SOLAR CELL

Solar cell is basically a photovoltaic cell, which is a device that convert light into
Electrical energy. The process is due to the photovoltaic effect when a light fall
On the individual cell can combine to form modules. It is found that a single
Solar cell can produce a maximum open circuit voltage of 0.5 to 0.6 volts. The
Most commonly used solar cell are p-n junction made from silicon other cell
Which are possible are organic cell, quantum dot cell, etc. basically the one
Side of solar cell are transparent conducting film for allowing to light to enter
Into the active material. The film must have high electrical conductance such
As indium tin oxide, conducting nanowire is used in solar cell.

Efficiency of solar cell

Basically single p-n junction solar cell device efficiency is about 33.16%
semiconductor with band gap 1 to 1.5 ev have the greatest efficiency to

Form efficient single junction cell. Solar cell is basically made up of

semiconducting material and they have the properties to absorb light

Material
Various material that are used to make solar cell are as follows
1 crystalline silicon
2 Epitaxial silicon development
3 polycrystalline silicon
4 cadium telluride
5 copper indium gallium selenide
6 gallium arsenide thin film

Manufacture of solar cell

More than 90% of solar cell are manufacture in china, japan, USA, Europe.
And 10% are in rest of the world.

Application of solar cell

1 It is used in toys, watches and calculator.
2 It is used in electrical fences.
3 It is used in remote lightening systems.
4 it is used in water pumping.
5 It is used in emergency power.
6 It is used in portable power supplies.
7 it is used in satellite.

Disposal of solar cell

Solar cell is degrade after a span 25-30 years due to uv radiation snow loads
Or in desert like area it is noted the waste generated by solar cell in 2016 is
About 43,500 to 250,000 metric tons. It is rapidly increase day by day.

Recycling
Solar panel are recycled by different methods. Basically it is three step process
1 Module recycling
2 Cell recycling
3 Waste handling
Basically to break down the Si modules and recover various materials. The
recovered material are reusable to the solar industry.
The important and major advantage is that it is environment friendly and
recycled and it can be easily disposable easily, it provide free of cost electricity

Advantages of solar cell

1 Solar energy is completely renewable energy.
2 solar cell absolutely no noise pollution
3 very little maintenance is required to run it.
4 after installation you but it is long run you find yourself saving money.

Disadvantages of solar cell

1 The solar panel are expensive when you first purchases them.
2 solar cell cannot produce electricity during the storm and cloudy dayor at
night it is the major disadvantages of solar cell.

Polymer cell
Polymer cell basically made up of organic material instead of bulk metals
Redox active polymer are good option for electrodes in battery because
Of synthetic availability, high capacity low cost and low toxicity. Many types
Of polymer are including conducting, non conductive, and radical polymer.
It should be distinguish from metal polymer battery such as lithium polymer
Battery which most often involve a polymeric electrolyte as opposed to the
polymeric active materials.
For charging polymer base battery a current  is applied to oxidize the positive
electrode and reduce the negative electrode. Charge and discharge test is done
By at testing set up the metal act as anode and whether p and n type polymer
are used as a cathode. During initial charging, electrolyte salt cations are
reduced and mobilized to the polymeric anode while the organic is basically
oxizided. During discharging polymer is reduced and metal is oxidized into its
cation.

Types of Active material

1 conductive material
2 non Conjugated Polymers with Pendant Groups
3 Organic Radical Polymers

Advantages of polymer cell

1 It is rechargeable battery and which is widely used in cars and aircraft.
2 now is the most preferred power source for laptop mobiles phones and Gps
Units.
3 it is very light weight and pliable (flexible).
4 it can be made any shape and size.
5 it is noted that it have about four times the energy density than of nickel
Cadium batteries.

Disadvantage of polymer cell

1 It has been found that overcharging and overheating of the batteries can
result in fire.
2 Poorly made polymer cells can develop a internal shorts and give rise to
a very serious problem.
3 if it is bulging or misshapen it never be charged and never used again.

Lithium ion battery

In 1980s first commercial battery with lithium metal were introduced using
Tis2 as a positive electrode but does not exist in market in large span of time
Due to the safety concern. After sometime scientist overcome this problem
By introducing lithium aluminium.

Principle
All lithium ion battery work broadly the same way. When the battery charging
Up, the lithium cobalt oxide, positive electrode gives up some of its lithium ion
Which moves throughout the electrolyte to the negative graphite electrode
And remain there. The battery takes in and stores energy during this process.
Basically two kinds of rechargeable lithium ion battery based on lithium
Chemistry and they are
1 Lithium metal battery
2 Lithium ion battery
In both cathode is lithium insertion material whereas anode is lithium metal
Battery is metallic lithium and anode is lithium ion battery is lithium insertion
Material.
1 Lithium metal battery – It exhibit unique advantages such as high specific
Energy and energy density due to the high specific capacity of lithium metal
Which is used as positive electrode. Charge and discharge process of lithium
Result in the formation of passivating field over the lithium surface. This
Passivating layer is made up of various inorganic compound and organic
Compound formed due to the reaction lithium with electrolyte.
2 Lithium ion battery – The problem related with the lithium metal battery
(anode) Lead to the inversion lithium interrelated material as negative
Electrode compare to lithium metal, lithium inter calating compound improve
The cycle life as well as safety but lower volage and charge transfer rate.
During the operation lihhium ion shutter between electrode through the
Electrolyte, while electron are moved through the external electrical circuit
By the electrochemical potential. Lithium ion battery is also known as rocking
Chair battery with anode and cathode lithium insertion material.
FUEL CELL
Fuel is basically a electrochemical cell which convert chemical energy into
Electrical energy by a redox reaction. The first fuel cell was invented by Sir
William grove in 1838. There are many types of fuel cell but they all are
Consist of cathode, anode and electrolyte which allow the ions to follow
One side other side. The efficiency of fuel cell is about 40-60%.

Types of fuel cell

1 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell – are the type of fuel cell that are used
Are used for transport application as well as stationary fuel cell application and
Portable fuel cell application.
2 Phosphoric acid fuel cell – It is a type of fuel cell in which phosphoric acid use
As an electrolyte. It has high efficiency 40-50% to 80%. the only disadvantage
Is that there is use of acid which is used as electrolyte and which corrode
Easily.
4 Solid acid fuel – is a type of fuel cell in which solid electrolyte is used. It
Is produce electricity from electrochemical conversion of hydrogen and
oxygen.
5 Alkaline fuel cell – The electrode consists of carbon and space present
Between them is filled by concentrated NaoH and KoH. hydrogen and oxygen
Gas is bubbled out from carbon electrode. The overall reaction combination of
Hydrogen and oxygen gas to form water.

Application of FUEL CELL

No doubt in saying that it is the most important fuel comparison to other
Fuel present in the world. We say that it is also known as next generation
Fuel.
1 Power – Fuel cell is the most important power source in many area like
Spacecraft, Research centers, remote weather stations, military application,
Etc.
2 Cogeneration – It is the most in important factor that make it important
The most important example is micro combined heat and power systems
Are generate both heat and electricity for homes. The system generates
Constant electric power and at the same time it produces hot air and water
From the waste heat. Cogeneration efficiency reach up to 85% from which
40-60% electrical and rest are thermal.
Disadvantage of cogeneration is that short lifetime but it is costly.
3 Automobile – In modern time or the next generation its increase rapidly.
In foreign countries hydrogen vehicles running on the roads like bus car
Train etc. and the most important advantage is that it is environment
Friendly.
4 Airplanes – Nowadays fuel cell is widely used in airplanes.
5 In submarines
7 In boats
8 in portable power system
9 fueling system
Nowadays fuel cell industry revenue increase rapidly. No doubt it is the most
Important future source of energy.

Advantages of Fuel cell

1 High energy conversion.
2 very low chemical pollution.
3 Water as a byproduct so no greenhouse effect.
4 fuel cell generate electricity as long as you supply power
But in batteries electricity production stop when the reaction
Is reach at the equilibrium.
5 Low maintenance cost.
6 High Efficiency in the energy conversion of chemical into electrical
energy.

Disadvantages of Fuel cell

1 High initial cost.
2 Lifetime of fuel cell are not accurately known.
3 need of large weight and volume of gas fuel system.
4 High cost of pure hydrogen.
5 Lack of infrastructure in distributing hydrogen fuel