 × 9 = 36 − 36 = 0
2
9. If one root of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is
Hence the roots are real and equal.
double the other roots, show that
𝑏 𝑏 3. 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 ∓ 5 = 0
(a) The roots are − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − and (b) 2𝑏 2 =
2𝑎 3𝑎 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = −2 , 𝑐 = 5
9𝑎𝑐 𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−2)2 × 4 × 2 × 5 = 4 − 40
= −36
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12. If one of the root of the equation 𝑝𝑥 2 + Use of Sum Of Two Cubes
𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 = 0 is 3 times the other root, show that Consider the expansion (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ), we obtain
3𝑞 2 = 16𝑝𝑟 its identical expressions as follows:
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
Solution: 𝑎(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) + 𝑏(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑞 𝑟
Let 𝛼 = 𝑥 , 𝛽 = 3𝑥 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − , 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎3 − 𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
𝑝 𝑝
𝑎3 + 𝑏 3
Sum of the roots 𝑥 + 3𝑥 = 4𝑥
The expression (𝑎 + 𝑏 3 ) is called the sum of two
3
Product of the roots 𝑥. 3𝑥 = 3𝑥 2
cubes and it is identically equivalent to (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 −
𝑞 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ).
4𝑥 = − − − − − − (𝑖)
𝑝
𝑟 Difference Of Two Cubes
3𝑥 2 = − − − − − (𝑖𝑖)
𝑝 Again consider the expansion of the expression
𝑞 (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏)
𝑥=−
4𝑝 We obtain its identical expression as follows:
𝑞 2 𝑟
3 (− ) = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏)
4𝑝 𝑝 𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏) − 𝑏(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏)
2
2
𝑞 𝑟 𝑎3 + 𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑏 3
3( )
16𝑝2 𝑝
= 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3
3 3
𝑞2 𝑟 The expression 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 is called difference of two
= cubes and it is identically equivalent to (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 +
16𝑝2 3𝑝
3𝑞 2 𝑝 16𝑟𝑝2 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 2).
= Show that
𝑝 𝑝
3𝑞 2 = 16𝑟𝑝 − 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 − 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
One of the root of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 is (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)2
the square of other. Show that 𝑝3 − 𝑞(3𝑝 + 1) − (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
= 𝑎(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) + 𝑏(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑞 2 = 0 provided 𝑞 ≠ 1.
= 𝑎3 + 2𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
Solution:
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
Let one of the roots 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝑝 , 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑞
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 − 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
The other= 𝛼 2 , ***
Hence, 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 − 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
Sum of the roots 𝛼 + 𝛼 2 = 𝑝 − − − −(𝑖)
Product of the root 𝛼(𝛼 2) = 𝛼 3 = 𝑞
1 Show that 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 2𝑎𝑏
𝛼= 𝑞3 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)
𝛼 + 𝛼2 = 𝑝 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
1
Sub 𝛼 = 𝑞 3 into equation (i) 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 2𝑎𝑏
1 1 2 Hence, 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 2𝑎𝑏
2
𝑞 3 + (𝑞 3 ) = 𝑝
1 2
𝑞3 + 𝑞3 = 𝑝
1 1 1
𝑞3 + 𝑞3. 𝑞3 = 𝑝
1 1
𝑞 3 (1 + 𝑞 3 ) 𝑝
1 = 1
(1 + 𝑞3) 1 + 𝑞3
1
𝑞3 =
follow oaugalleries on instagram
1st Quadrant
+𝑦
sin(1800 − 𝜃)0 = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
1
−𝑥
cos(180 − 𝜃)0 = = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0
1
+𝑦
tan(180 − 𝜃)0 = = − tan 𝜃 0
𝑥
Examples: −𝑦
sin(360 − 𝜃)0 = = − sin 𝜃 0
sin 1300 = sin(180 − 50)0 = sin 500 1
+𝑥
cos 1400 = cos(180 − 40)0 = − cos 400 cos(360 − 𝜃)0 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0
tan 950 = tan(180 − 85)0 = − tan 850 1
−𝑦
tan(360 − 𝜃)0 = = − tan 𝜃
+𝑥
3rd Quadrant Examples:
sin 3000 = sin(360 − 60)0 = − sin 600
cos 2900 = cos(360 − 70)0 = cos 700
tan 345 = tan(360 − 15)0 = − tan 150
Examples: Find the values of (a) sin 1550 (b) 3. If 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −0.3174 and cos 𝜃 is negative, in
cos 2300 (c) tan 3150 which quadrant does lie?
(a) 1550 is in the 2nd quadrant . Us e(1800 − 𝜃), 4. Find 𝜃, if :
and sin 1550 will be + (a) cos 𝜃 = 0.2571 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is negative
sin 1550 = sin(1800 − 250 ) (b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = −1.25 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is negative
= + sin 250 = 0.4226 (c) sin 𝜃 = 0.269 and tan 𝜃 is negative
(b) 2300 is in the third quadrant. Use (180 + 𝜃)
and cos 2300 will be –
cos 2300 = cos(180 + 50)0
= cos 500 = −0.6428 TRIGONOMETRY RATIO
(c) 3120 is in the 4th quadrant. Use (3600 − 𝜃) and Trigonometry ratio can be defined as in terms of the
tan 3120 = tan(360 − 48)0 sides of a right – angled triangle
− tan 480 = −1.106
For the inverse problem, i.e. to find 𝜃 given 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ,
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 or tan 𝜃, remember that there will be two
values of 𝜃 between 00 and 3600 . The sign will tell in
which tell two quadrants the angles lie.
1
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
3 sin(𝐴 + 𝐵)
1 tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
𝜃 = sin−1 ( ) = 19.470 , 160.530 cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)
3 sin 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
1 1 tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
𝑜𝑟 sin 𝜃 = − , 𝜃 = sin−1 (− ) = 2100 , 3500 cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
2 2 Dividing both numerator and denominator by
Find the values of 𝜃 between 00 and 3600 cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵
which satisfy the equation 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
+
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 2√3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − √3 = 0 tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 2√3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − √3 = 0 −
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
= 2 cos 𝜃(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 1) − √3(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 1) sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
+
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵
= (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − √3)(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 1) = 0
sin 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵
1−
Either 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − √3 = 0 cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
tan 𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
√3 √3 ∴ tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = , 𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) = 300 , 3300 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 tan 𝐵
2 2
Replacing 𝐵 𝑏𝑦 − 𝐵
𝑜𝑟 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 1 = 0 tan 𝐴 − tan(−𝐵)
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −1 tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 tan(− 𝐵)
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = − tan 𝐴 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
2 tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 tan 𝐵
𝜃 = sin−1 (− ) = 2100 , 3300
2
All are called addition formulae, they are all true for
Given that 8 sin2 𝜃 + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 9 = 0
acute or compound
Since sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1
sin2 𝜃 = 1 − cos 2 𝜃
8(1 − cos 2 𝜃) + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 9 = 0 The addition formulae can be summarized as:
8 − 8 cos 2 𝜃 + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 9 = 0 sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵
−8 cos 2 𝜃 + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1 = 0 cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵
8 cos 2 𝜃 − 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 1 = 0
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝 = cos 𝑡 Solve the following:
8𝑝2 − 6𝑝 + 1 = 0 (a) sin 750 (b) sin 1050 (c) sin 2250 (d) cos 150 (e)
1 tan 150 (f) tan 1950 (g) cos 750
𝑝 = 𝑜𝑟 2
4
𝑝 = 0.25 , ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0.25 , 𝜃 = cos −1 (0.25) (a) sin 750 = sin(300 + 450 )
𝜃 = 75.520 , 284.480 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛300 cos 450 + cos 300 + sin 450
1 1 1 √2 √3 √2 1
𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = , 𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) = 600 , 3000 × + × = (√2 + √6)
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
(b) cos 750 = cos(300 + 450 )
= cos 300 cos 450 − sin 300 sin 45
COMPOUND ANGLES √3 √2 1 √2 1
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = × − × = (√6 − √2)
2 2 2 2 4
Replacing 𝐵 𝑏𝑦 − 𝐵 0 0
(c) tan 15 = tan(45 − 30 0)
Prove that;
DOUBLE ANGLES (a)
sin 3𝐴
−
cos 3𝐴
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
The formulae of the previous section can be used to sin 3𝐴 cos 3𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 3𝐴−cos 3𝐴 sin 𝐴
derive important formulae for double angles such as − =
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
2𝐴 sin(3𝐴 − 𝐴) sin(2𝐴)
= =
Replace B by A in the previous formulae, then sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
sin 2𝐴 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐴) = sin 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 + cos 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 = =2
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
Also, sin 2𝐴
(b)
cos 2𝐴 = cos(𝐴 + 𝐴) = cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 − sin 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 1+cos 2𝐴
= cos 2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − (1 − cos 2 𝐴) sin 2𝐴 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
=
= cos 2 𝐴 − 1 + cos 2 𝐴 = 2 cos 2 𝐴 − 1 1 + cos 2𝐴 1 + 2 cos 2 𝐴 − 1
2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴
Or = = tan 𝐴
2 cos 2 𝐴 cos 𝐴
1 − sin2 𝐴 − (sin2 𝐴) = 1 − sin2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴
= 1 − 2 sin2 𝐴
(c) Solve the equation for 00 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3600 for
(i) sin 2𝑥 = tan 𝑥 (ii) cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥
Finally, tan(2𝐴) = tan(𝐴 + 𝐴)
tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐴 2 tan 𝐴
= 2
= (i) If 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = tan 𝑥, then
1 − tan 𝐴 1 − tan2 𝐴
follow oaugalleries on instagram
EXERCISE: without using the table, find the values of (10) 𝐴 and 𝐵 are acute angles and sin 𝐴 =
3 7
(a) 2 sin 150 cos 150 , cos 𝐵 = find, without using tables, the values
5 25
(b) 1 − 2 sin2 150 of (a) sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) (b) cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) (c) tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) (d)
𝜋
(c) 2 cos 2 − 1 sin 2𝐴 (e) cos 2𝐵
8
(d) cos 2 1050 − sin2 1050 (11) Find the values of sin 2𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 2𝜃 without
1
10 10 tables, if 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = .
(e) sin2 22 − cos 2 22 3
2 2 24 3
3𝜋
2 tan 8 (12) If cos 𝐴 = and sin 𝐵 = , where 𝐴 is acute
25 5
(f) 3𝜋
1−tan2 and 𝐵 obtuse, find without using tables, the values
8
3𝜋 3𝜋
(g) sin cos of (a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴 (b) cos 2𝐵 (c) sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)
8 8
(13) Find the value of cos 500 cos 200 +
(2) Find the values of 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 , without cos 400 sin 700 , without using tables
12 1 (14) By writing 3𝐴 as 2𝐴 + 𝐴, show that
using tables if (a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (b) cos 𝜃 = where 𝜃 is
13 3 (a)sin 3𝐴 = sin 𝐴(3 − 4 sin2 𝐴)
an acute angle.
119
(b) cos 3𝐴 = cos 𝐴(4 cos 2 𝐴 − 3)
(3) If 𝜃 is an acute angle and cos 2𝜃 = , find the (15) Solve the following equations for 00 ≤ 𝑥 ≤
169
values of sin 𝜃 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 without using tables 3600
1−cos 2𝜃
(4) Prove that (a) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 (a) sin 𝑥 = cos 2𝑥
sin 2𝜃
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (b) 3 cos 𝑥 = cos 2𝑥
(b) = tan2 𝜃
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (16) Show that:
(c) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 = 1 + sin 2𝜃
follow oaugalleries on instagram
4 tan 750 1
Given that = , find tan 750 in surd
1−tan2 750 cos 1500
form Hence sin(−𝜃) = sin( 3600 − 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1 1 1 cos(−𝜃) = cos( 3600 − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃
= =
cos 150 − cos 30 √3 tan(−𝜃) = tan( 3600 − 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
2 For example, tan(−2100 ) = − tan 2100
4 tan 750 1
1 − tan2 75 = − 2 = − tan(1800 + 300 ) = − tan 30 = −
4 √3
√3 cos(−1200 ) = cos(1200 ) = cos(1800 − 600 )
4
tan 750 −1 1
= − cos 600 = −
1 − tan2 750 2√3 2
Let us assume 𝑡 = 750 , for ease of writing
𝑡 1
=−
1 − 𝑡2 2√3
𝑡 2 + 2𝑡√3 − 1 = 0
𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = √3 , 𝑐 = −1
2
−√3 ± √(√3) − 4 × 1 × −1
𝑡=
2×1