Dynamics of Electrical Drives

Dynamics of Electrical Drives
Mukesh M Bhesaniya
Department of Electrical Engineering
G H Patel College of Engineering and Technology
V V Nagar
25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 1
Content
Types of Load
Quadratal diagram of speed –torque characteristics
Types and Characteristics of load torque
Dynamics of motor- load combination
Steady state & transient stability of an electrical drive
Determination of moment of inertia- Load equalization

Introduction
Motor generally drives a load (mechanical load i.e. machines) through some
transmission system.
While motor always rotates and load may rotate or undergo a translation
motion.
Load speed may be different than the
speed of motor. If the load has many
parts, their speed may be different.
Some load may rotate, while others may
go through the translation motion.

Fundamental Torque Equations
It is convenient to represent the motor load system by an equivalent rotational
system shown in figure.
Equivalent motor load system
Various notations used are:

J = Polar moment of inertia of motor load system, kg-m2
ωm = Instantaneous angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/sec
T = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque, N-m
Tl = Instantaneous value of load torque referred to motor shaft, N-m
Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor

The equation shown below described the motor load equation.
In this equation, the load torque includes friction and windage torque of the
motor.
This equation is applicable for variable inertia drives such as mine, winders,
industrial robots.
For constant inertia drive dj/dt = 0. Therefore
The above equation shows that the load developed by the motor is counter-
balanced by a load torque T1 and a dynamic torque J(dωm/dt).
The torque component J(dωm/dt) is called dynamic torque because it is present
only during transient operations.
The acceleration or deceleration of the drive mainly depends on whether the
load torque is greater or less than the motor torque. During acceleration, the
motor supplies the load torque along with an additional torque component
jdωm/dt to overcome the drive inertia.
The drives which have a large inertia must increase the load torque by a large
amount for getting sufficient acceleration. The drive which requires a fast
transient response, their motor torque should be maintained at the excessive
value and motor load system should be designed with a lower possible inertia.
The energy associated with dynamic torque is stored in the form of kinetic
energy and given by the equation Jdω2m/dt.
During the deceleration, the dynamic torque has a negative sign. Thus it assists
the motor developed torque T and maintains the drive motion by extracting
energy from stored kinetic energy.

Four Quadrant Operation
Four Quadrant Operation of any drives or DC Motor means that the machine
operates in four quadrants.
They are:
• Forward Braking,
• Forward motoring,
• Reverse motoring and
• Reverse braking.
A motor operates in two modes – Motoring and Braking.

A motor drive capable of operating in both directions of rotation and of
producing both motoring and regeneration is called a Four Quadrant variable
speed drive.

Quadrant diagram of Speed-Torque Characteristics:
The speed is assumed to be positive if the direction of rotation is anticlockwise

or in such a way to cause an ‘upward’ or forward motion of the drive. For
reversible drive positive direction of the speed can be assumed arbitrarily either
clockwise or anticlockwise.
The motor torque is positive if it produces increase in speed in the positive

sense. The load torque is assigned the positive sign when it is directed against
the motor torque.
Plot of speed torque characteristics of the load/ motor for all four quadrant of
operation is known as quadrantal diagram.

The figure below shows the four quadrant operation of drives.

In motoring mode, the machine works as a motor and converts the electrical
energy into mechanical energy, supporting its motion.
In braking mode, the machine works as a generator, and converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy and as a result, it opposes the motion.
The Motor can work in both, forward and reverse directions, i.e., in motoring
and braking operations.


Loaded cage moving up (Quadrant-I):
This is the first quadrant operation of the hoist in which the loaded cage is
moving upwards. Due to the upward movement, the direction of rotation of
motor, ω, will be in anticlockwise direction, i.e., positive speed. Here the load
torque acts in opposite direction to the direction of motor rotation.
Therefore, to raise the hoist to upwards, the motor torque, Tm, must act in the
same direction of motor speed, ω. So both motor speed and motor torque will
be positive.
To make these as positive, the power taken from the supply should be positive.
This is called forward motoring.

Empty cage moving up (Quadrant-II):
This is the quadrant-2 operation of the hoist in which unloaded cage is moving
upwards. As said above, the counterweight is heavier than the unloaded cage
and hence hoist can move upwards at a dangerous speed.
To prevent this, motor must produce a torque in the opposite direction of motor
speed, ω, in order to produce brake to the motor.
In this quadrant the direction of rotation is positive, and the torque is negative,
and thus the developed power is negative.
The machine operates as a generator developing a negative torque, which

opposes the motion. This quadrant operation is called forward braking.

Empty cage moving down (Quadrant-III):
This is the quadrant-3 operation where empty cage is hoisting down as shown in
figure. The downward journey of empty cage is prevented by the torque exerted
by the counterweight. So the direction of motor torque, Tm, should be in the
same direction of motor rotation ω.
Due to the downward movement of the cage, the direction of rotation is

reversed, i.e., ω is negative and hence Tm is also negative.
Since the machine acting as motor in reverse direction, it receives the power
from the supply and hence power is positive. This quadrant operation is called
reverse motoring.

Loaded cage moving down (Quadrant-IV):
In this quadrant, loaded cage is moving downwards. Since the loaded cage is
moving downward (of which weight is more than counterweight), the motion
takes place without use of any motor.
But there will be a chance to go downward at a dangerous speed because of
loaded cage. To limit the speed of the cage within a safe range, the electrical
machine must act as a brake.
In this, the direction of the motor, ω, is negative and hence the motor torque Tm
is positive to decrease the speed of the motor. Thus the power is negative that
means the electrical machine delivering power to the supply.
This phenomenon is called as regenerative action. This quadrant operation is
called reverse braking.
It is to be noted that the electrical machine acts as a motor in 1st and 3rd
quadrants and acts as a generator in 2nd and 4th quadrants.
Power
Function Quadrant Speed Torque
Output
Forward I + + +
Motoring
Forward II + - -
Braking
Reverse III - - +
Motoring
Reverse IV - + -
Braking

Applications of Four Quadrant Operation
Compressor, pump and fan type load requires operation in the I quadrant only.
As their operation is unidirectional, they are called one quadrant drive systems.
Transportation drives require operation in both directions.
If regeneration is necessary, application in all four quadrants may be required. If
not, then the operation is restricted to quadrants I and III, and thus dynamic
braking or mechanical braking may be required.
Four-quadrant operation applications:
Electric traction system
Battery operated vehicles
Lifts and cranes
Engine test loading systems
Spindle and tool drives in machine tools
Auxiliary drives in robotic systems
Position control systems
Equivalent Values of Drive Parameters
Different parts of the load may be coupled through different mechanisms, such
as V- belts, crankshaft, gears etc.
These parts may have different speed and different types of motions such as
 Rotational
 Translational

Loads with Rotational Motion:
Let’s consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to the shaft and
other through gear with n & n1 teeth as shown in figure
J0 =moment of inertia of motor & load directly coupled to its shaft (kg – m2)
ωm =motor speed of directly coupled load (rad/sec)
Tl0 =torque of directly coupled load (N - m)
J1 =moment of inertia of load coupled through a gear (kg – m2)
ωm1 =speed of load coupled through a gear (rad/sec)
Tl1 =torque of load coupled through a gear (N - m)

• If loads are driven through a belt drive

instead of gears, then, neglecting slippage,
the equivalent inertia and torque can be
obtained from Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) by
considering a1, a2, . . . , am each to be the
ratios of diameters of wheels driven by motor
to the diameters of wheels mounted on the
load shaft.

Loads with Translation Motion
Let’s consider motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to its shaft &
other through a transmission system
J0 =moment of inertia of motor & load directly coupled to its shaft (kg – m2)
ωm =motor speed of directly coupled load (rad/sec)
Tl0 =torque of directly coupled load (N - m)
M1 =mass of load with translational motion (Kg )
V1 =velocity of load with translational motion (m/sec)
F1 =force of load with translational motion (Newtons)

If, in addition to one load directly coupled to the motor shaft, there are m other
loads with translational motion with velocities v1,v2, . . . vm and masses
M1,M2, . . . , Mm, respectively, then

Example:
A motor drives two loads. One has rotational motion. It is coupled to the motor
through a reduction gear with a1= 0.1 and efficiency of 90%. The load has a
moment of inertia of 10 Kg-m2 and a torque of 10 N-m. Other load has
translational motion and consists of 1000 Kg weight to be lifted up an uniform
speed of 1.5 m/s. Coupling between this load and the motor has an efficiency of
85%. Motor has an inertia of 0.2 Kg-m2 and runs at a constant speed of 1420 rpm.
Determine the equivalent inertia referred to the motor shaft and torque
developed by the motor.
Given;
J0 = 0.2 kg-m2; η1 = 0.9
a1 = 0.1; η’1 = 0.85
J1 = 10 kg-m2 Tl1 = 10 N-m
V = 1.5 m/s; M = 1000 kg
ωm = (1420xπ/30) = 148.7 rad/sec


Components of Load Torque
The load torque has the following components
 Friction torque: Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in
various parts of the load. TF is the equivalent value of various friction
torques referred to the motor shaft.
 Windage torque: When motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the
motion. This is known as windage torque.
 Torque required doing useful mechanical work: Nature of this torque
depends upon particular application. It may be some function of speed, it
may be time invariant or time variant, its nature may also change with the
load’s mode of operation.

Friction torque can also be resolved into three component:
 Component Tv varies linearly with speed is called VISCOUS friction and is given
by Tv = Bωm, where B is viscous friction co-efficient.
 Another component TC, which is independent of speed, is known as COULOMB
friction.
 Third component Ts accounts for additional torque present at stand still. Since Ts
is present only at stand still it is not taken into account in the dynamic analysis.

Component Tv which varies linearly with speed is called viscous friction and is
given by:
where B is the viscous friction coefficient.
Another component Tc, which is independent of speed, is known as Coulomb

friction. Third component Ts accounts for additional torque present at standstill.
Since Ts is present only at standstill it is not taken into account in the dynamic
analysis.
Windage torque Tw, which is proportional to speed squared, is given by
where C is a constant.
From the above discussion, for finite speeds,
In many applications (Tc + Cω2m) is very small compared to Bωm and negligible
compared to TL. In order to simplify the analysis, term (Tc + Cω2m) is
approximately accounted by updating the value of viscous friction coefficient, B.
With this approximation, from Eq. (2.2)
If there is a torsional elasticity in shaft coupling the load to the motor, an

additional Components of Load Torques, known as Coupling Torque, will be
present. Coupling torque (Te) is given by
where θe is the torsion angle of coupling (radians) and Ke the rotational stiffness
of the shaft (Nm/rad).

In most applications, shaft can be assumed to be perfectly stiff and coupling
torque Te can be neglected.
Its presence in appreciable magnitude has adverse effects on motor. There is
potential energy associated with coupling torque and kinetic energy with the
dynamic torque.
Exchange of energy between these two energy storage’s tends to produce
oscillations which are damped by viscous friction torque Bωm.
When B is small, oscillations occur producing noise. Further, shaft may also
break when the drive is started.

Classification of Load Torques
Fans, compressors, aeroplanes, centrifugal pumps, ship-propellors, coilers, high
speed hoists, traction etc. are example of the case where load torque is a
function of speed. In fans, compressors and aeroplanes, the windage dominates,
consequently, load torque is proportional to speed squared (Fig. 2.7(a)).
Windage is the opposition offered by air to the motion. Similar nature of

Classification of Load Torques can be expected when the motion is opposed by
any other fluid, e.g. by water in centrifugal pumps and ship-propellors, giving the
same characteristic as shown in Fig. 2.7(a).

In a high speed hoist, viscous friction and windage also have appreciable
magnitude, in addition to gravity, thus giving the speed-torque curve of Fig.
2.7(b).
Nature of speed-torque characteristic of a traction load when moving on a
levelled ground is shown in Fig. 2.7(c). Because of its heavy mass, the stiction is
large. Near zero speed, net torque is mainly due to stiction.
The stiction however disappears at a finite speed and then windage and viscous
friction dominate. Because of large stiction and need for accelerating a heavy
mass, the motor torque required for starting a train is much larger than what is
required to run it at full speed.
Torque in a coiler drive is also a function of speed. It is approximately hyperbolic
in nature as shown in Fig. 2.7(d). The developed power is nearly constant at all
speeds.

In a high speed hoist, viscous friction and windage also have appreciable
magnitude, in addition to gravity, thus giving the speed-torque curve of Fig.
2.7(b). Nature of speed-torque characteristic of a traction load when moving on
a levelled ground is shown in Fig. 2.7(c). Because of its heavy mass, the stiction is
large. Near zero speed, net torque is mainly due to stiction.
The stiction however disappears at a finite speed and then windage and viscous
friction dominate. Because of large stiction and need for accelerating a heavy
mass, the motor torque required for starting a train is much larger than what is
required to run it at full speed.
Torque in a coiler drive is also a function of speed. It is approximately hyperbolic
in nature as shown in Fig. 2.7(d). The developed power is nearly constant at all
speeds.

Load Torques can be broadly classified into two categories-
 Active and
 Passive
Load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium
condition are called Active Load Torques. Such load torques usually retain their
sign when the direction of the drive rotation is changed. Torque(s) due to
gravitational force, tension, compression and torsion, undergone by an elastic
body, come under this category.
Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the
reversal of motion are called Passive Load Torques. Such torques are due to
friction, windage, cutting etc.
Time and Energy Loss in Transient operations
Starting, braking, speed change and speed reversal are transient operations.
Time and Energy Loss in Transient Operations can be evaluated by solving Eq.
(2.19) along with motor circuit equations.
When T and TL are constants or proportional to speed, Eq. (2.19) will be a first
order linear differential equation. Then it can be solved analytically.
When T or TL is neither constant nor proportional to speed, (2.19) will be a non-

linear differential equation. It could then be solved numerically by Runga-Kutta
method.
For any of the above mentioned transients, final speed is an equilibrium speed.
Theoretically, transients are over in infinite time, which is not so in practice.
In order to resolve this anomaly, Time and Energy Loss in Transient Operations is
considered to be over when 95% change in speed has taken place. For example,
when speed changes from ωm1 to equilibrium speed ωme, time taken for the
speed to change from ωm1 to [ωm1 + 0.95(ωme – ωm1)] is considered to be
equal to the transient time.
Transient time and energy loss can also be computed with satisfactory accuracy
using steady-state speed-torque and speed-current curves of motor and speed-
torque curve of load. This is because mechanical time constant of a drive is
usually very large compared to electrical time constant of motor. Consequently,
electrical transients die down very fast and motor operation can be considered
to take place along the steady-state speed-torque and speed-current curves.
From Eq. (2.2)

Equation (2.22) can be integrated only if functions T(ωm) and Tl(ωm) are known
and are of integral form. Otherwise the integral is evaluated graphically.
Expression on the right of Eq. (2.22) is the area between the reciprocal of the
acceleration { J/[T(ωm) – Tl(ωm)]} VS ωm curve and ωm axis (Fig. 2.8). The
transient time can be evaluated by measuring this area.

When ωm2 is an equilibrium speed ωme, then the reciprocal of acceleration will
become infinite at ωme. Consequently, time evaluated this way will be infinite.
Therefore, in this case transient time is computed by measuring the area
between speeds ωm1 and ωm1 + 0.95(ωm2 – ωm1).
Energy dissipated in a motor winding during a transient operation is given by
where R is the motor winding resistance and i is the current flowing through it.
In many applications, by making use, of speed-torque expressions for motor and
load, it is possible to arrange Eq. (2.23) in integrable form. However, this is not
possible in applications where nonlinear impedance is present in the motor
circuit. Then Eq. (2.23) is evaluated graphically using steady-state speed-torque
and speed-current curves.
Steady State Stability of Drive
Equilibrium speed of a motor-load system is obtained when motor torque equals
the load torque. Drive will operate in steady-state at this speed, provided it is
the speed of stable equilibrium. Concept of Steady State Stability of Drive has
been developed to readily evaluate the stability of an equilibrium point from the
steady-state speed-torque curves of the motor and load, thus avoiding solution
of differential equations valid for transient operation of the drive.
In most drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared
to its mechanical time constant. Therefore, during transient operation, motor
can be assumed to be in electrical equilibrium implying that steady-state speed-
torque curves are also applicable to the transient operation.

As an example let us examine the Steady State Stability of Drive of equilibrium
point A in Fig. 2.9(a). The equilibrium point will be termed as stable when the
operation will be restored to it after a small departure from it due to a
disturbance in the motor or load. Let the disturbance causes a reduction of Δωm
in speed. At new speed, motor torque is greater than the load torque,
consequently, motor will accelerate and operation will be restored to A. Similarly,
an increase of Δωm in speed caused by a disturbance will make load torque
greater than the motor torque, resulting into deceleration and restoration of
operation to point A. Hence the drive is steady-state stable at point A.

Let us now examine equilibrium point B which is obtained when the same motor
drives another load. A decrease in speed causes the load torque to become
greater than the motor torque, drive decelerates and operating point moves away
from B. Similarly, when working at B an increase in speed will make motor torque
greater than the load torque, which will move the operating point away from B.
Thus, B is an unstable point of equilibrium.
We may similarly examine the Steady State Stability of Drive of points C and D
given in Figs. 2.9(c) and (d).

Above discussion suggests that an equilibrium point will be stable when an
increase in speed causes load-torque to exceed the motor torque, i.e. when at
equilibrium point following condition is satisfied:
Inequality (2.24) can be derived by an alternative approach. Let a small

perturbation in speed, Δωm, results in ΔT and ΔTl perturbations in T and Tl
respectively. Then from Eq. (2.2)

Subtracting (2.2) from (2.25) and rearranging terms gives
For small perturbations, the speed torque curves of the motor and load can be
assumed to be straight lines. Thus
where (dT/dωm) and (dTl/dωm) are respectively slopes of the steady-state speed-
torque curves of motor and load at operating point under consideration.
Substituting Eqs. (2.27) and (2.28) into (2.26) and rearranging the terms yields

This is a first order linear differential equation. If initial deviation in speed at t = 0
be (Δωm)0 then the solution of Eq. (2.29) will be
An operating point will be stable when Δωm approaches zero as t approaches

infinity. For this to happen the exponent in Eq. (2.30) must be negative. This yields
the inequality of Eq. (2.24) i.e.

Load Equalisation in Electrical Drives
In some drive applications, load torque fluctuates widely within short intervals of
time.
For example, in pressing machines a large torque of short duration is required
during pressing operation, otherwise the torque is nearly zero. Other examples
are electric hammer, steel rolling mills and reciprocating pumps.
In such drives, if motor is required to supply peak torque demanded by load,
 first motor rating has to be high.
 secondly, motor will draw a pulsed current from the supply.
When amplitude of pulsed current forms an appreciable proportion of supply line
capacity, it gives rise to line voltage fluctuations, which adversely affect other
loads connected to the line.
In some applications, peak load demanded may form major proportion of the
source capacity itself, as in blooming mills, then load fluctuations may also
adversely affect the stability of source.
Above mentioned problems of fluctuating loads are overcome by mounting a
flywheel on the motor shaft in non-reversible drives. Motor speed-torque
characteristic is made drooping (characteristic AC in Fig. 2.10).
Alternatively, by closed loop current control, torque is prevented from exceeding
a permissible value. During high load period, load torque will be much larger
compared to the motor torque. Deceleration occurs producing a large dynamic
torque component (Jdωm/dt). Dynamic torque and motor torque together are
able to produce torque required by the load (Eq. (2.2)).
Because of deceleration, the motor speed
falls.
During light load period, the motor torque
exceeds the load torque causing acceleration
Speed is brought back to original value
before the next high load period.
Variation of motor and load torques, and speed for a periodic load and for a
drooping motor speed-torque curve are shown in Fig. 2.11.
When the load is light, the flywheel accelerated and stored the excess energy
drawn from the supply. During the peak load, the flying wheel decelerates and
supply the stored energy to the load along with the supply energy. Hence the
power remains constant, and the load demand is reduced. This is called load
equalisation.

In variable speed and reversible drives, a flywheel cannot be mounted on the
motor shaft, as it will increase transient time of the drive by a large amount. If
motor is fed from a motor-generator set (Ward-Leonard Drive), then flywheel can
be mounted on the shaft of the motor-generator set. This arrangement equalizes
load on the source, but not the load on the motor. Consequently, a motor capable
of supplying peak-load-torque is required.
Moment of inertia of the flywheel required for Load Equalisation in Electrical
Drives is calculated as follows: Assuming a linear motor-speed-torque curve in the
region of interest
where ωm0,ωmr and and Tr are no-load speed, rated speed and rated torque,
respectively.

Because of slow response due to large inertia, motor can be assumed to be in
electrical equilibrium during transient operation of the motor-load system. In that
case Eq. (2.31) will be applicable for the transient operation also. Differentiating
(2.31) and multiplying both sides by J gives
where
Term τm is defined as the mechanical time constant of the motor. It is the time
required for the motor speed to change by (ωm0 – ωmr) when motor torque is
maintained constant at rated value Tr.
From Eqs. (2.2) and (2.33)
Consider now a periodic load torque, a cycle of which consists of one high load
period with torque Tlh and duration th, and one light load period with torque Tll
and duration tl (Fig. 2.11). For high load period (0 ≤ t ≤ th) solution of Eq. (2.35) is
where Tmin is the motor torque at t= 0, which is also the instant when heavy load
Tlh is applied. If motor torque at the end of heavy load period is Tmax, then from
Eq. (2.36)

Solution of Eq. (2.35) for the light load period (th ≤ t ≤ th + tl) with the initial
motor torque equal to Tmax is
When operating in steady-state, motor torque at the end of a cycle will be the
same as at the beginning of cycle. Hence at t′ = tl, T = Tmin. Substituting in Eq.
(2.38) gives
From Eq. (2.37)

From (2.34) and (2.41)
Also from Eq.(2.40)
From Eqs. (2.34) and (2.43)

Moment of inertia of the flywheel required can be calculated either from Eq.
(2.42) or (2.44). Further
where W is the weight of the flywheel (kg) and R is the radius (m).

Thank you

Dynamics of Electrical Drives

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dynamics of Electrical Drives

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dynamics of Electrical Drives

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 2

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 3

Equivalent motor load system

Various notations used are:

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 4

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 6

A motor operates in two modes – Motoring and Braking.

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 7

The speed is assumed to be positive if the direction of rotation is anticlockwise

The motor torque is positive if it produces increase in speed in the positive

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 8

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 9

In braking mode, the machine works as a generator, and converts mechanical

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 10

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 11

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 12

The machine operates as a generator developing a negative torque, which

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 13

Due to the downward movement of the cage, the direction of rotation is

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 14

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 16

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 18

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 20

• If loads are driven through a belt drive

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 21

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 23

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 24

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 25

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 26

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 27

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 28

where B is the viscous friction coefficient.

Another component Tc, which is independent of speed, is known as Coulomb

If there is a torsional elasticity in shaft coupling the load to the motor, an

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 30

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 31

Windage is the opposition offered by air to the motion. Similar nature of

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 32

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 33

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 34

When T or TL is neither constant nor proportional to speed, (2.19) will be a non-

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 37

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 38

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 40

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 41

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 42

Inequality (2.24) can be derived by an alternative approach. Let a small

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 43

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 44

An operating point will be stable when Δωm approaches zero as t approaches

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 45

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 48

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 49

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 51

From Eq. (2.37)

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 52

Also from Eq.(2.40)

From Eqs. (2.34) and (2.43)

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 53

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 54

25 March 2020 MUKESH M BHESANIYA 55