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Physics Revision Guide PDF
Physics Revision Guide PDF
The physical quantities which have only magnitude and no direction are called scalar
quantities.
eg: Distance, speed, time, length, mass…
The physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction are called vector
quantities.
eg: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force…
Vectors can be represented graphically by arrows. The length of the arrow represents
the magnitude. The arrow represents its direction.
5N
e.g. A force of 5N pointing to the right.
Simple algebraic addition when the vectors act in same line and parallel.
e.g.1
4N 4N Resultant force = 0 N
e.g.2
4N
Resultant force = 4 + 4 = 8 N to the right
4N
e.g.3
4N 9N Resultant force = 9 – 4 = 5 N to the
right
Resultant force
5N
In this case the parallelogram method is used to find the resultant of two vectors.
The resultant of two vectors may be represented in both magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of a parallelogram with the two given forces as adjacent sides.
In an accident, a truck goes off the road and into a ditch. Two breakdown vehicles A and B
are used to pull the truck out of the ditch, as shown below.
At one point in the rescue operation, breakdown vehicle A is exerting a force of 4000 N and
breakdown vehicle B is exerting a force of 2000 N.
Use parallelogram method and calculate the resultant force acting on a truck.
Answer:
45°
Now complete the parallelogram by drawing other two sides and diagonal.
To find the resultant force measure the length of diagonal.
To find the direction of resultant force measure the angle between side A and diagonal or
angle between side B and diagonal.
2000N (2cm) breakdown vehicle B
45°
Magnitude of the resultant force = the length of diagonal is 6cm, so the resultant
force = 6 × 1000 = 6000N
Very short length Diameter of a metal wire Micrometer screw gauge 0.01 mm
short length Internal and external diameter Vernier calipers 0.01 cm
of a measuring cylinder
Medium length Length of a book Meter rule 0. 1 cm
Long length Length of physics laboratory Measuring tape 0. 1 cm
When measuring the length of the object, the correct way to read the scale of a ruler and
tape are shown in the following figure. The eye must be placed vertically above the mark on
the scale. This is to avoid PARALLALAX ERROR. If you look from other position the reading
might not be accurate because of parallax error.
Before taking any measurement from vernier caliper check for zero error.
Close the jaws of the vernier calipers and note the zero reading. This is to ascertain if exist
a zero error. There will be no zero error when the zero on the main scale coincides with the
zero on the vernier scale.
When the jaws are closed if the zero on main scale and zero on vernier scale does not
coincide there is zero error.
Put the measuring object between two jaws and fit the jaws tightly as shown below.
After that measure the vernier scale reading, that is the place where the both the scale line
coincides.
To get the reading of the vernier caliper, add both main scale reading and vernier scale
reading.
Before taking any measurement from micrometer check for zero error.
When the thimble scale of the micrometer closed, if the end of thimble scale not coincides
with zero of the main scale then it has zero error. If the end of the thimble scale coincides
with zero of the main scale then doesn't have zero error.
Put the measuring object between anvil and spindle and tight the thimble as shown below.
Then measure the thimble scale reading that is the reading on the thimble scale, which
coincides with main scale line.
To get the reading of the micrometer, add both main scale reading and thimble scale
reading.
The time for one swing of a pendulum (from left to right and back again) is called
oscillation or period.
A single period is usually too short time to measure accurately. However a pendulum
swings a steady rate, so to measure time for one oscillation accurately;
To get time for one oscillation divide time taken by number of oscillation.
(Time taken for 1 oscillation = 25/10 = 2.5 s)
Then repeat the same procedure two three times and find the mean value of time.
A cyclist complete a 1500 m stage of a race in 37.5 s. what was his average speed?
Ans: = 40 m/s
A car driver takes a total of two hours to make a journey of 75 km. She has a coffee break
of half an hour and spends a quarter of an hour stationary in a traffic jam.
At what average speed must she travel during the rest of the time if she wants to complete
the journey in two hours?
Ans: = 60 km/h
Velocity is defined as the distance covered in unit time in the stated direction
Velocity also defined as rate of change of displacement
SI unit is metre/second (m/s)
Velocity can also be expressed in km/h
It is a vector quantity
Acceleration is positive, if the velocity increases and negative if the velocity decreases
Negative acceleration is known as Retardation or Deceleration
An aircraft accelerates from 50 m/s to 150 m/s in 25 second. What is its acceleration?
Ans: = 4 m/s2
A body is said to be moving with uniform acceleration, if its velocity changes are equally in
equal intervals of time.
Example:
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Changing velocity (m/s) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
The velocity of the object increasing by 5m/s in every second and the object has steady
acceleration of 5m/s2.
A body is said to be moving with non-uniform acceleration, if its velocity changes are not
equals to interval of time.
Example:
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Changing velocity (m/s) 0 5 9 13 19 27 33
The graph shown below represents the distance traveled by a car plotted against time.
(b) How far has the car travelled at the end of 30seconds?
Ans: 60 m
The area under the speed-time graph represents the distance travelled by the object.
Ans: a = = = 10 m/s²
When an object is released near to the surface of the Earth, it falls under the influence of
gravity. This is known as free fall.
When any object falls through air, due to the gravitational force or weight the object will
exerts a resistive force. This resistive force increases as the object moves faster. Resistive
force acts in the opposite direction to which the object is moving. And after some time the
resistive force and weight of the object becomes equals, so the object moves with constant
speed, this is known as terminal velocity.
Weight
Weight
Air resistance
Weight
Air resistance
Weight
Air resistance
Weight
Parachutist hits
Speed increases the ground
Time
If the forces acts on a body are unbalanced, then there will be a resultant force.
Resultant force = 5000 − 1500 = 3500 N Resultant force = 6000 − 2000 = 4000 N
The forces act on a car is unbalance, so it The forces act on a car is unbalance, so it
accelerates because forward force is decelerates because backward force is
greater than backward force. greater than forward force.
If the road is having rough surface, the frictional force will be more.
If the road is having smooth surface, the frictional force will be less.
The planets are orbiting around the sun due to constant gravitational force acting towards the
sun
The electrons are orbiting around the nucleus due to constant electrostatic force acting
towards nucleus of the atom.
On the Earth, the gravitational field strength is 10 N/kg. On the Moon, the gravitational
field strength is 1.6 N/kg.
If an object has a weight of 50 N on Earth, what is its weight on the Moon?
Ans: w = mg
m = w/g = 50/10 = 5kg
weight on the moon = mg = 5 × 1.6 =8N
The diagram shows a material with dimensions 5 cm × 4cm × 2 cm. It has a mass of 100 g.
Ans: v = l × b × h
= 5 × 4 × 2 = 40 cm3
= 2.5 g/cm3
What is the density of the material?
Put the irregularly shaped object into measuring cylinder with the water.
Measure the volume of water rise and record this as final volume.
Calculate the volume of the stone by subtracting initial volume from final volume.
Then calculate the density of the stone by using the formula density = mass / volume
A lump of metal has a mass of 210 g. It is lowered into a measuring cylinder containing
water. The level of the water rises from 35 cm3 to 140 cm3.
= 2 g/cm3
(a) describe the moment of a force in terms of its turning effect and relate this to everyday
examples.
(b) state the principle of moments for a body in equilibrium.
(c) make calculations using moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance from the
pivot and the principle of moments.
(d) describe how to verify the principle of moments.
(e) describe how to determine the position of the centre of mass of a plane lamina.
(f) describe qualitatively the effect of the position of the centre of mass on the stability of
simple objects.
A boy loses the nut using 0.25 meter long spanner. He applied 50N of force on the spanner.
Calculate the moment of a force produce.
Ans: moment = F × d
moment = 50 × 0.25 = 12.5 Nm
If an object is in equilibrium: the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to
the sum of the anti-clockwise moments about that point.
Centre of gravity (mass) of a body is the point about which the entire weight (mass) of the
body seems to act.
C.G
¥ Centre of gravity of certain objects lies outside the actual material of the object.
Cut a letter “L” out of a metal or plywood and stick on a sheet of thin paper to
complete the rectangles as shown in the figure below.
Irregular lamina
Thread and a bob
Nail clamped in a stand
Procedure:
Make a hole A in the lamina and hang it so that it can swing freely on a nail clamped
in a stand. To locate the vertical line through A tie a plumb line to the nail as shown
below.
When the plumb line comes to the rest, draw line of plumb line by using ruler and
pencil. Mark it as line AD as shown below.
Then repeat the same procedure with point B and C, Where the line AD, BE and CF
intersect is the center of gravity of the lamina as shown below.
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if when slightly displaced and then released it
returns to its previous position.
A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium if when slightly displaced and then released it
moves further away from its previous position.
A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if it stays in its new position when displaced
(a) state that a force may produce a change in size and shape of a body.
(b) *plot, draw and interpret extension-load graphs for an elastic solid and describe
the associated experimental procedure.
(c) *recognise the significance of the term “limit of proportionality” for an elastic
solid.
(d) calculate extensions for an elastic solid using proportionality.
Materials bodies which get stretched on the application of a force and regain its
original length and shapes on the removal of the deforming force are called elastic
bodies.
This property of the material bodies is known as elasticity.
Length of the body before applying the stretching force is called unstretched length.
Length of the body after applying the stretched force is called the stretched length.
Difference between the stretched and the unstretched length of the body is known as
extension.
The force applied to the spring is called the load.
If “F” is the stretching force in Newton and “e” is the extension of the body in metre, then
Force = spring constant × extension (F = Ke)
Where K is a spring constant, if stretching force (F) is divided by extension (e) within the
proportionalities values, and then the value of K is always constant.
The table below shows how the extension of s spring varies with force applied (load).
Load /N 0 1 2 3 4 5
Extension /mm 0 10 20 30 40 58
The extension – load graph shown below is plotted the information given on the table.
OX is the region where Hooke’s law is obeyed, that is extension is directly proportional
to the stretching force.
X is the point of limit of proportionality. (The point beyond which the extension of an
object is no longer proportional the load producing it is called limit of proportionality.)
E is its elastic limit. Up to E, the spring behaves elastically and returns to its original
length when the load is removed. Beyond E the spring will not regain its original length
when the stretching force is removed and the spring is left permanently stretched hen
the load is removed.
A spring of original length 3.0 cm is extended to a total length of 5.0 cm by a force of 8.0 N.
(a) Calculate the spring constant of the spring.
Ans: extension = 5 – 3 = 2 cm
F = Ke
K = F/e = 8/2 = 4N/cm
(b) Assuming the limit of proportionality of the spring has not been reached; calculate the
force needed extend it to a total length of 6.0 cm.
Ans: extension = 6 – 3 = 3cm
F = Ke = 4 × 3 = 12N
© Department of physics 2012 Page 34 of 176
You are provide with
spring
clamp and stand
ruler
100g masses and hanger
Procedure:
Select a spring.
Fix the upper end of the spring rigidly in a clamp.
Clamp a ruler next to the spring so that you can measure the complete length of the
spring.
Prepare a table for your results (copy the one below, but with more rows). Record your
results in your table as you go along.
Attach a weight hanger to the lower end of the spring. Measure its new length.
Carefully add weights to the hanger, one at a time, measuring the length of the spring
each time.
Once you have a complete set of results, calculate the values of the extension of the
spring.
Plot a graph of extension (y-axis) against load (x-axis) and comment on its shape.
Pressure is the force acting per unit area at right angles to a surface.
Pressure can be calculated by using the equation:
Force (N)
Pressure =
Area (m2) F
PXA
SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) or N/m2 and pressure can also measure in kilopascal
(Kpa). 1kpa = 1000pa
The base for a statue rests on level ground. It is made from stone and is 2.0 m long, 2.5 m
high and 0.80 m wide. It has a weight of 96 000 N.
How big (or small) the area of the object on which force applied
If the area of the object on which force applied is more the pressure act on the object is
less and if the area of the object on which force applied is less the pressure act on the
object is more.
The area under the edge of the knife’s blade The end of the pin is very sharp, it provide
is small. Beneath it, the pressure is high great pressure to the objects and so easy to
enough for the blade to push easily through put into objects
the material
Skis have a large area to reduce the pressure Tractors have wide tyre to reduce the pressure
on the snow so that they do not sink in too far act on the ground so that they do not sink too
far of the ground
In a liquid such as water, pressure does not simply act down wards – it equally in all
directions. This is because the molecules of the liquid move around in all directions,
causing pressure on every surface they collide with.
The pressure on the liquid can be calculated by using the following equation:
Pressure on the liquid = density of the liquid × gravitational field × depth of the liquid
P = ρgh
A rectangular storage tank is filled with paraffin to a depth of 0.8m. the density of the
paraffin is 800kg/m3. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of the tank.
Ans: P = ρgh
P = 800 × 10 × 0.8
0.8m = 6400 Pa
Pressure can be transmitted throughout a liquid in hydraulic presses and hydraulic brakes
on vehicles. The figure below shows a simple hydraulic system.
1
2
N
Simple mercury barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure. The barometer
contains liquid metal mercury. Atmospheric pressure has pushed mercury up the tube
because the space at the top of the tube has no air in it. It is a vacuum. Normally the
height of the mercury column found to be about 760 millimetres of mercury (760mmHg).
Since the value of the mercury column reflects the value of the atmospheric pressure,
atmospheric pressure can be express in terms of the height of the column of the mercury.
The diagram below shows a syringe fill with air and end of the syringe is connected with
pressure gauge. When the piston of the syringe is pushed inward the volume of the air
trapped inside the syringe decreases but pressure of the air increases. The pressure
increases because the air molecules hit the wall of the syringe more frequently.
Which means if the temperature of the gas is constant, when the volume of the gas is
decreased the pressure of the gas increases.
If you plot the graph pressure of the gas against the volume of the gas you will obtain a
smooth curve as shown below.
The syringe shown below consist the volume of 100cm3 of gas initially and the pressure of
the gas is 1.0 × 105 Pa. The volume of the gas decreases to 80 cm3. Calculate the final
pressure of the gas.
Ans: P1V1 = P2 V2
1.0 × 105 × 100 = P2 × 80
P2 = 1.0 × 105 × 100 / 80
P2 = 125000 Pa
Very hot objects glow brightly. They are giving out light energy. Light radiates outwards all
around the hot object.
A moving object has Kinetic energy (k.e.). The faster an object moves, the greater its K.e.
If you lift an object upwards, you give it gravitational potential energy (g.p.e). The higher
an object is above the ground, the greater its g.p.e.
If you get close to a hot object, you may feel thermal (heat) energy coming from it. This is
energy travelling from a hotter object to a colder object.
An electric current is a good way of transferring energy from one place to another. It carries
electrical energy. When the current flows through a component such as a heater, it gives
up some of its energy.
If you stretch a rubber band, it becomes a store of strain energy. The band can give its
energy to a paper pellet and send it flying across the room. Strain energy is the energy
stored by an object that has been stretched or squashing in an elastic way.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can change from one form to another.
It takes energy to make things move. You transfer energy to a ball when you throw it or hit
it. A car uses energy form its fuel to get it moving. Elastic energy stored in a stretched
piece of rubber is needed to fire a pallet from a catapult. So moving object is a store of
energy. This is Kinetic energy (K.e.).
The Energy of Position, when a stone is dropped, it falls (accelerates) towards the ground,
until it hits the ground. If the ground is soft, the stone will make a small depression in the
ground.
In its original position, the stone had the capacity to do work, even though it is not moving
and has no kinetic energy.
When a stone is held above the ground, it has POTENTIAL ENERGY because if it is
dropped, it can do work on the ground (making the hole).
In hot sunny countries, solar panels are used to collect thermal (heat) and light energy from
the sun. The sun rays fall on a large solar panel and absorb energy from the sun and
converted into electrical energy.
The interior of the Earth is hot. Temperature of the earth rises with increasing depth. The
nuclear reaction which takes place in the core of the Earth produces the heat energy to
keep the rocks hot.
To make use of this energy, water is pumped down into the rocks, where it boils. High-
pressure steam return to the surface, where it can be used to drive the turbine and
generate electricity.
Mechanical energy
Geothermal KE of Electrical
of turbine &
energy steam energy
generator
Wind is irregular
They are noisy
Occupies a lot of space
Power generated is relatively small
Mechanical energy
GPE of KE of water of turbine & Electrical energy
water
generator
Non - renewable energy sources are energy sources that cannot be replenished over short
period of time.
eg: coal, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels
It requires less space to build up the power stations as compared to other types of
generators.
It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
It is costlier in running cost as compared to other types of generators (for buying fuels).
It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
The waste products from the power station may leads to increase the background
radiation.
The energy of the neutron causes the target nucleus to split into two (or more) nuclei that
are lighter than the parent nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy during the process.
Nuclear fusion is the combining of two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a
vast amount of energy during the process.
Nuclear fusion is believed to be the process by which energy is released by the Sun. When
two hydrogen-2 nuclei moving at high speeds collide, they can join together to produce
heavier nucleus (Helium). A large amount of energy is released.
A crane lifts a load of 1000 N through a vertical height of 3.0 m. Calculate the work done by
the crane.
Ans: W = F × d
W = 1000 × 3
= 3000J
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or rate of transferring energy. The more powerful
a machine is, the quicker it does a fixed amount of work or transfer fixed amount of energy.
Power can be calculated using the formula:
A crane lifts a concrete block of weight 12000 N through a vertical height of 8.0 m in 30s.
Calculate power develop by the crane.
Ans: W = F × d = 12000 × 8 = 96000J
P = W/t = 96000 / 30 = 3200W
An engine does useful work with some of the energy supplied to it, but the rest is wasted as
thermal energy and other forms. The more efficient the object, less energy wasted from the
object. The efficiency of an object can be calculated by using the formula:
Energy from petrol is used to operate an engine. The engine drives a generator, which
produces electrical energy.
Ans: 25%
© Department of physics 2012 Page 53 of 176
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe how to distinguish between good and bad conductors of heat.
(b) describe in molecular terms how heat transfer occurs in solids.
(c) describe convection in fluids in terms of density changes.
(d) describe the process of heat transfer by radiation.
(e) describe how to distinguish between good and bad emitters and good and bad
absorbers of infra-red radiation.
(f) describe how heat is transferred to or from buildings and to or from a room.
(g) state and explain the use of the important practical methods of heat insulation
for buildings.
Conduction is the process by which heat transmitted through a solid from its hotter part
to its colder part until whole solid become same temperature.
The diagrams below shows, one end of metal rod is being heating. When heat energy
reaches to the atoms inside that end, vibrates faster and heat energy transfer to the
neighbor atoms. Like this heat energy transfer to the other end of rod.
Materials which do not allow heat to flow through it well are called thermal insulators or
poor conductors.
Examples: Glass, Water, Plastics, Rubber, Wood etc.
Materials containing air (wool, fiberglass, plastic foam, expanded polystyrene)
The experiment below shows one way to compare different metals. The metal rods are all
the same size. Each has a blob of wax at one end. They all heated equally at the other end.
The best conductor is the metal on which the wax melts first.
1. The water at the top of the test tube boils while water at the bottom of the test tube
remains cold and the ice does not melt.
2. The experiment shows that water is a bad conductor of heat.
Convection is the process by which heat is transferred from the hot place to cold place by
the movements of heated particles of a gas or liquid.
In the experiment below, the bottom of the beaker is being gently heated in one place only.
As the water above the flame become warmer, the water molecules expand and become less
dense. These less dense molecules rise upward and the cooler, dense water molecules at
the top sink and displace the less dense water. The result is a circulating stream, called
convection current. Where the water is heated, its particles circulate; they transfer energy
to the other parts of the beaker.
In the set-up shown in the diagram, smoke is been to move through the box. The candle
heats the air above it and causes less dense air to rise, setting up convection currents. The
denser colder air is force into the box.
During day time, in hot sunshine, the land heats up more quickly than the sea. Warm air
rises above the land, as it is displaced by cooler air moving in from the sea. This is called
day breeze.
At night, the reverse happens. The sea stays warmer than the land, which cools down
quickly. Warmer air now rises above the sea, as it is displaced by cooler air moving out
from the land. This process is called night breeze.
Cold air sinks below the freezer compartment. This sets up a circulating current of air
which cools all the food in the refrigerator.
Cold air sinks below the air conditioner and hot air at the bottom of the room rises up. This
sets up a circulating current of air which cools all air in the room.
Some surface are better at emitting (sending out) thermal radiation than others.
Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good absorbers.
Black colour is good absorber and also good emitter of thermal radiation.
White and silver colours are bad absorber and emitter of thermal radiation but good
reflector of radiation.
Put same amount of water into two cans, one is painted with black colour and another is
painted with silver colour. Cover the both cans and put thermometer to each cans and keep
both cans where there is direct sunlight for some time.
It is found that the temperature of black colour can higher than silver colour can.
This means black colour is good absorber of heat but shiny silver colour is good
reflector of heat.
It is found that the reading of the thermometer in the black can falls more quickly that
silver can.
This means black colour is good emitter of thermal radiation.
A vacuum flask is cleverly designed to keep hot things hot by reducing heat losses. It also
helps to keep cold things cold for long times.
It has these features for reducing the rate at which thermal energy flows out (or in).
An insulated stopper to reduce heat lost from conduction and convection.
A double – walled container with a gap between the walls. Air has been removed from
the gap (vacuumed) to reduce heat lost from conduction and convection.
Walls with silvery surfaces to reduce the heat lost from radiation.
A well-insulated house can avoid a lot of energy wastage during cold weather. The
insulation can also help to prevent the house from becoming uncomfortably hot during
warm weather.
The table below summarises that how the insulating materials helps to reduce heat lost
from a house:
Loft and under floor insulating Prevents conduction of heat through floors and
materials (Glass or mineral wool ceilings
insulation)
Cavity walls (filled with plastic Reduce heat lost by conduction through walls of
foams, beads, or mineral wool) the house
Double and triple glazing of Vacuum between glass panes cuts out heat losses
windows (two sheets of glass by conduction and convection.
with no air between them)
Thick curtains draught excluder Stops convection current, and so prevent cold air
from entering and warm air from leaving
Laboratory thermometer is used to measure the temperature different things while doing
experiments.
The laboratory thermometer shown below, the liquid in the bulb expands when the
temperature rises. The tube is made narrow so that a small increase in volume of liquid
produces a large movement along the tube.
So which means in laboratory thermometer the physical property varies with temperature
is volume of the liquid.
Clinical thermometers are used to measure the temperature of human body in hospitals.
In clinical thermometer also the physical property varies with temperature is volume of the
liquid.
The glass wall of the bulb is thin Thin wall of the bulb allow s conduction of heat
quickly through the glass (a poor conductor of
heat) to the liquid.
Bulb is made small to contain a Small amount of liquid will be more responsive to
small amount of liquid. heat
The bore of capillary tube is fine The fine tube allows noticeable movement of the
and uniform liquid for small change in temperature, (i.e. good
sensitivity). The uniform tube ensures even
expansion of the liquid.
The walls of the long tube above This acts as a magnifying glass for easy reading of
the bulb are made thick and the mercury thread in the stem.
circular shape.
The scale is limited to small Since the normal body temperature is 37°C, the
range between 35°C to 42°C. short range allows for greater accuracy and the
stem can be made reasonably short.
A narrow constriction After taking temperature, it prevents contracting
mercury from flowing back into the bulb by
breaking the mercury threat at constriction.
Sensitivity of the thermometer is the change in reading of the thermometer for a small change
in temperature.
If the reading of the thermometer has a noticeable change for a small change in
temperature, the sensitivity is HIGH.
If the reading of the thermometer shows small difference change in temperature, the
sensitivity is LOW.
To make a liquid – in – glass thermometer more sensitive, we need large bulb (so that
actual increase in volume is large), thin glass of bulb (so heat conducts quickly) and a
very narrow glass tube ((so that the changing volume causes a large movement of the
liquid up or down the tube).
After that put the unmarked thermometer into the steam above the boiling water and wait
until the liquid of the thermometer becomes steady. When it becomes steady by using
marker mark that point, which is steam point or upper fixed point (100°C).
To calibrate the thermometer scale measure the distance between two fixed points and
divide that distance into 100 equal parts.
The temperature at which pure water changes into water vapour (steam), that is (100°C)
The total kinetic energy and potential energy of all atoms or molecules in a material is
called internal energy. When the temperature of the material increase the movement of
atoms or molecules inside the material increases and the kinetic energy of the atoms
increases, so internal energy of the material increases.
The heat capacity of a substance is amount of heat energy that is needed to raise its
temperature by 1°C.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is amount of heat energy that is needed to raise the
temperature of 1kg of the substance by 1°C.
We can use following equation to calculate the specific heat capacity of a substance.
Energy required = mass × specific heat capacity × increase in temperature
E = mc∆T
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is (J/kg°C)
It is the process that heat is absorbed from the surrounding to change the substance from
solid state to liquid state. The temperature of a substance remains constant until the entire
solid has change to liquid.
During the process of melting when the heat is supplied to the solid, the molecules packed
inside solid vibrate faster and faster. So as a result the attraction force between the
molecules breaks and molecules freely move and changed into liquid.
The temperature at which the solid changes to liquid is called melting point.
Boiling is the process that heat absorbed from surrounding to change the substance from
liquid state to vapor or gas state. Temperature of the substance remains constant until all the
liquid changes to gas
During the process of boiling when the heat is supplied to the liquid, the molecules in the
liquid gain more kinetic energy and moves faster. So as a result molecules in the liquid
leaves from the liquid in the form of vapour and changed into steam (gas).
The temperature at which the liquid changes to gas is called melting point.
Condensation is the process that substance changes from gas state to liquid state by
cooling it below boiling point. The temperature of the of the substance remains constant
until all the gas changes to liquid.
Solidification is the process that substance changes from liquid state to solid state by
cooling on it. The temperature of the of the substance remains constant until all the liquid
changes to solid.
When a gas is cooling for a sufficiently long time, it condense into liquid and freezes into
solid. A cooling curve of a gas is shown in the figure below.
Boiling takes place throughout the Evaporation takes place on the surface of
liquid. the liquid.
The specific latent heat is the amount of energy needed to change the state of 1 kg of a
substance without changing temperature.
We can use following equation to calculate the specific heat capacity of a substance.
Thermal energy = mass × specific latent heat
E=m×l
The unit latent heat is J/kg
In an experiment to find latent heat of fusion of a 15kg metal needs 520000J of heat energy
to melt from solid state to liquid. Calculate the latent heat of fusion of metal.
Ans: E = m × l
l = E/m = 52000/15 = 34666.7 J/kg
The latent heat of fusion is amount of heat energy required to change a substance from solid
state to liquid.
During melting a lot of heat energy is needed to breakdown attraction force between the
molecules in the solid to change it into liquid. So the energy needed to breakdown
attraction force between the molecules is not shown in thermometer, this heat energies are
called latent heat of fusion.
The latent heat of vaporization is amount of heat energy required to change a substance from
liquid state to gas.
During boiling a lot of heat energy is needed increase the movement of the molecules and
change into vapour. So the energy needed increase the movement of the molecules and
change into vapour is not shown in thermometer, these heat energies are called latent heat
of vaporization.
Most substances – solid, liquid and gases expand when they are heated. When the
substance is heated it makes increase the movement of molecules inside it and molecules
move further apart, so the substance expands in all directions.
The reverse happens when the substance is cooled. The movement of the molecules
becomes smaller and the substance contracts as its molecules are pulled closer together by
force of attraction between them.
Gases expand most, and then liquid and solid expand least when heated.
The diagram below shows a bimetal strip; thin strips of brass and iron are bonded together.
When heated, the brass expands more than iron, which makes bimetal strip expand as
shown below.
The chart below shows how much one meter length of different materials expands when
their temperature goes up by 100°C. For greater lengths and higher temperature increases,
the expansion is more.
Metal rods can be fitted into metal wheels, by heating wheel. As the wheel cools, it
contracts and pulls the rod and wheel tightly together.
A metal lid or cap may stick on a glass jar or a bottle. Heating the lid (for example, by
running hot water over it) cause it to expand (the glass expand much less), so the lid
loosens and can be removed.
The bimetallic strips used in fire alarms, thermostat and bimetallic thermometers.
The bimetal thermostats are devices which control temperature. They are fitted to
immersion heaters, ovens, and refrigerators and to some room heaters. There are several
different designs bimetal type is very common.
The diagram below shows thermostat that controls an electric heater. As the rooms warms
up, the bimetal strip expands (brass expand more than invar), so two electrical contact
separate. This switches of the heater. And when room cools down the bimetal contract and
aging torches the contact, so circuit completes and switch on the heater. Temperature can
adjust by turning control knob.
The expansion of materials can cause problems. For example metal bridges and railway
lines expand on hot days, and there is a danger that they might buckle. To avoid this,
bridges in sections, with expansion joints between the sections as shown below. On hot day
bridge expands and section between gap decreases.
Railway lines are now usually made from metallic alloy that expands very little and also by
keeping the gap between sections.
The upward force of the gas is balanced by downward force of the piston. So in this
situation, the pressure of the gas is remained constant as it has expanded.
So for a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure, the volume gas is directly proportional to
the increasing temperature of the gas. This is called Charles’s law.
If the piston did not move, the volume of the gas remains constant when it was heated but
its pressure would increase.
Almost all matter can be classified as a solid, a liquid or a gas. These are called three states
of matter.
When the temperature is increased the molecules gain kinetic energy. The increasing
kinetic energy makes molecule moves faster and increase their separation (expand).
The gas molecules are in random continuous motion. When the gas molecules are in a
container, they exert a force on a wall of the container when they collide with it. Since the
force is exerted over an area, a pressure is produced. If the temperature of the gas
increases, the gas molecules gain K.E and moves faster. So the molecules exert higher force
on the wall of the container and pressure also increase.
For fixed mass of a gas at a constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to the
temperature. This is called pressure law.
The experiment below shows a fixed volume of a gas is heated. It shows that when the
temperature of the gas increases the pressure of the gas also increases.
When particles break away from the surface of a liquid and form a vapour, the process is
known as evaporation. It happens because of some more energetic molecules (fast moving
molecules) escapes from the surface of the liquid. The faster one near the surface has
enough energy to escape and form a gas.
Rate of evaporation increases when the drought over the surface of the liquid increases
(wind blows over the surface of the liquid).
A wave transmits energy from one place to another. For example, energy can be carried by
a water wave generated by a boat out at sea to the shore, or by a sound wave from the
loudspeaker to an audience’s ears.
The most common waves found in daily life are water waves, sound and electromagnetic
waves.
Wave motions can be illustrated by vibrations in ropes and springs and by experiments
using a ripple tank.
There are two types of waves: transvers waves and longitudinal waves.
A transvers wave is a wave in which the vibrations of the particles are perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the wave.
Transverse wave can illustrate by vibrating ropes and springs as shows below.
In order to produce transverse wave by using rope, one end of the rope should be attached
and from the other end the rope must move up and down as shown below.
So the vibration of the rope is perpendicular to the direction of wave travels.
Examples of transverse wave: water wave and all the electromagnetic waves
(radio waves, microwaves, infra-red, visible light, ultra-violet, X-rays and gamma-rays).
A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the vibrations of the particles are parallel to the
direction of travel of the wave.
Longitudinal wave can illustrate by vibrating springs as shows below.
To produce longitudinal wave by using spring, one student can hold spring while another
student can move spring forward and backward as shown below. So the vibration of the
spring is parallel to the direction of wave travels.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two successive crests or troughs.
Or the distance of one complete wave.
The frequency of a wave is the number of complete waves produce in one second. It is
measured in Hertz (Hz).
Frequency can be calculated by using the formula:
The speed of a wave is the distance travelled by any point on the wave in one second.
The speed of the wave can be calculated by using the wave equation:
Speed = frequency × wavelength, V = f λ
Compression is the region where the particles are close together and has high pressure.
Rarefaction is the region where the particles are further apart and has low pressure.
One way of making ripples on the surface of the water in a ripple tank is to have a wooden
bar that just touches the surface of the water. The bar vibrates up and down at a steady
rate. This sends equally spaced straight ripples across the surface of the water as shown
below.
A spherical dipper can produce a different patter of ripples. The dipper just touches the
surface of the water. As it vibrate up and down, equally spaced circular ripples spread out
across the surface of the water as shown below.
Ripple tank can also be used to demonstrate the reflection and refraction of water wave.
The lines in the diagram shown above are called wavefronts. The separation of the
wavefronts is equals to wavelength of the ripples.
A line joining all the crests or troughs is called the wave front.
Refraction of the water wave can be demonstrated by immersing the glass plate into the
ripple tank to make the water shallower in that part of the tank. When the straight ripples
produce by the tank moves from the deep region to shallow region, it changes the direction
of ripples (refracted) as shown below.
When the wave is travelling from deep region to shallow region it refracts, because the
speed of the wave decreases. So the wavelength of the wave also decreases but the
frequency of the wave remains constant.
(e) describe a direct method for the determination of the speed of sound in air and make
the necessary calculation.
(f) state the order of magnitude of the speeds of sound in air, liquids and solids.
(g) explain how the loudness and pitch of sound waves relate to amplitude and
frequency.
(h) describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo.
(i) describe the factors which influence the quality (timbre) of sound waves and how these
factors may be demonstrated using a CRO.
(j) define ultra sound.
(k) describe the uses of ultra sound in cleaning, quality control and pre-natal scanning.
When you place your fingertips against the front of your throat, you can feel the vibration of
your vocal cord when you make a noise.
If we bang a tuning folk on a cork, the prongs vibrate and we hear a sound. If the vibrating
prongs quickly dipped into water, we see that water splashes.
These examples shows that sound is caused by vibration. Any vibrating object can be a
source of sound waves. Sound waves are longitudinal in nature.
Compression is the region where the particles are close together and has high pressure.
Rarefaction is the region where the particles are further apart and has low pressure.
Human ear can only hear sounds with a frequency of between 20Hz to 20 000Hz (20Hz to
20kHz). This frequency range is called range of audible frequencies.
This material is called a medium. Without it, there is nothing to pass on any oscillations.
Sound cannot trough a vacuum (completely empty space).
The experiment below is to prove that sound waves need a medium to travel trough:
Put the electric bell into jar and remove all the air inside the jar with the help of vacuum
pump. Then connect the bell into the battery and switch on, since the bell ring no sounds
hear the outside of the jar. This means sound required medium to travel through.
Procedure:
Observers A and B are positioned at a known distance d apart in an open field. Record
the distance d with the measuring tape. (d must be about 1km)
Observer A fires the pistol
Observer B, on seeing the flash of starting pistol, starts the stopwatch and then stops it
when he hears the sound. The time interval t is recorded.
Measure the time taken 3 or 4 times and find the average value of time.
Then calculate the speed of sound s in the air by using the following formula.
Sound waves can be reflected by large, flat and hard surfaces like walls and cliffs. If the
reflected sound is heard after an interval of time, it is called an ECHO.
Echo sound can be calculated using the formula:
2d = s × t
2d = 340 × 4
The sound travels at 340 m / s. What is the width of the valley? d = 680 m
When a flutist plays her flute, she sets the air inside it vibrating. A trumpeter does the
same thing. Why do the two instruments sound so different? The flute and trumpet each
contain air column, which vibrates and produce a musical note. Because the instruments
are sharped differently, the notes produce sound different our ears. The two sounds have
different quality or timber.
An image of the instrument can be produce by playing the instrument next to microphone
connected to an oscilloscope. The microphone receives the vibration from the instrument
and converts them to an electrical signal, which is displayed on oscilloscope screen. The
trace on the screen shows the regular up and down pattern of the vibration that make up
the sound. The diagrams below shows different quality of sound waves displayed by the
oscilloscope screen.
Ultrasounds are used to pre-natal scanning (womb scanning) and also to examine the
inside of human body.
Ultrasound is also used to quality control (detect flaws in metals). The echo sounding
principle can be used detect flaws in metals. A pulse of ultrasound is sent through the
metal, the there is a flaw (tiny gap) in the metal, the reflected pulse are picked up by the
detector and shows on C.R.O screen.
Ships use echo – sounders to measure the depth of water beneath them. An echo –
sounder sends pulses of ultra sound downwards towards the seabed, and then measures
the time taken for each echo (reflected sound) to return. The longer the time, the deeper
the sea.
The change in direction of a ray of light when it strikes a surface without passing through it
is known as reflection of light.
The angle between incident ray and the normal to the surface at point where it reflects from
a surface
The angle between a reflected ray and the normal to the surface at point where it meets a
surface
The line drawn at right angle to a surface at the point where a ray strikes the surface
When reflection occurs the angle of incidence is always equals to angle of reflection (i = r)
Equipments: A4 paper, ruler, plane mirror, pencil, protector and ray box.
Procedure:
• View the image of object pin O from the other side of mirror and place pin3 (P3) and
pin4 (P4), so that it covers the image of O.
• Remove the mirror and mark the position of the pins.
• Draw a straight line which passes through point P1 and P2, also a straight line
which passes through point P3 and P3 and mark I where both lines meet.
• Measure the distance between object and mirror and also distance between image
and mirror.
Image formed is same size as object, image distance and object distance are equal, laterally
inverted, erect (up right) and virtual.
• When the light is travelling from optically less dense medium (air) to denser medium
(glass) the light ray bend towards the normal, because the speed of the light decreases.
• When the light travelling from optically dense medium (glass) to less dense medium (air)
the light ray bend away from the normal, because the speed of the light increases.
The angle between a refracted ray and the normal to the surface at point where it passes
from one material to another
The refractive index of a material indicates how strongly the material changes the direction
of light. It is calculated using the following formula:
Refractive index of a medium can also defined as the speed of light in a vacuum divide by
speed of light in the medium.
The diagram below shows a light ray enters to the glass block and refracted. The angle of
incidence is 45° and the refractive index of the glass is 1.5.
Ans:
• Look from another side of the block and place pin (P3) and pin (P4) so that both the pins
align with same line of P1 and P2.
• Remove the glass block and the pins, mark the positions of pins and draw emergent ray
through point P3 and P4.
• Draw a line between incident ray and emergent ray to show the refracted ray.
If the angle of incident is increased, more light is reflected inside the block and the
refracted bends even further away from the normal.
Eventually at one particular angle, the refracted ray emerges along and parallel to the
surface of the block and perpendicular to the normal as shown below.
When the refracted is perpendicular to the normal, the angle between incident ray and
normal in the dense medium is called critical angle.
Critical angle also can define as greatest angle of incidence that allows refraction.
If the light ray incident on the block is greater than the critical angle, the light is entirely
reflected inside the glass block. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.
When the light is travelling from optically dense medium to less dense medium and if the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, all the light is reflected back into denser
medium. This is known as total internal reflection.
• Draw incident ray through two dots and measure the angle of incidence that is
critical angle.
Optical fibres are thin and flexible. When light enters it, is totally reflected many times until
it comes from the other end.
Telephone or computer messages can be transmitted by light along optical fibres.
There are some advantages of using optical fibre rather than copper wire:
Each of these fibres is capable of carrying thousands of different signals at the same time.
The speed of signal is also faster.
They are cheaper than copper cables.
Concave lenses are thin in the middle and thickest round the edge.
When parallel light rays pass through a concave lens, they are bent outwards. The principal
focus is the point from which the rays appear to diverge (spread out). A concave lens is a
diverging lens.
An image can be MAGNIFIED so that it appears larger than the object (i.e. the
magnification is greater than 1) or DIMINISHED so that it appears smaller than the object
(i.e. the magnification is less than 1)
Linear magnification = =
𝒃𝒋 𝒃𝒋
𝑖 𝑔 𝑓𝑖 𝑔
Ans: Linear magnification = = = 1.5
𝑖 𝑔 𝑓 𝑏𝑗 𝑐
In the short sight eye the image is formed infront of the retina.
Short sight can be corrected by using concave lens infront of the eye.
In the long sight eye the image is formed beyond the retina.
long sight can be corrected by using convex lens infront of the eye.
The splitting of white light into its seven components of colours (ROY GBIV) is known as
dispersion of light.
The colours of spectrum are Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet.
Rainbow is naturally occurring spectrum. White light from the sun is dispersed as it enters
and leaves droplets of water in the air. It is also reflected back to the viewer by total
internal reflection, which is why you must have the sun behind you to absorb a rainbow.
Increasing frequency
6 9 12 15 18 21
10 Hz 10 Hz 10 Hz 10 Hz 10 Hz 10 Hz
3 −3 −6 −9 −12
10 m 1m 10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
Visible light
Increasing wavelength
Microwaves are used to satellite television and telephone. Beam of micro waves send
between dish aerials, carry television and telephone signals to and from satellites and
across country.
Microwaves also used in microwave ovens to cook many types of food.
Ultra-violet is used in sunbeds, fluorescent tubes and for sterilisation. Ultra-violet from the
sun is used by our skin in producing vitamin D and also gives us sun tan. UV rays kill
microbes, and are used to sterilise food so that it will keep fresh for longer.
An object can store electric charges that cannot flow. These charges are called STATIC
CHARGES.
When two materials rubbed against each other, the two materials become electrostatically
charged due to friction between them, this is called charging by friction.
For example if you rub comb with a piece of cloth and then hold it near some tiny pieces of
paper. The rubbed comb attracts the piece of paper as shown below. This is because comb
becomes charged when it rubbed with cloth.
Materials become charged when they rubbed against each other, due to the friction force
electron transfer from one material to another.
When a cloth rubbed with a Perspex rod it becomes positively charged as shown below.
The Perspex rod becomes positively charged and the cloth becomes negatively charged,
that is because from the rod electrons transferred into cloth. So there is net positive
charge in rod and net negative charge in cloth.
When a cloth rubbed with polythene rod it becomes negatively charged as shown below.
The polythene rod becomes negatively charged and the cloth becomes positively charged,
that is because from the cloth electrons transferred into rod. So there is net negative
charge in rod and net positive charge in cloth.
© Department of physics 2012 Page 103 of 176
Suspend a polythene rod using a thread and charge polythene rod by rubbing with a cloth.
Bring a positively charged Perspex rod near to the polythene rod.
It is found that polythene rod moves towards the Perspex rod (both the rod is attracting
each other). So this means unlike charge attract each other.
Now bring another negatively charged polythene rod near to the suspended polythene rod.
But this time it is found that polythene rod moves away from another polythene rod (both
the rod is repelling each other). So this means like charge repel each other.
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
When positively charged rod is brought near to an uncharged metal sphere. The electrons
in the sphere pulls (attract) towards the rod, and on the other side of the sphere positive
charge is produce.
Reverse happens when negatively charged rod is brought near to an uncharged metal
sphere. The electrons in the sphere repel on the other side of the sphere, so the positive
charge produce near to the rod.
Insulators are materials that do not allow electric charges to flow through them easily.
The electrons are tightly bound to the atoms and they are not free to move.
e.g. plastic, rubber, wood, glass etc..
In a thunderstorm, the clouds are charged by friction with air current. When charged cloud
comes above the buildings, trees and ground, the buildings trees and ground induces
opposite charge as in cloud. So the large potential difference between cloud and Earth is
produced, as a result electrons moves through the air and collide with air molecules in the
air and cause them to give out lightning flash. It can burn forests, damage houses and kill
peoples.
When the oil tank is refueling, the oil and refueling pipe may charge up because of the
friction. So the charges build up may collide with each other and spark produce, which
leads to catch the fire in the oil tank. So to stop building up the charge, the oil tank and
pipe must be earthed.
Connecting a conductor to the charged object to the earth to remove unwanted charges is
called Earthing.
For example if a conducting wire is connected to the negatively charged side of sphere as
shown below. The electrons in the sphere will moves into the ground through the
conducting wire as shown below.
If a conducting wire is connected to the positively charged side of sphere as shown below,
the positive charge in the sphere will neutralize (cancelling out charges). Because from the
ground through the conducting wire electrons moves into the sphere as shown below.
Bicycles and cars always painted by using electrostatic spraying. The paint is given a
charge and this makes better spray. The droplets all have the same charge and repel each
other so that the paint spreads out to form a large even cloud.
The charged droplets are all attracted to the object and stick strongly to the surface
because it has an opposite charge. Hence less paint is needed and less paint is wasted.
A current of 150mA flows around a circuit for 1 minute. How much electrical charge flows
around the circuit in this time?
Ans: I = 150mA = 0.15A Q=I×t
t = 1 minute = 60s Q= 0.15 × 60 = 12 C
Q =?
The electric current flowing in a circuit can be measured by connecting an ammeter series
to the circuit. There are different ranges of ammeters as shown below. So when you are
measuring current through a circuit, to measure the current accurately remember to use
appropriate range of ammeter. For example the first ammeter shown below can be used to
measure current of 0 to 1A and another can be used to measure 5 to 30A of current.
Symbol
The battery in an electrical circuit can be thought of pushing charge round the circuit to
make a current. It also transfers energy to the electrical charge. The electro – motive force
(e.m.f.) of the battery, measures how much ‘push’ it provides and how much energy it can
transfer to the charge.
Electro – motive force of a battery can be calculated by using the following formula;
E = 𝛆 × Q = 12 × 200 = 2400 J
When cells are connected in series the combined e.m.f. is the sum of all the individual
e.m.f’s.
When cells are connected in parallel, the combined e.m.f. is the e.m.f. of one individual cell.
The energy converted per unit charge passing through a component is called potential
difference (p.d), across the component. or
The p.d. across a component in a circuit also defines as work done in the component to pass
the electric charge through it.
The p.d. across the component can be calculated by using the following formula:
Symbol
Ans:
= 5C
Symbol
Diagram shows a resistor connected in a circuit. The current in the circuit shown in the
ammeter is 2 A and voltage across the resistor is 15 V. Calculate the resistance of the
resistor.
= 7.5 Ω
Connect a conducting wire or electrical component series to the battery, switch and
ammeter. Then connect the voltmeter parallel to the wire or electrical component as shown
below.
Close the switch and measure the voltmeter and ammeter reading in the circuit.
Resistance of the wire or electrical component can be calculated by using the formula
R = V/I
For a wire fixed length, its resistance is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area.
The greater the cross sectional area of the wire, the more electrons there are available to
carry charge along the wire length and so the lower resistance. So if cross-sectional area of
a wire increases resistance of the wire decreases.
A variable resistor or rheostat is used to vary the current in a circuit. A sliding contact
moves, it varies the length of the wire in the circuit and hence the resistance will be
changed.
The result in the table shows that when the voltage increases the current also increases
within constant temperature. And the gradient of the graph is constant value (voltage /
current is equals to constant value of resistance).
So we can conclude that under constant temperature voltage is directly proportional to the
current. This is called Ohm’s law.
The resistance of the most of the conductors becomes higher if the temperature of the
conductor increases. As the temperature rises, the metals ions vibrate more and provide
greater resistance to flow the electrons. For example filament lamp, as the current flows
through the metal filament, it gets hotter so its resistance increases. This means the
current varies with voltage is not directly proportional and not give straight line for current-
voltage graph.
Symbol
The total resistance R of the resistors connected in series circuit is equals to the sum of the
separate resistance.
R = R1 + R2 + R3
The effective resistances R of the resistors connected in parallel can be calculate by using
the formula:
or
= 1.43 Ω
The circuit below shows two resistor connected in series with battery and ammeter.
The circuit below shows two resistor connected in parallel with the battery.
There are some advantages of connecting lamps and other electrical components in parallel
rather than connecting in series. These include:
• The voltage through each lamp is same so each lamp has same brightness.
• If the one lamp is melt the other lamps will work but in series if one lamp melts others
will not work.
Open switch
Cell (battery)
power supply
Electric kettles, cookers, electric irons and immersion heaters are appliances which make
use of the heating effect of an electric current. There is a heating element inside all these
appliances. This element is usually made of metal wire with a higher resistance.
When electrons pass through the metal wire, they give some of their energy to the atoms in
the wire and make them vibrate more, so the wire gets hotter. For the same current flowing
in a circuit, the greater the resistance, the hotter it becomes – this is why an electric fire
glows red-hot while the connecting wires stay cool.
Filament lamp, tube light and other light up object used electric current to light up. The
‘heating element’ in a light bulb is a fine wire or filament of tungsten which becomes white
hot when a suitable current is passed through. Tungsten is used because it has a very high
melting temperature (3400◦C) and can be kept white hot without melting.
The e.m.f (voltage) of a supply tells us about how much energy is transfer to charges
flowing around the circuit. The greater the current flowing around the circuit, the faster
that energy is transferred. Hence the rate at which the energy transferred in the circuit (the
power P) depends on both e.m.f V of the supply and the current I that it pushes round the
circuit. The following equation can be used to calculate power of an electrical component.
Power = current × p.d.
P=I×V
Since energy transferred = power × time, we can modify the equation P = VI to give an
equation for energy transformed E:
An electric fan runs from the 230V mains. The current flowing through it is 0.4A.
(a) At what rate is electrical energy transformed by the fan?
Ans: P = VI = 230 × 0.4 = 92W
(b) How much energy is transformed in 1 minute?
Ans: E = VIt = P × t = 92 × 60 = 5520J
If electrical energy costs $0.90 per unit, what is the cost of running an air-conditioner with
an average power of 1000W (1kW) for 8 hours?
Ans: E = Pt = 1kW × 8h = 8kWh
Cost = 0.90 × 8 = $7.20
Normally, the wires of electrical cables are insulated in rubber. However, the insulating
materials deteriorate with time and use. The wires may be exposed which can cause electric
shock to the user if the user touches the wires accidentally.
The overheating of cables refers to the unusually large current flowing in the conducting
wires under certain conditions such as a short circuit or overloading.
The large amount of heat generated can melt the insulation and star a fire.
Many electrical accidents occur in damp conditions such as those in a wet bathroom. Since
the humidity in the bathroom is higher especially when you are taking bath, the water
(moisture) provides a conducting path for a large current to flow through the human body
in the bathroom.
The body’s resistance depends on whether the skin is wet or dry. With dry skin, the typical
body resistance is around 200kW. However, it may drop below 1kW if the skin wet. With a
such low resistance, the mains voltage (230V) can result deadly current of 0.23A flowing
through the body.
The fuse rating is the maximum current that the fuse can carry without melting.
Only certain values are available e.g. 5A, 13A, 15A and 30A.
An electrical fan has a rating 0f 460W on 230V mains what rate of fuse should be fitted in
the plug?
Ans: P = VI
I = P / V = 460 / 230 = 2A
Therefore 3A fuse should be fitted.
The fuse rating should be slightly larger than the working current of an appliance under
normal operations.
A switch is used to disconnect or connect an electrical appliance to the main supply. In the
case of leakage of current or exposed live wire, a switch can be used as a safety device to
cut off the current.
Switch should be installed on the live wire so that the electrical appliance is disconnected
from high voltage (live wire) when the switch is open.
Nowadays, many households are fitted with circuit breakers rather than fuses. They are
thermal or electromagnetic switches which cut off the current when it exceeds a certain
limit. If a fault in the circuit occurs, the circuit breakers automatically switch off the
appliance. It can be reset only after the fault has been fixed.
Some modern houses are installed with Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCB). They are
very sensitive electromagnetic switches. They cut off current in the live wire when a very
small leakage of current (typically 30mA) is detected in the earth wire.
Connect the brown wire into live terminal, blue wire into neutral terminal and yellow/green
wire into earth terminal and tighten the terminal screws. After that put the cable grip and
put the cover back on.
A wire which completes the circuit, although current passes through the wire it remains
zero potential.
It is a safety wire which connects the metal body of the electrical appliance to the earth.
Magnet arracks magnetic materials such as iron, cobalt nickel and steel.
What to do
1 Place the magnet in the centre of the sheet of paper and draw round it.
2 Place the compass near one of the poles of the magnet. Mark dots 1 and 2 on the
paper to indicate the two ends of the compass needle.
3 Move the compass away from the magnet and position it so that one end of its needle is
marked by dot 2. Mark dot 3 at the other end.
4 Continue this process, until you have moved round to the other pole of the magnet.
5 Remove the compass. The sequence of dots shows one of the field lines of the magnet’s
field. Draw a smooth line through the dots.
6 Repeat the process, starting at a slightly different position, to obtain another field line.
What is going on here? Paper clips are made up of a magnetic material. When the south
pole of the magnet is brought closed to a clip the clip is attracted. The attraction tells us
that the end of the paper clip nearest magnetic pole must be a north pole as shown below.
This is known as induced magnetism. When the permanent magnet is removed, the pin
will return to its unmagnetised state.
When an electric current is passed through a wire, as shown below, a weak magnetic field
is produced around the wire.
A current produces a stronger magnetic field if the wire it flows through is wound into a
coil. The diagram below shows the magnetic field patterns produced by current carrying
coil. A long coil is called solenoid.
If the current through the solenoid increases, the strength of magnetic field also
increases.
If we increase the number of terns in the solenoid, the strength of magnetic field also
increases.
If the direction of current flowing through the solenoid changes, the field around the
solenoid and the poles of solenoid also changes.
So to work out which way round the poles are, we can use another right-hand grip rule, as
shown below. Imagine the gripping the coil with your right hand so that your fingers point
in the conventional current direction. Your thumb then points towards the North pole of
the coil.
As in the case of heating, hammering also cause a magnet to lose its magnetism. If the
magnet is hammered vigorously while lying in an east west direction, its magnetism
becomes weaker and weaker.
A magnetic relay is a switch operated by an electromagnet. With a relay a small switch with
thin wires can be used to turn on the current in a much more powerful circuit– for
example, one with large electric motor in it.
When the switch S in the input circuit is closed, a current flow through electromagnet and
it will magnetised. This pulls the iron armature towards it, which closes the contact C. As a
result current flows through the output circuit and motor turn on.
Most loudspeakers are of the moving-coil type shown below. The cylindrical magnet
produces a strong radial (‘spoke-like’) magnetic field at right angles to the wire in the coil.
The coil is free to move backwards and forwards and is attached to a stiff paper or plastic
cone. If a current is passed through the coil, a backward and forward force acts on it; this
follows from Fleming’s left hand rule.
The loud speaker is connected to an amplifier which gives out alternating current. This
flows backwards, forwards, backwards… and so on, causing a force on the coil which is
also backwards, forwards, backwards…. As a result, the cone vibrates and gives out sound
waves. The nature of sound produced depends on the frequency and amplitude of the
alternating current flowing through the coil.
Magnetic screening is protecting delicate instruments from stray magnetic fields by placing
delicate instrument inside the soft iron shield. Since the soft iron is a magnetic material,
and stray magnetic field lines can go through the soft iron as shown below. But the field
lines cannot reach into delicate instrument it will protect the layer of soft iron around it.
(c) describe the field patterns between currents in parallel conductors and relate these to
the forces which exist between the conductors (excluding the Earth’s field).
(d) explain how a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect
and that the effect is increased by increasing (1) the number of turns on the coil (2)
the current.
(e) discuss how this turning effect is used in the action of an electric motor.
(f) describe the action of a split-ring commutator in a two-pole, single coil motor and the
effect of winding the coil onto a soft-iron cylinder.
The current carrying wire has magnetic field around it. If we place this wire in another
magnetic field, the two magnetic fields may interact, and produce a force on the wire. This
can be shown by the experiment set up below.
When a current is passed through the wire, the wire moves upward. A force is acting
on the wire segment inside the magnetic field.
When the direction of current reversed, the wire move downward.
When there is changing of direction of the magnetic field, the force acting on a wire
also changes.
When the current and magnetic field strength are increase, the wire experiences a
large force. The force acting on the wire is therefore proportional to current and
magnetic field strength
The direction of force can be determined by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
When a beam of moving charged particles enters a magnetic field, there is force acting on
the charged particles. They are deflected inside the magnetic field. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
can be applied to determine the direction of deflection of the beam of charged particles.
When the direction of magnetic field changes the force acting on a charge particle also
changes.
If the positive charge particle enters magnetic field out of the page the charge particles
move towards bottom of the page. So by using Fleming’s Left Hand rule we can find the
direction of force acts on a charged particle.
If beam of negative charged particles enters magnetic field into the paper, the charged
particles move towards bottom of the paper as shown below.
When the direction of magnetic field changes the force acting on a charge particle also
changes.
If the negative charge particle enters magnetic field out of the page the charge particles
move towards top of the page. So by using Fleming’s Left Hand rule we can find the
direction of force acts on a charged particle.
When two parallel wires carrying current at same direction, both the wires move towards
each other and magnetic field pattern is shown below.
A simple direct current electric motor consists of a coil (ABCD) connected to two split-ring
commutators (X and Y), two permanent magnets and two carbon brushes (P and Q)
connected to an external battery. The commutators rotate with the coil. Two carbon
brushes are made to press lightly against the commutators so that current can pass
through when they are in contact.
The following figures show how the coil is set into motion when current flows through it.
When current flows from A to D through the coil it creates magnetic field, which
interacts with magnetic field produce by two permanent magnets, so the side CD
experiences an upward force and the side AB experiences a downward force. These
forces produce a turning effect and cause the coil to rotate in a clockwise direction.
The current along the sides AB and CD is reversed. The side AB experiences an upward
force and the side CD experiences a downward force. These two forces produce a
clockwise moment. Hence the coil continues to rotate in a clockwise direction.
The purpose of the split-ring commutators is to reverse the direction of current in the
coil whenever the commutators change contact from one carbon brush to another. This
ensures that the coil will rotate in a fixed direction.
When the direction of movement of wire changes the direction of induced current also
changes.
If the wire moves downward, the direction of current carried is shown above and the
deflection of galvanometer needle is also same direction that is right side.
The direction of induced current in the straight wire can be determined by using
Flemings Right Hand Rule.
If the magnetic field direction changes the current direction also changes.
If the wire is in rest in the magnetic field, no e.m.f is induced.
Example 1
The N-pole of magnet is moving towards the solenoid as shown in the diagram below.
The change that induces current is the N-pole moving towards the solenoid. According to
Lenz’s Law, the direction of induced current opposes the change producing it. To oppose
the N-pole moving to the coil, the induced current must produce a N-pole at the end X.
Hence the direction of induced current is as shown above.
Example 2
The N-pole of magnet is moving away from the solenoid as shown in the diagram below.
The change that induces current is the N-pole moving out the solenoid. According to Lenz’s
Law, the direction of induced current opposes the change producing it. To oppose the N-
pole moving out of the coil, the induced current must produce an S-pole at the end X.
Hence the direction of induced current is as shown above.
When the coil rotates, it cuts magnetic field lines, so an e.m.f. is induced. This makes a
current flow through the coil.
As the coil rotates, each side travels, upwards, down wards, upwards and downwards…
and so on, through the magnetic field. So the current flows backwards, forwards and an
a.c. current is produced.
The direction of induced current changes every half rotation of the coil and this can be
determined by using Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
The end of coil is connected to a pair of slip rings. The slip rigs rotate with the coil and
are in close contact with two carbon brushes which rub against the slip rings and keep
the coil connected to the outside part of the circuit.
The induced current is maximum when the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic
field. There is no induced current when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
The induced current can be increased;
o using the coil with more turns
o using stronger magnet
o rotating the coil faster
A step-up transformer is used to increase the output voltage, so there are more turns on
the secondary coil than primary coil as shown below.
A step-down transformer is used to decrease the output voltage, so there are more turns on
the primary coil than secondary coil as shown below.
The ratio of number of turns tells us the factors by which the voltage will be changed.
Hence we can write an equation, known as transformer equation, relating two voltages Vp
and Vs, to the number of turns on each coil, Np and Ns.
To prevent sparking, the only effective way of insulating the cable is to keep huge air spaces
around them. That’s why we have to be suspended from pylons. Underground cables are
more difficult insulate and must be used at lower voltages, to transmit same power they
have to carry higher current. This means that we have to use thicker cables and it will be
very expensive to lay. Despite the extra cost.
Underground cables are used in areas of outstanding natural beauty so the destruction of
ground.
(c) describe the deflection of an electron beam by electric fields and magnetic fields.
(d) state that the flow of electrons (electron current) is from negative to positive and is in
the opposite direction to conventional current.
(e) describe in outline the basic structure and action of a cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.)
(detailed circuits are not required).
(f) describe the use of a cathode-ray oscilloscope to display waveforms and to measure
p.d.’s and short intervals of time (detailed circuits are not required).
(g) explain how the values of resistors are chosen according to a colour code and why
widely different values are needed in different types of circuit.
(h) discuss the need to choose components with suitable power ratings.
(i) describe the action of thermistors and light-dependent resistors and explain their use as
input sensors.
(k) describe the action of a capacitor as a charge store and explain its use in time delay
circuits.
(n) describe and explain circuits operating as light-sensitive switches and temperature
operated alarms (using a reed relay or other circuits).
A C.R.O consists of three main parts. They are electron gun, deflection system and
fluorescent screen.
When the filament heated up it emits electrons and moves towards the anode in the
electron gun and travels towards the plates as a form of electron beam.
The Y-plates move the election beam vertically. This happens when an external source of
voltage – for example, an AC supply – is connected across the Y-input terminals. The
amount of vertical movement can be amplified (magnified) by turning up the gain control.
The X-plates moves the beam horizontally. Normally, the movement is produced by a circuit
called the time base inside the oscilloscope. The time base is automatically applies a
changing voltage across the plates so that the spot moves from left to right across the
screen at a steady speed, flicks back to the start, moves across gain… and so on, over again
and again.
A C.R.O shows a trace of a.c voltage as in the following diagram the time base setting is
25ms/cm and the Y-gain setting is 5V/cm.
What is the maximum voltage of the supply and the time taken to one complete oscillation?
Ans: Voltage of the supply = 5V
Time taken for one complete oscillation = 100ms
(b) On the grid below, draw the trace on the screen of the CRO.
Ans:
The fourth ring gives the tolerance. This tells us by how much resistance may differ from
the marked value.
Gold 5% , silver 10% and no colour 20%
Often a power supply or a battery provides a fixed p.d. to obtain a smaller p.d., or a
variable p.d., this fixed p.d. must be split using circuit called a potential divider
(potentiometer) as shown below.
When the sliding contact is at N the p.d across the bulb is zero and not light up. When the
sliding contact moves from N to M the p.d. across the bulb increases and it becomes
brighter. The sliding contact at M gives the full p.d. of the battery to the bulb that is 6V.
If the two resistors have same value of resistance, the battery voltage is divided into same
rate to each of the resistor. In the circuit above the battery voltage of 6V is divided into 3V
to each resistor.
But when the two resistors have different value of resistance, the voltage share by the
battery to each resistor is different as shown below.
In this case the 10Ω resistor gets 4V of p.d. from the battery and 5Ω resistor gets 2V of p.d
from the battery. So the greater the resistance, the greater share of the battery voltage.
The circuit below contains light dependent resistor (L.D.R), a special type of resistor whose
resistance falls when light shines on it and in dark its resistance increases. The principle is
used in lamps which come on automatically at night.
The LDR is a part of a potential divider, in day light the LDR has low resistance and a low
share of battery voltage-too low to switch the bulb. In dark the resistance of the LDR rises
considerably, and so does it share of the battery voltage. Now, the voltage across the LDR is
high enough to switch bulb.
The thermistor is part of a potential divider. At room temperature, the thermistor has a
high resistance and the major share of battery voltage. As a result, the voltage across the
resistor is not enough to switch on the buzzer. When the thermistor is heated, its
resistance falls, and the resistor gets a much larger share of the battery voltage. So the
buzzer is on and starts to ring.
The capacitor is designed to store electric charge (and hence electrical energy). The energy
is stored as an electric field between two plates.
When you close the switch in the circuit below, there is a time delay before the bulb lights
up. This is because when the switch closed it takes some time to charge the capacitor. The
delay can be increased by increasing the capacitance of the capacitor.
A diode is a component that allows electric current to in one direction only. Its circuit
symbol showing below represents this by showing an arrow to indicate direction in which
current can flow. The bar shows that current is stopped if it tries to flow in opposite
direction.
Diodes are useful to for converting alternating current (which varies back and forth) into
direct current (which flows in one direction only). This process is known as rectification and
the diode act as a rectifier. For example the d.c. motor in a drill cannot work using a.c.
current, so the diode is used to convert a.c. current into d.c. current as shown the circuit
below.
The diagram below shows reed switch used to switch on warning lamp.
When the temperature of the air raises the resistance of the thermistor decreases, as a
result current flows through the coil and the ends of both wires inside the coil magnetised
with opposite pole. So both the wires attract each other and the circuit of the warning lamp
completes and lights up.
Note: There is no compulsory question set on this unit of the syllabus. Questions set on
topics within this unit are always set as an alternative within a question.
Now we will look at an example of a circuit in which sufficient current can flow through a
transistor to operate buzzer as shown below. This circuit sounds an alarm when the
temperature rises – it could be part of fire alarm system.
The input to the transistor is a potential divider circuit, consisting of a fixed resistor and a
thermistor, connected in series. The resistance of the thermistor decreases if it gets hot.
To switch the transistor ON, we need a current to flow into the base. For this to happen,
the voltage at point X must be high. This will happen when the resistance of the thermistor
is low, that is, when it is hot. So here is how the circuit works.
When the thermistor is cold, its resistance is high. The voltage across point X is low,
and so the base current Ib flowing into the transistor is too small to cause a current
to flow though the transistor. The transistor is OFF.
When the thermistor is hot, its resistance is low. The voltage at point X will be close
to 6V, and this voltage makes a small current flow into the base of the transistor.
(the resistor is there to make sure the current does not get too big).
This allows a large current Ic to flow through the transistor, which is ON. The
current also flows through the buzzer, which buzzes.
Rather than working with individual transistors, electronic engineers prefer to use logic
gates. Each logic gates has a specific function. And many can be combined together to
produce complex effects. However, inside each logic gate there are numbers of transistors
working switches, together with other components.
A logic gate is a device that receives one or more electrical input signals and produces an
output signals depends on those input signals. These signals are voltages.
• a high voltage is referred to as ON(high), and is represent by symbol 1.
• a low voltage is referred to as OFF (low), and is represent by symbol 0.
There are different types of logic gates these include: AND, OR, NOT, NOR and NAND.
An AND gate function like this: Its output is ON (high) if both input 1 and input 2 are ON
(high). The truth table for this gate is shown below.
This gate has two inputs (input 1 and 2) and output as shown below.
An OR gate function like this: Its output is ON (high) if either input 1 or input 2 or both is
ON (high). The truth table for this gate is shown below.
This gate has one input and one output as shown below. This gate is also called an
inverter.
An NOT gate function like this: Its output is ON (high) if its input is not ON (high). The
truth table for this gate is shown below.
An NAND gate function like this: Its output is ON (high) if both input 1 and input 2 are not
ON (high). The truth table for this gate is shown below.
This gate has two inputs (input 1 and 2) and output as shown below.
An NOR gate function like this: Its output is ON (high) if neither input 1 nor input 2 is ON
(high). The truth table for this gate is shown below.
(c) describe the composition of the nucleus in terms of protons and neutrons.
(d) define the terms proton number (atomic number), Z and nucleon number (mass
number),A.
(e) explain the term nuclide and use the nuclide notation to construct
equations where radioactive decay leads to changes in the composition of the nucleus.
(f) define the term isotope.
(g) explain, using nuclide notation, how one element may have a number of isotopes.
In 1911 Geiger and Marsden performed series of experiments under the direction of
Rutherford which led to the planetary or nuclear model of atom.
The radioactive material kept inside a thick lead box emits alpha particles. Beam of alpha
particles are then allowed to fall on a thin gold foil in a vacuum place.
While passing through the gold foil, the alpha particles are scattered through different
angles, but few were repelled so strongly that they bounced back.
e
n
p n
p
e
Helium
Example
Proton number (atomic number) of carbon = 6, carbon nucleus has 6 protons. The nucleon
number (mass number) of carbon is 12. So the number of neutrons in carbon nucleus is
12 – 6 = 6
e e
p n
p np
nn
e
Ans: The atom of lithium of nucleus consists of 3 protons and 4 neutrons. Around the
nucleus 3 electrons are orbiting.
Nucleon number, A is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
Isotopes are atoms with the same proton (atomic) number but different (mass) nucleon
number.
Example: Hydrogen deuterium tritium are isotopes.
Isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons and the same number of
electrons. So isotopes have the same chemical properties chemical reactions involve the
electrons in an atom.
However they have different physical properties because their mass is different. Some
isotopes exist naturally. Isotopes can also be made artificially.
The nuclei of some atoms are unstable because they contain the wrong number of
protons or neutrons.
To become stable they emit particles (alpha & beta) and/or radiation (gamma).
Dense – strong ionization Very fast beta particles - thin, The gamma rays do not
power straight tracks - the straight tracks. The slower produce clear or continuous
alpha particle has a large beta particles - short, thick tracks due to their low
mass and momentum so it is tracks which curve in random ionizing power
not easily deflected direction.
• Alpha particles can be stopped by paper; beta particles can penetrate through paper but
can be stopped by thin metal (aluminium). Gamma rays can go through paper and metal
sheet and can only be stopped by thick lead or concrete.
• Alpha and beta particles are deflected in an electric field because they are charged. The
deflections are in opposite direction because they carry opposite charges. The deflection of
beta is larger than alpha because mass of beta is less than mass of alpha.
• Gamma rays are not deflected because they do not carry any charge.
Radioactive emissions can be detected with the help of Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube), gold
leaf electroscope, cloud chamber and spark counter.
• The radioactive emission enters the tube through the mica window and ionizes the neon
gas.
• The electrons and positive ions are attracted towards the anode and cathode respectively.
• When electrons are collected by the anode, a pulse of current is produces.
• The pulses of current are counted by a scaler or ratemeter.
• The scaler gives the number of counts over a certain period of time that is counts per
minute / counts per second.
© Department of physics 2012 Page 165 of 176
• Initially the GM tube is switched on without the presence of any radioactive substance.
The reading displayed by the ratemeter is known as the background count rates.
• When the GM tube is used to detect radioactive emission, the background count rate is
subtracted from the count rate obtained.
Notes:
Background radiation gives reading to the GM tube even though there is no radioactive
source.
Background radiation is always present due to natural radioactivity in the ground, bricks
or buildings and cosmic radiation.
• When an electroscope is charged, the gold leaf sticks out, because the charges on the gold
repel the charges on the metal stalk.
• When a radioactive source comes near, the air is ionized and starts to conduct electricity.
• This means the charge can ‘leak’ away, the electroscope discharges and the gold leaf falls.
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation can all damage living cells. Alpha particles, due to their
strong ability to ionise other particles, are particularly dangerous to human tissue. Gamma
radiation is dangerous because of its high penetrating power. However cells have repair
mechanisms that make ordinary levels of radiation relatively harmless.
Radioactive substances must always be handled with the correct procedures to prevent
harmful effects to people and the environment.
Safety precaution for handling radioactive materials include:
• Use forceps or tongs for handling radioactive sources – don’t hold them directly.
• Wear laboratory coats, long pants, closed-toe footwear and gloves when entering
radioactive place.
• Stronger radioactive sources should be handled with robotic control systems behind
steel, concrete, lead or thick glass panels.
• Check the surrounding area for radiation levels above the normal background levels.
The radioactive radiation present around the environment because of radioactive materials
in the environment.
Background radiation can be produced by natural sources
• The Rocks of the Earth
• Cosmic radiation from space
• Radioactive gas within our atmosphere
When a nucleus emits alpha particle, the atomic number decreases by 2 units and it mass
number decreases by 4 units. And huge amount of energy is released.
Example 1:
Example 2:
When a nucleus emits a beta particle, the mass number does not change but the atomic
number increases by 1. And huge amount of energy will be released.
Example 1:
Example 2:
The half-life T of a radioactive substance is the time for half of the radioactive nuclei to
1/2
decay.
All radioactive substances decay with the same pattern, as shown in the graphs below.
The graph shows that amount of substance decrease rapidly at first and then more and
more slowly. We cannot say when the last atom will decay. Different radioactive substances
decay at different rates some much faster than others.
© Department of physics 2012 Page 170 of 176
Question 1: The count-rate from a radioactive source falls from 400 to 50 in 3.0 minutes.
What is the half-life?
Ans : 1minutes
Question 2: The half-life of a radioisotope is 2400 years. The activity of a sample is 720
counts / s.
How long will it take for the activity to fall to 90 counts / s?
Ans: 7200 years
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei, when the nucleus
of an atom is bombarded with a neutron.
The energy of the neutron causes the target nucleus to split into two (or more) nuclei that
are lighter than the parent nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy during the process.
• A neutron hitting a uranium-235 nucleus, causing it to split producing strontium-90,
xenon-143 and three neutrons + energy.
Nuclear
fission in Heat
Nuclear energy Heat energy Heat energy of
of uranium steam
The nuclear exchanger
reactor
turbine
generator
Mechanical
Electrical
energy
energy
Nuclear fusion is the combining of two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a
vast amount of energy during the process.
Nuclear fusion is believed to be the process by which energy is released by the Sun. When
two hydrogen-2 nuclei moving at high speeds collide, they can join together to produce
heavier nucleus. A large amount of energy is released.
© Department of physics 2012 Page 172 of 176
A hydrogen bomb uses the principle of nuclear fusion for its design.
Distribution of hydrogen and interstellar dust in space may accidentally become so dense
that they contract under their own gravity, causing temperature and density to rise.
When the mass starts to give a red glow, a protostar is formed. When temperatures at the
center of the mass increase to ten-million degrees Kelvin, hydrogen will fuse to form helium
in nuclear fusion reactions. Unlike ordinary chemical reactions we are familiar with,
nuclear reactions convert one chemical element into another such as from hydrogen (H) to
helium (He), releasing a lot of energy, which causes the temperature to rise further. The
energy causes the surface to heat up, and eventually, energy escapes from the mass as
radiation (heat and light). At some point in time, the state is steady in that the amount of
energy released from fusion reactions equals to the amount lost by radiation, and we call
such a collection of mass a star.
Acceleration m/s2
Efficiency
or %
Specific heat capacity Energy = mass × specific heat capacity E = mc∆T J/(g °C), J/(g K)
× change in temperature
Specific latent heat Energy = mass × specific latent heat E = ml J/kg, J/g
Wave equation Speed of wave = frequency × V = fλ
wavelength
Frequency Hz
Refractive index
Potential difference V