Energies 12 00105 PDF

energies
Article
Investigation of Separated Two-Phase Thermosiphon
Loop for Relieving the Air-Conditioning Loading
in Datacenter
Hafiz M. Daraghmeh 1 , Mohammed W. Sulaiman 1 , Kai-Shing Yang 2 and
Chi-Chuan Wang 1, *
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan;
hafizmech.me02g@nctu.edu.tw (H.M.D.); eng.sulaiman86@yahoo.com (M.W.S.)
2 Green Energy & Environment Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute,
Hsinchu 300, Taiwan; ksyang@itri.org.tw
* Correspondence: ccwang@mail.nctu.edu.tw; Tel.: +886-3-5712121

Received: 28 November 2018; Accepted: 24 December 2018; Published: 29 December 2018
Abstract: This study investigates the feasibility of using R-134a filled separated two-phase
thermosiphon loop (STPTL) as a free cooling technique in datacenters. Two data center racks one
of them is attached with fin and tube thermosiphon were cooled by CRAC unit (computer room air
conditioning unit) individually. Thermosiphon can help to partially eliminate the compressor loading
of the CRAC; thus, energy saving potential of thermosiphon loop was investigated. The condenser
is a water-cooled design and perfluoroalkoxy pipes were used as adiabatic riser/downcomer for
easier installation and mobile capability. Tests were conducted with filling ratio ranging from 0 to
90%. The test results indicate that the energy saving increases with the rise of filling ratio and an
optimum energy savings of 38.7% can be achieved at filling ratios of 70%, a further increase of filling
ratio leads to a reduction in energy saving. At a low filling ratio like 10%, the evaporator starves
for refrigerant and a very uneven air temperature distribution occurring at the exit of data rack.
The uneven temperature distribution is relieved considerably when the evaporator is fully flooded.
It is also found that the energy saving is in line with the rise of system pressure. Overfilling of the
evaporator may lead to a decline of system pressure. A lower thermal resistance occurs at high filling
ratios and higher ambient temperature.
Keywords: datacenter; free cooling; two-phase flow; thermosiphon; separated loop; PFA pipe
1. Introduction
Effective thermal management in datacenter has become more and more important. This is
because nowadays the electrical energy consumption of datacenters represents 1.1~1.5% of the world’s
total electricity consumption. Besides, traditional cooling systems of datacenter consume nearly 50% of
the total energy. Moreover, according to industry predictions, data centers’ annual power demand can
reach up to 20% [1]. In this regard, recent researches had focused on implementing new efficient cooling
techniques that might help to minimize the electrical power usage and then minimize the costs spent
on thermal energy management. Thus, many recent studies had employed free cooling techniques such
as direct/indirect airside and waterside free cooling [2]. By introducing these techniques to datacenter,
the compressor load can be partially or completely relieved. However, mechanical piping system of
such techniques requires long distance transportation of air or water. In other words, they consume a
lot of electrical energy through fans or pumps. One alternative for energy-saving technique is based on
heat pipe for its passive feature. Using heat pipe for data center cooling such as thermosiphon is being
Energies 2019, 12, 105; doi:10.3390/en12010105 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 105 2 of 18
considered as a promising technology for effective heat removal with short distance transportation.
Moreover, thermosiphon features unique characteristics such as the simple structure, low-cost and
high effective thermal conductivity. For the best energy savings, integrated system of mechanical
refrigeration and thermosiphon (ISMT) has been considered as an ideal economization system; that is
because it is a gravity driven device which does not require pumping power and auxiliary refrigeration
system, thereby reducing considerable greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, thermosiphon can
work even when the temperature difference between indoor and outdoor is small. ISMT has been
used widely for energy saving purposes. Han et al. [3] developed a new ISMT in high heat density
mobile phone stations. The integrated system which combines the traditional vapor compression cycle
and thermosiphon cycle, consumed about 34.3–36.9% less energy than traditional cooling systems.
Zhang et al. [4] proposed an ISMT consists of two circulation loops: a mechanical refrigeration loop
and a thermosiphon loop. The experimental investigation results of the performance of the ISMT
showed an annual energy-saving up to 47.3%. Zhang et al. [5] studied the effect of air flow rate and
geometric parameters on the performance of the ISMT. The results showed that cooling capacity and
circulation flow rate increased with the riser diameter of thermosiphon and air flow rate but decreased
with the tube length.
Generally, thermosiphon can be classified into two main categories. The first one is similar to
a single heat pipe with close ends and it comprises of three sections; evaporator, adiabatic section
and condenser. The other kind of thermosiphon is the separated two-phase thermosiphon loop
(STPTL), sometimes called loop thermosiphon. It is called separated because the evaporator and
the condenser are separated and located in different levels, and they are connected to each other by
two adiabatic pipes; vapor line (riser), and liquid line (downcomer). Amongst these two kinds of
thermosiphon systems, the loop thermosiphon is more reliable in datacenter environment because of
its higher capability to transfer heat, the ability to transfer heat at small temperature difference, and
since evaporator and condenser are separated, they can be located comparatively far away from each
other, which enables them to transfer heat to a longer distance [6]. Many researchers had adopted
the STPTL for thermal energy management of datacenters [7–10]. They studied the heat transfer
performance of the STPTL and the factors that influence the heat transfer capacity of the loop, such as
the thermosiphon structure, working fluid, operating conditions and the like. Among these factors,
selecting the working fluid is the most crucial factor. For example, some of the aforementioned
studies had investigated the usage of carbon dioxide (R-744) as a working fluid for free cooling in
datacenters. R-744 was selected because of its excellent thermodynamic properties (high heat transfer
rate and low pressure drop). However, R-744 is not workable in some conditions since it has low
critical temperature and comparatively high pressure. Therefore, it can only be used for two-phase
thermosiphon systems when the working temperature of thermosiphon is less than 31.1 ◦ C [11], which
makes it infeasible for high density datacenter racks. Recently, electrical power density of datacenter
racks is dramatically increasing. Hence, testing thermosiphon heat exchangers that uses refrigerants
with higher critical temperature is more beneficial. Generally, two kinds of experimental researches
had been conducted; the first kind of experiment examined different kind of refrigerants in order to
decide which among them gives the best heat transfer capability for specific operating conditions.
The other focused on finding the optimal filling ratio for specific kind of refrigerant that gives the
best heat transfer capability. In this paper, an experimental study has been conducted to compare the
power consumption of two identical datacenter racks; one of them is combined with thermosiphon
(evaporator) as a part of the STPTL. Also, each rack’s cooling system was tested separately under
the same operating and environmental conditions. The average airside outlet temperature of the
traditional rack was measured at constant heating load in the range of 28.7~38.9 ◦ C. Thus, R-134a has
been selected as a working fluid, since its critical temperature is 101.06 ◦ C [12]. It is worth mentioning
that the STPTL’s adiabatic section that connects the evaporator (thermosiphon) and the condenser is
a Teflon pipe made from fluoropolymers called perfluoroalkoxy (PFA). The soft pipe design offers a
Energies 2019, 12, 105 3 of 18
flexible and mobile arrangement of condenser. A summary of literatures related to STPTL is shown
in Table 1.
Table 1. Related literature in association with STPTL.
Source STPTL’s Description Working Fluid Operating Conditions Results

ISMT that has three
The optimal filling
working modes: T.S R-744 The indoor temperature
ratios for CO2 , R22 and
Zhang et al. [1] mode, vapor R-22 = 27 ◦ C and outdoor
R134a are 120%, 100%
compression mode and R-134a temperature = (7–22) ◦ C
and 90%, respectively
dual mode
Integrated air Heating load = 2112 W.
conditioner with The AC rated cooling
Energy savings up to
Han et al. [3] thermosyphon R-22 capacity was 3200 W.
34.3–36.9%
(dual mode direct Indoor temperature =
expansion evaporator) 22 ◦ C
A three-fluid heat
Indoor temperature =
exchanger is used to The annual energy
27 ◦ C
Zhang et al. [4] connect refrigeration Unknown saving rate is
Outdoor Temperature =
loop and a 5.4–47.3%
(7–22) ◦ C
thermosyphon loop
Separated heat pipe
Heat transfer ability of
system. Heat source’s
R-22 R-22 is 4.8% higher
The evaporator was temperature (32~40) ◦ C
Ding et al. [6] R-134a than R134a, while
placed inside the Condenser’s
R-410A R-410A is 8.7% higher
datacenter rack to cover temperature (10~14) ◦ C
than R134a
all rack surface area
T.S was built to use
Heating load = 1.1 kW
ambient energy to cool a the annual energy
Ta = 25 ◦ C
Feng et al. [7] typical data center, the Unknown consumption could be
T.S cooling capacity =
volume of T.S = (0.75 × reduced by 35.4%
2 kW
0.32 × 0.29) mm3
Results showed that
increasing the liquid
and vapor lines section
Loop T.S that uses an diameters could be one
evaporator that is of the vital keys to
n-pentane
composed of two improve the system
HFC-365mfc Heating load =
compensation chambers thermal efficiency.
Chehade et al. [9] SES-36 (100~700) W
for the liquid and vapor Also, increasing
HFE-7000 Ta = 25 ◦ C
working fluid separated ambient temperature
FC-3284
by a increases the mass flow
microchannels block. rate in the loop and
decreases the
evaporator
pressure drop
Finned-tube heat Heat transfer rate = The total thermal
exchangers R-744 (1–4) kW resistance of R-744 is
Tong et al. [10]
The heat transfer area is R-22 Outdoor temperature = (22–25) % lower than
about 16.9 m2 18 ◦ C that of the R22
Maximum heat
The inner surface areas
transfer ability is
of the evaporator and
Tc,i was controlled achieved at the fill
condenser is (0.42 m2 )
between 13 and 15 ◦ C. ratio around 100%.
Z. Tong et al. [11] each. The inner R-744
Heating load range Lowest driving
diameters of the riser
(200~1700) W temperature difference
and downcomer are
is achieved at the fill
both 6 mm.
ratio around 62%
Free cooling
Heating load = 4.5 kW. percentages of
ISMT system consists of
Ta = 24 ◦ C approximately 30–70%.
Zhang et al. [13] two circulation loops: an R-22
Filling quantity of T.S The annual energy
AC loop and a T.S loop.
loop = 3.8 kg saving rates are
16–49%
Energies 2019, 12, 105 4 of 18
Table 1. Cont.
Source STPTL’s Description Working Fluid Operating Conditions Results

Best cooling capacity
A tube-fin three-fluid The indoor and outdoor
of thermosiphon mode
Zhang et al. [14] heat exchanger and a R-22 temperature differences
is 7.1 kW at 20 ◦ C
parallel flow evaporator are (10, 15 and 20) ◦ C
temperature difference
Integrated air The proposed system
conditioner combines Ta = 24 ◦ C can save 33% of the
Zhang et al. [15] thermosyphon and Water Cooling capacity was up energy consumed for
vapor compression into to 49.2 kW cooling, compared
one device with traditional system
The optimal refrigerant
filling ratio was
88–101%.
1. Dry/wet bulb
A micro channel Cooling capacity was
Temperature =
separated heat pipe, increased by 138%
Ling et al. [16] R-22 (13/7.3) ◦ C
evaporator’s volume when the temperature
2. Dry/wet bulb
(750 × 780 × 25) mm3 difference between
Temperature = (8/3.4) ◦ C
indoor and the outdoor
increased from 5 ◦ C
to 10◦ C
The optimal filling
CO2 loop thermosyphon ratio of R-744 is 150%.
The indoor and outdoor
with microchannel R-744 The heat transfer rate
Zhang et al. [17] temperature difference is
parallel-flow R-22 and circulation flow
10 ◦ C
heat exchangers rate increased with
height difference
With reference to the aforementioned related literatures, it is obvious that most of recent studies
had focused on the usage of the separated two-phase thermosiphon loop in association with the
outdoor environments for cooling the data centers, lacking detailed quantitatively energy saving
for the system. Moreover, the idea of placing the thermosiphon on the rear of the data center rack
was rarely discussed. This idea was experimentally investigated by Ding et al. [6]. However, they
focused on investigating heat transfer capability and the factors that may influence the heat transfer
performance of the loop such as filling ratio and no quantitatatively energy savings were reported.
As a consequence, the objective of this experimental study is to bridge the realization and the actual
energy saving when a separated thermosiphon loop as a free cooling technique is adopted, and to
investigate the feasibility of using PFA pipe as an adiabatic connection as far as mobility is concerned.
Moreover, as depicted in Table 1, very rare studies were available concerning the use of R-134a in
STPTL even though it is widely used in air-conditioning and refrigeration industry.
2. Experimental Setup and Approach
2.1. STPTL’s Working Principle

The thermosiphon attached to the back of data center rack transfers energy from a heat source
(data center rack) to a heat rejection section (shell and coil condenser) via natural circulation of the
R-134a as the working fluid. The generated vapor moves from the evaporator through riser toward
the condenser where it condenses thereafter and circulates back to evaporator through downcomer to
complete circulation. The geometric configuration of the STPTL is arranged such that the condensed
liquid can flow back to the evaporator by gravity as can be seen in Figure 2a.
2.2. Introduction to the Experimental Setup

Two identical datacenter racks have been installed in a small room. The size of the room is nearly
(3 × 3 × 3) m3 . Two electrical heaters were installed inside each rack. Both heaters reject a maximum
heating load of 4 kW to the ambient. The size of each rack is (0.6 × 0.6 × 1.95) m3 . The two racks were
placed to face each other as shown in Figure 1a. An air conditioner (AC) having 14 kW cooling capacity
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18
Energies 2019, 12, 105 5 of 18
heating load of 4 kW to the ambient. The size of each rack is (0.6 × 0. 6× 1.95) m³. The two racks were
placed
was used to face
as the main each other
cooler foras the
shown in The
racks. Figure
AC1a.
wasAn air conditioner
connected (AC)
from the tophaving 14 kW cooling
with rectangular duct to
capacity was used as the main cooler for the racks. The AC was connected from the top with
transfer the cold air to a diffuser that was placed between the top of the two racks as shown in Figure 1.
rectangular duct to transfer the cold air to a diffuser that was placed between the top of the two racks
The cross-sectional area of the rectangular duct is (0.3 × 0.3) m2 . Also, each rack has an identical set of
as shown in Figure 1. The cross‐sectional area of the rectangular duct is (0.3 × 0.3) m². Also, each rack
fans (15 fans each).
has an identical set of fans (15 fans each).

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 1. Datacenter racks’ configuration: (a) A general view of datacenter racks arrangement with
Figure 1. Datacenter racks’ configuration: (a) A general view of datacenter racks arrangement with
duct system; (b) 3D‐modeling of the datacenter rack, it shows the position of heaters that simulate
duct system; (b) 3D-modeling of the datacenter rack, it shows the position of heaters that simulate
network servers; (c) Dimensions of the thermosiphon in cm.
network servers; (c) Dimensions of the thermosiphon in cm.
2.3. Description of the STPTL
2.3. Description of the STPTL
A fin‐and‐tube
A fin-and-tube thermosiphon
thermosiphon heat exchanger
heat exchanger made
made of
ofcopper
copperpipes and
pipes andaluminum
aluminum fins fins
was was
attached on the back of one of the racks. The surface area of the thermosiphon is 1.11 × 0.69 m²
attached on the back of one of the racks. The surface area of the thermosiphon is 1.11 × 0.69 m2
including collector and header, and it consists of 48 vertical copper tubes with 9.52 mm nominal
including collector and header, and it consists of 48 vertical copper tubes with 9.52 mm nominal
diameter (10.3 mm collar diameter after expansion). The header of the thermosiphon consists of five
diameter (10.3 mm collar diameter after expansion). The header of the thermosiphon consists of five
copper pipes (1‐inch diameter each) which are connected to another 2 inches diameter extended
copper pipesas (1-inch
header shown diameter each)
in Figure 2a which
to allow are connected
better to another
vapor distribution 2 inches
and easier diameterto
transmission extended
the
header as shown in Figure 2a to allow better vapor distribution and easier transmission
condenser. The thermosiphon represents the evaporator of the STPTL, which was connected with the to the
condenser. The thermosiphon represents the evaporator of the STPTL, which was connected with
condenser by an adiabatic fluorothermo‐plastic material pipes (PFA). The PFA serves as vapor line
and liquid line. Two vapor lines of 2 inches diameter and about 2.2 m length were used for lowering
the condenser by an adiabatic fluorothermo-plastic material pipes (PFA). The PFA serves as vapor
line and liquid line. Two vapor lines of 2 inches diameter and about 2.2 m length were used for
lowering transmission impedance to the condenser, whereas one liquid line of 2 inches diameter,
1.65 m length was installed, which is large enough for the condensed liquid to flow back via gravity
to the evaporator. The condenser was placed at the highest point close to the ceiling, it should be
higher than the thermosiphon to provide enough space for the condensed liquid to accumulate in the
transmission impedance to the condenser, whereas one liquid line of 2 inches diameter, 1.65 m length
was installed, which is large enough for the condensed liquid to flow back via gravity to the
Energies 2019, 12, 105 6 of 18
evaporator. The condenser was placed at the highest point close to the ceiling, it should be higher
than the thermosiphon to provide enough space for the condensed liquid to accumulate in the liquid
liquid line,this is quite
line, essential
this is quite essentialespecially at
especiallyhigh filling ratios
at high filling (e.g.,
ratios 70% 70%
(e.g., and 90%) because the level
and 90%) because of of
the level
liquid is comparatively high (close to the condenser’s outlet). The condenser is a simple water‐cooled
liquid is comparatively high (close to the condenser’s outlet). The condenser is a simple water-cooled
shell and coil heat exchanger, and it was designed to reject heating load up to 6 kW. It consists of a
shell and coil heat exchanger, and it was designed to reject heating load up to 6 kW. It consists of a
0.75‐inch diameter, 3.5 m length coiled copper pipe as shown schematically in Figure 2a. Chilled
0.75-inch diameter, 3.5 m length coiled copper pipe as shown schematically in Figure 2a. Chilled water
water is circulated in the coiled pipe, while the R‐134a vapor is circulated in the annulus around the
is circulated
tube. in the coiled pipe, while the R-134a vapor is circulated in the annulus around the tube.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. The schematic diagram of the experimental setup: (a) The components of the STPTL; (b)
Figure 2. The schematic diagram of the experimental setup: (a) The components of the STPTL;
Measurements apparatus.
(b) Measurements apparatus.
2.4. Experimental Approach and Operating Conditions

2.4. Experimental Approach and Operating Conditions
In order to obtain the desired results, the following parameters have been studied:
In order to obtain the desired results, the following parameters have been studied:
•  Ambient
Ambient air air temperature
temperature (T(T a): the experiment was conducted at three different ambient
a ): the experiment was conducted at three different ambient
temperatures (21 °C, 23 °C, and 25 °C).
temperatures (21 ◦ C, 23 ◦ C, and 25 ◦ C).
 Chilled water’s temperature (Tc): the experiment was conducted twice at two different
• Chilled water’s temperature (Tc ): the experiment was conducted twice at two different
temperatures, (15 °C and 20 °C).
temperatures,
 (15 ◦ C and 20 ◦ C).
Chilled water’s flow rate: water flow rate was constant for all cases (15 L/min).
• 
Chilled water’s flow rate: water flow rate was constant for all cases (15 L/min).
Filling ratio of R‐134a: the experiment was conducted at five different filling ratios (10%, 30%,
• 50%, 70%, and 90%). The filling ratio is based on the volume of the evaporator.
Filling ratio of R-134a: the experiment was conducted at five different filling ratios (10%, 30%,

50%, Heating Load: The experiment was conducted at a constant heating load (4 kW) with two heaters
70%, and 90%). The filling ratio is based on the volume of the evaporator.
(2 kW each) being turned on for all experiment cases. See Figure 1b.
• Heating Load: The experiment was conducted at a constant heating load (4 kW) with two heaters
(2 kWThe experiment
each) was conducted
being turned on for allfor all cases under
experiment cases.the
Seesame conditions,
Figure 1b. and the total power
consumption of cooling systems was compared and recorded then plotted for all the cases of the
The experimentparameters.
aforementioned was conducted
More for all cases
details under
about the same conditions,
the experimental apparatus and the
and total power
operating
consumption of cooling systems was compared and recorded then plotted for all the cases of the
conditions are explained in the following section.
aforementioned parameters. More details about the experimental apparatus and operating conditions
2.5. Experimental Apparatus and Measurements
are explained in the following section.
Fans were installed on the front door of each rack. Air velocity was measured by thermo‐
2.5. Experimental Apparatus Tecpel,
anemometer (LM‐8000, and Measurements
Taipei, Taiwan), the measuring range of the device is (0.2~30) m/s
with precision of 0.1 m/s. Average air velocity for each set of fans was 2.5 m/s, PWM controllers were
Fans were installed on the front door of each rack. Air velocity was measured by
used to adjust the air velocity to be identical for both racks and it was kept the same for all cases. To
thermo-anemometer (LM-8000, Tecpel, Taipei, Taiwan), the measuring range of the device is (0.2~30)
find the power consumed by each set of fans, digital multimeter was used to measure voltage and
m/s with precision of 0.1 m/s. Average air velocity for each set of fans was 2.5 m/s, PWM controllers
current, thus, the calculated power was 66.48 W. The inlet and outlet temperature of the rack were
were used to adjust the air velocity to be identical for both racks and it was kept the same for all cases.
To find the power consumed by each set of fans, digital multimeter was used to measure voltage and
current, thus, the calculated power was 66.48 W. The inlet and outlet temperature of the rack were
measured by using 45 T-type thermocouples (OMEGA, Singapore, Singapore), they were fixed and
distributed evenly on a mesh as shown in Figure 2b. The mesh was fabricated to cover the whole fans
area at the inlet and outlet (0.7 × 0.55) m2 . The obtained temperature values were used to calculate the
average temperature of the evaporator (Te,avg ). In order to measure the average temperature of the
condenser (Tc,avg ), more T-type thermocouples were installed at the inlet and the outlet of the pipe
endenser
thermocouples
(Tc,avg), more
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at the inlet and were theinstalled
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wn
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its
model
filling uncertainty
ratios,
which
number the was
the values
values connected
is760401,
±0.1
were W.
were recorded
and with theby
Experimental
recorded
header
usingof
itsbyuncertainty
using (Yokogawa,
the thermosiphon
(Yokogawa,
is ±0.1 Tokyo, as
W. Experimental
Tokyo,
shown
Japan)
Japan) type
in
type
182absolute
181 Figure 2b,
absolute the range
pressure
pressure
of the device
transducer
transducer
whichiswas
whichare
0~20
wastabulated
kgf/cm 2, with
connected
connected with
and the header
the header
measurement uncertainty for
of the thermosiphon
of the thermosiphon as shown in
as voltage
shown in is
pparatus
f each device
with the
are
183Figure
182 tabulated
accuracy
±0.001 V.
Figure 2b,The of
in each
Table
the electrical device
range of power2.
the deviceconsumption
is 0~20 kgf/cm in Table
was recorded
2 , and thefor2. every case using
measurement WT210 for
uncertainty digital power
voltage is
2b, the range of the device is 0~20 kgf/cm2 , and the measurement uncertainty for voltage is
184 ±0.001
183 meter (Yokogawa,
V. The electrical Tokyo,powerJapan), model number
consumption 760401, and
was recorded for its uncertainty
every case usingis ±0.1
WT210W. digital
Experimental
power
±0.001 V. The electrical power consumption was recorded for every case using WT210 digital power
185meter
184
ble 2. Measurements devices
apparatus
meter Table
and their
with
(Yokogawa, 2. Tokyo,
the Measurements
accuracy.
accuracy of each
Japan), devices
modeldevice are
number and their accuracy.
tabulated
760401, in Table
and
(Yokogawa, Tokyo, Japan), model number 760401, and its uncertainty is ±0.1 W. Experimental
2.
its uncertainty is ±0.1 W. Experimental
185apparatus
apparatus with the accuracy of each device are tabulated in Table 2.
with the accuracy of each device are tabulated in Table 2.
Apparatus
186 Accuracy Table Accuracy
2. MeasurementsUnit devices and their accuracy. Unit
186
Anemometer (LM-8000),
±0.1 Table 2. Measurements
±0.1 m/s devices and their accuracy. m/s
Apparatus Table 2. Measurements devices and their accuracy.
Accuracy Unit
Digital multimeter
±0.01Anemometer
Apparatus
(LM-8000),
Apparatus
±0.01 V, A ±0.1
Accuracy
Accuracy Unit
V, AUnit
m/s
Digital multimeter
±0.1Anemometer (LM-8000),
Thermocouple (T-Type) ±0.01
±0.1 °C ±0.1 °C m/sA
V,
Anemometer (LM-8000) ±0.1 m/s
Thermocouple (T-Type)
Digital multimeter ±0.1
±0.01 V,°CA
Rotameter flow±0.2
meter ±0.2 l/min ±0.01
Digital multimeter V, A
◦C
l/min
Rotameter flow
Thermocouple meter
(T-Type)
Thermocouple (T-Type) ±0.2
±0.1
±0.1 l/min
°C
Pressure transducer
±0.001Rotameter Rotameter flow
Pressure transducer
flow meter ±0.001
meter V ±0.001
±0.2
±0.2 l/min V l/min
V
Pressure transducer ±0.001 V
Digital power ±0.1
meterDigital
Pressurepower meter
transducer ±0.1 W ±0.001
Digital power meter ±0.1
±0.1 W W W V
Digital power meter ±0.1 W
187 3. Data Reduction
Data Reduction 3. Data Reduction
187
188 3. Data Reduction
A comparative experiment was performed to validate the effectiveness of the STPTL. The
A comparative experiment was performed to validate the effectiveness of the STPTL.
entAwas comparative
performed
189
188 experiment
to
experiment validate
started
A comparative wasthe
with performed
effectiveness
testing the
experiment to of
validate
wastraditional
performed thedatacenter
STPTL.
to the effectiveness
validate The
rack the(with of the
no thermosiphon).
effectiveness of the STPTL. The
Electrical
STPTL. The
The experiment started with testing the traditional datacenter rack (with no thermosiphon). Electrical
ng
periment 190 experiment
189
the traditional
started with
datacenter
power testing
consumed rack
startedthe bywith traditional
(with
AC (Pac),no
testing the thermosiphon).
datacenter
inlet
the air temperature
traditional rackElectrical
datacenter (with
(T ), andno
airack thermosiphon).
outlet
(with temperature Electrical
noairthermosiphon). (TElectrical
ao) of the
power consumed by AC (Pac ), the inlet air temperature (Tai ), and outlet air temperature (Tao ) of the
ower
, the inlet
consumed191
190 datacenter
power
air temperature
by AC rack (Pac(Track
consumed were
), aithe by
),recorded
and recorded
AC (P
inletoutlet
air ac), then
the compared
inlet air with
temperature the results
(T of
ai), and the other
outlet rack
air that
temperatureis combined
(T ao) ofwith
the
datacenter were thentemperature
air temperature
compared with(T theai), (T
and
resultsao)ofoutlet
ofthethe airrack
other temperature
that is combined (Taowith
) of the
192 datacenter
191 the STPTL.rack The were
performance
recordedofthen STPTL was investigated
compared at different
with the results of the filling ratios
other rack of the
that working fluid
is combined with
datacenter
then compared
rack
193were
192
thewith recorded
STPTL.
(10%,
the
the
STPTL.
The results
30%, The
then
performanceofcompared
50%,performance
theofother
70%, and 90%).
STPTLrack with
was thattheratioresults
is combined
investigated
The filling
of STPTL was investigated
atof thebywith
different
is defined
otherfillingrack
ratios
the following
at different
that isofcombined
of the
Equation:
filling ratios
working fluidwith
the working fluid
(10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and 90%). The filling ratio is defined by the following Equation:
of
e STPTL.
STPTL was The
193investigated
performance
(10%, 30%,at ofdifferent
50%, STPTL
70%, and was
filling
90%). investigated
ratios
The fillingofratio
theat is
different
working
Ѵ defined byfluid
filling
the ratios
following of the
Equation: working fluid
FR% = l (1)
%).
0%,The30%,filling
50%,ratio
70%,isand defined
90%).by The thefilling
following ratio Equation:
is defined by
Ѵel the following Equation:
Ѵ
FR%== l
FR% (1)(1)
Ѵe
194 Ѵl Ѵ𝐥 is the R-134a liquid volumeѴland Ѵ𝐞 is the volume of the evaporator. Best performance of
where
FR%
195where
194 =theѴloop
where Ѵcan
𝐥 is be
theobtained
R-134a FR%
through =
the longest Ѵrelief of compressor (1) running timeperformance
ofBest
the air-conditioning(1)
l is the
e R-134a liquidliquidvolume volume
and Ѵeandis the is the
𝐞volume volume of the
of the evaporator. evaporator.
Best performance
of the of
196
195loopthesystem
canloop where
be obtained maximum
can be obtainedthrough energy
through savings
the longest
the longest can
relief of be
reliefobtained.
of compressor
compressor running running
time time
of theofair-conditioning
the air-conditioning
here
volumeѴ𝐥 isand196Ѵ
the R-134a
𝐞 is the
system liquid
volume
where volume of
maximum the and
energy
system where maximum energy savings can be obtained. Ѵ
evaporator.𝐞 is
savingsthe Best
volume
can be performance
of
obtained. the evaporator.
of Best performance of
eghloop
the can 197
longest
be obtained3.1. Power
relief of through Consumed
compressor by
the running the Rack
longest relief with no Thermosiphon.
time of compressor
the air-conditioning running time of the air-conditioning
197 3.1. 3.1. Power
Power Consumed
Consumed by byRack
the the Rack
with with
No no Thermosiphon.
Thermosiphon
gy
stemsavings
wherecan maximum
198 be obtained. energy
While savings
measuring can and
the inlet be obtained.
outlet air temperature at front and back door of the rack, power
199
198 meter
While recording
While measuring
measuring thethepowerthe inlet
inlet consumption
and and outlet
outlet of
airthe AC within
temperature
air temperature atspecific
at front front
and and period
back back
doorofdoor
time
of of(30
the theminutes)
rack, rack,
power was
power
1.k with
Power 200
199meter
noConsumed adopted
meter
Thermosiphon. recording
by the for
recording
Rack all cases.
the withthe power
power Power
no of
consumption fans
consumption
Thermosiphon. was calculated
of the of ACthe by multiplying
AC within
within specificspecific
period ofthe supply
period
time (30 voltage
of time
min)(30 and the
wasminutes) current
adopted was
201for all
200 which
adopted
cases. were
for
Power measured
all cases.
of fans by
Power
was the ofmulti-meter,
fans wasby
calculated namely by multiplying
calculated
multiplying the supply voltage the supply andvoltage
the currentand the current
which
et andWhile
outlet 201
measuring
air
were which
temperature
measured were
the inlet measured
byat and
the front by
outlet the
andair
multi-meter, multi-meter,
back temperature
namely doorPof namely
f = the
V atIrack,
frontpowerand back door of the rack, power (2)
eter
nsumption
recording of the
the AC
power within consumption
specific period
of the of
AC time within= V minutes)
Pf (30 specific
I period
was of time (30 minutes) was
(2)
202 where Pf is the total power consumed Pby f = the
V ×(15 I fans). Thus, total power consumption (2) of the
dopted
f fans was for calculated
all
203
202cases. Power
by Pmultiplying
traditional
where f isof
rackfans
the (P tr)was
total the
calculated
is power
the supply
summation
consumed voltage
bypower
of multiplying
by and
the (15the
consumedfans).current
the
by supply
fans
Thus, and AC,
total voltage and the current
i.e., consumption
power of the
multi-meter, 203
hich were measured where P is the total power consumed
namely by the multi-meter, namely Ptr = Pac + Pf
traditional
f rack (P tr) is the summation by the of(15 fans).
power Thus,
consumed total bypower
fans consumption
and AC, i.e., of the traditional
(3)
rack (Ptr ) is the summation of power consumed by fans and AC, i.e.,
Ptr = Pac + Pf (3)
Pf = V  I Pf = V  I (2) (2)
204 3.2. Power Consumed by the Rack with the PThermosiphon
tr = Pac + Pf Loop STPTL. (3)
here
consumed
Pf is the
by total
204 the3.2.(15
power
fans).
Power consumed
Thus,
Consumed total
by the by power
Rack the the
with (15Thermosiphon
consumption
fans). Thus,Loop of
total
thepower consumption of the
STPTL.
3.2. Power Consumed by the Rack with the Thermosiphon Loop STPTL
mmation
aditionalof
rack
power
(Ptr) consumed
is the summation
by fans ofandpower
AC, i.e.,
consumed by fans and AC, i.e.,
In addition to the power consumed by fans and AC, power consumed by condenser’s chilled
Ptr =water
Pac +should
Pf be added. Accordingly,
Ptr = Ptotal
ac + P
power
f consumed by(3) (3)
the rack with thermosiphon can be
calculated such that,
2.
k with
Power
theConsumed
Thermosiphon
by theLoop
RackSTPTL.
with the Thermosiphon Loop STPTL.
69 20, HIOKI
wall of theE. E., Nagano,
chill water as Japan).
shown The same 2(b).
in Figure data A logger was used
rotameter flowtometer
measure
wastheusedworking pressure
to measure water of
6970 20, HIOKI
wall of the E. E., Nagano,
chill
R-134a atindifferent
flowrate
water
condenser,
as
filling
Japan).
shown
andratios,
The
in same 2(b).
Figure
the values
its accuracy
data A
were
is ±0.2
logger
l/min.
was used
rotameter
recorded flow tometer
measurewas
by using (Yokogawa,
All thermocouples
the
usedworking
to pressure
measure
Tokyo,by
were calibrated Japan)water
type
RTD with
of
7081 R-134a atindifferent
flowrate
absolute
an
condenser,
pressure
accuracy
fillingand
transducer
of ±0.1°C.
ratios,
its
The values
the values
accuracy
which ofwas
is were
±0.2 recorded
l/min.
connectedwere
temperatures
All by using (Yokogawa,
thermocouples
with obtained
the header were
byofusing
Tokyo,by
calibrated
the thermosiphon
digital recorder
Japan)
RTD type
with
as shown
(LR8400- in
8192 absolute
an
Figure
20, HIOKI
pressure
accuracy of
2b, E.
transducer
±0.1°C.
theE.,range
Nagano,
The
of the
which
values
device
Japan).
of
The
was
is same
connected2were
temperatures
0~20 kgf/cm
data logger
with obtained
the header
, andwastheused byofusing
measurement
the thermosiphon
to measure
digital recorder
uncertainty
the working
as shown
(LR8400-
forpressure
voltage of
in
is
9203 Figure
20, HIOKI
±0.001
2b, E.
V.
the
The E.,range
Nagano,
electrical
Energies 2019,
of 105
12,
the
power
device
Japan). Theis same
0~20 kgf/cm
consumption data
was
2, and the measurement uncertainty for voltage is
logger
recordedwas forused to measure
every
R-134a at different filling ratios, the values were recorded by using (Yokogawa, Tokyo, Japan) type case the WT210
using working pressure
digital power
8 ofof
18
0314 ±0.001 V.
R-134a at The
meter (Yokogawa,
absolute
electrical
different filling
pressure transducer
power consumption
Tokyo,ratios, Japan), the
which
values
model
was recorded
were
number
was connected
recorded
760401,
with the
for
by every
and using case using WT210
(Yokogawa,
its uncertainty
header
Tokyo,
is ±0.1
of the thermosiphon
digital
Japan) power
type
W. Experimental
as shown in
1425 meter (Yokogawa,
absolute
apparatus pressure
2b, with the
Tokyo, Japan),
transducer
accuracy which model
of eachiswas number 760401,
connected
device are with the
tabulated
andheader
in
its uncertainty is ±0.1 W. Experimental
of the thermosiphon as shown in
Figure the range of the device 0~20 kgf/cm
Pt = , and
P2ac + Pf +thePchTable
+ Pp 2.
measurement uncertainty for voltage(4)is
253 apparatus with the accuracy of each device are tabulated
2 in Table
±0.001 V. The electrical power consumption was recorded for every case using WT210 digital power
2.
Figure 2b, the range of the device is 0~20 kgf/cm , and the measurement uncertainty for voltage is
346 ±0.001 V. Thewhere, Pch is the
electrical power
power consumed
consumption
Table 2.model by was
Measurementschiller and Ppand
recorded
devices isfor
the power
every
their consumed
case
accuracy. usingby the pump.
WT210 In order
digital power to
meter (Yokogawa, Tokyo, Japan), numberdevices760401, and itshas
uncertainty is ±0.1 W. Experimental
465 calculate
meter (Yokogawa, Tokyo,
apparatus thewith
P ch , the
the accuracy
amount
Table 2.of heat removed
Measurements
of each device areAccuracy
at the condenser
and their
tabulated in Table 2.
to be
accuracy. known,
Japan), model number 760401, and its uncertainty is ±0.1 W. Experimental it can be determined by
Apparatus
energy balance equation: Unit
5 apparatus with the
Apparatus accuracy of each device areAccuracy
tabulated in Table 2. Unit
Anemometer (LM-8000), Qc = ṁwa × Cpwa (Tc,o − Tc,i )
±0.1 m/s (5)
6 Anemometer (LM-8000),Table 2. Measurements±0.1
Digital devices and their accuracy. m/s
6 wheremultimeter
Tc,i and Tc,oTable
are the
2. inlet and outlet ±0.01
Measurements temperatures of the
devices and their V, A Then, P can
condenser, respectively.
accuracy. ch
Digital multimeter ±0.01 V, A
Thermocouple
beApparatus
calculated (T-Type)
by dividing chilled water’s ±0.1
cooling capacity on the coefficient ofUnit
Accuracy °C
performance of the
Thermocouple
Apparatus (T-Type) ±0.1
Accuracy °C
Unit
Rotameter
chiller flow
as meter
follows:
Anemometer (LM-8000), ±0.2
±0.1 l/min
m/s
Rotameter flow
Anemometer meter
(LM-8000), ±0.2
±0.1 Qc l/min
m/s
Pressure transducer
Digital multimeter ±0.001
Pch =
±0.01 V,VA (6)
Pressuremultimeter
transducer ±0.001
±0.01 COP V
V,W A
Digital power
Thermocouple (T-Type)meter ±0.1
±0.1 °C
Digital power
where
Thermocouple COP meter ±0.1
being chiller’s coefficient of performance
(T-Type) ±0.1 and it is equal to 4.2. W
°C
Rotameter Theflow meter
liquid pump’s electrical consumption ±0.2at a specific flow rate (15 l/min) isl/min
approximately equal
7 Rotameter
3. Data Reduction
Pressure
flow meter
transducer
±0.2
±0.001
l/min
V
7 to 60
3. Data Pressure
ReductionW. The saving of energy subject to saving’s percentage was calculated such that,
transducer ±0.001 V
8 A Digital power meter
comparative experiment was performed±0.1 the effectiveness ofWthe STPTL. The
to validate
89 A Digital power meter
comparative experiment was performed ±0.1to
1−
Pt
validate the effectiveness ofWthe STPTL. The
× 100%
experiment started with testing the traditional E.S = datacenter rack (with no thermosiphon). Electrical (7)
97 experiment started with testing the traditional datacenter
3. Data Reduction Ptr rack (with no thermosiphon). Electrical
700 power
3. consumed
Dataconsumed
power Reductionby by AC (Pac), the inlet air temperature (Tai), and outlet air temperature (Tao) of the
AC (P ac), the inlet air temperature (T ai), and outlet air temperature (Tao) of the
81 datacenter rackUncertainty
A comparative were experiment
recordedanalysisthen regarding
wascompared
performed power with consumption
to resultscalculations
thevalidate of
the are
theeffectiveness
other tabulated
rack that incombined
of isthe Table
STPTL. 3. with The
8192 datacenter
the A
STPTL.
rack
comparative
The
were recorded
experiment
performance
experiment started with testing of
then was
STPTL
compared
performed
was
the traditional
withto
investigated
thevalidate
datacenter
results of
at different
theeffectiveness
the other rack that
filling
rackconsumption ratios
(with no calculations.
of
of
isthe
the
combined
STPTL.
working
thermosiphon). Electrical
with
The
fluid
9203 the STPTL. The
experiment
(10%, 30%,
power
started
50%,
consumed
performance
70%, with
by AC
Table
andtesting
(P
of 3.
90%).
ac), the
Uncertainty
STPTL
the
The
was analysis
traditional
filling
inlet
investigated
air ratio temperature
regarding
datacenter
is defined
at power
different
rack
(Taiby the(with
), and
filling
no ratios
following
of the working
thermosiphon).
outlet air Equation:
temperature (Tao) of the
fluid
Electrical
031 (10%, 30%,
power 50%, 70%,
consumed by AC and(P 90%).
ac), the
datacenter rack were recorded then comparedswith
The filling
inlet air ratio temperature is defined
Equation (Taiby the following
), and outlet air Equation:
temperature (Tao) of the
Uncertainty
Ѵl the results of the other rack that is combined with
12 datacenter rack were recorded then compared FR%with = Ѵ the 2 results of the other rack that is combined with (1)
the STPTL. The performance Pf of STPTL was δ(PFR% = δ(Ѵl)e + at
f ) investigated
2
δ(I)different filling ratios
0.136 Wof the working(1) fluid

Pf = Ѵ
23 the STPTL. The performance of STPTL was investigated
(10%,
e I
at different filling ratios of the working fluid
4 where30%, Ѵ𝐥 is50%, the 70%,
R-134a and 90%).
liquid The filling
volume and ratio Ѵ𝐞 qisisthe defined
volume by of thethe following
evaporator. Equation:
Best performance of
34 (10%,
where30%, Ѵ𝐥 is50%,the 70%,
R-134a and 90%).
liquid
Ptr volumeThe filling
and δ(Ptrratio
Ѵ)=𝐞 isis the
(δP defined
2
+ (δPac )by
f ) volume
2 the following 0.169
of the evaporator. Equation:
Best performance of
W
5 the loop can be obtained through the longest relief s Ѵof l compressor running time of the air-conditioning
56 the loop can be obtained through the longest FR% relief = Ѵof l)e compressor
2 running time of the air-conditioning (1)
system where maximum energy savings can cFR%
Ѵ
be= obtained.
δ ( δ T 2

Qc δ ( Q
Qc =
)
+ (T ) (11.49~24.15) W (1)
6 system where maximum energy savings can be obtained. Ѵ e
4 where Ѵ𝐥 is the R-134a liquid volume and qѴ𝐞 is2 the volume of the evaporator. Best performance of
457 where
3.1. Ѵ𝐥 is
Power
the Power
loop can
the R-134a
Consumed
be obtained by liquid
the PRack
t
through
volume
with
thenono t ) = Ѵ(𝐞δPis
δ(and
PThermosiphon.
longest tr ) the
+ (δP 2
volume
f ) + (δPacof )2 the evaporator.
relief of compressor running time of the air-conditioning
Best
(25.51~55.88) W performance of
576 3.1. Consumed

where maximum
by the Rack
energy
with
savings
Thermosiphon.
the loop can be obtained through the longest relief of compressor running time of the air-conditioning
system outletcan airbe obtained. at front and back door of the rack, power
688 system
While
where
While 4.
measuring
Results
maximum
measuring and
the
the
inlet and
Discussion
energy
inlet and savings
outletcan airbe
temperature
obtained. at front and back door of the rack, power
temperature
9 meter recording the power consumption of the AC within specific period of time (30 minutes) was
970 meter
3.1.
adopted
recording
Power Consumed
for4.1. the power
allPower by
cases.Consumption
Power
consumption
the Rack withEnergy
and
of fans
of
no Thermosiphon.
was Savings
calculated
the AC Results within specific period of time (30 minutes) was
by multiplying the supply voltage and the current
70 3.1. Power Consumed by the Rack with no Thermosiphon.
adopted for all cases. Power of fans was calculated by multiplying the supply voltage and◦ the current
81 which weremeasuring
While measured by the
the
The experiment inletmulti-meter,
wasand outlet air
conducted namely temperature
subject to three ambient at fronttemperatures
and back door (21 ◦ofC, the
23 C, rack, 25 ◦ C,
andpower
819 which were
meter recording
measured
While respectively)
measuring the by the multi-meter,
inlet and with
in association
the power consumption
outlet filling
namely
air temperature
of ratio
the AC ranging
within
at front
from 10~90%.
specific
and The
back doorconsumptions
periodpower
of the rack, power
of time (30 minutes) forwasPac ,
90 meter recording the power consumption of Pfthe= VAC  I within specific
◦ period
◦ of time (30 minutes) (2)
was
P , P , and P , are tabulated
adopted forfallchcases. Power of fans was calculated
p in Tables Pf = V  Iby multiplying the supply voltage and the current
4 and 5 for T c,i = 15 C and 20 C, respectively. Figure 3a,b show
(2)
012 adopted
where
which werePfor
f is all
the thecases.
total
measured
measured
Power
power
power ofconsumption
fans
consumed
by the multi-meter,
was calculatedby the
at steady
namely
by
(15state multiplying
fans). Thus,
as a function theof supply
total power
filling voltage
ratios. Yet and
consumption the current
the typical of the
outlet
123 where
which Pf istemperature
were
traditional
the total of
measured
rack (P tr) is
power
by
the the
the consumed
multi-meter,
data
summationrack is by
schematically
of
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW power
the (15shown
namely consumed
fans).in Thus,
byFigure
fans
total power consumption of the
4.
and AC, i.e., 9 of 18
3 traditional rack (Ptr) is the summation of power Pf = Vconsumed I by fans and AC, i.e., (2)
5000 PPtrf == PVac+IPf 5000 (2)
(3)
2 where Pf is the total power consumedPby tr =P.C at T
Pthe + (15
Pf fans). Thus, total power consumption
ac = 21 °C a
P.C at T = 21 °C
4500 of(3)the a
Total Power Consumption (W)
23 4500 P.C at T = 23 °C

Total Power Consumption (W)
where Pf is the total power consumed by P.C at T the = 23 °C

(15 fans). Thus, total power consumption
a of the a
traditional rack (Ptr) is the summation of power consumed by fans and AC, i.e.,
P.C at T = 25 °C a
P.C at T = 25 °C
4000
a
34 traditional rack (Ptr) isbythe

3.2. Power Consumed thesummation
Rack with the 4000
ofThermosiphon
power consumed Loop by fans and AC, i.e.,
STPTL.
4 3.2. Power Consumed by the Rack with the Thermosiphon 3500
Ptr = Pac + Pf Loop STPTL. 3500
(3)
3000
Ptr = Pac + Pf 3000 (3)
2500 2500
4 3.2. Power Consumed by the Rack with the Thermosiphon Loop STPTL.
4 3.2. Power Consumed by the Rack with the Thermosiphon Loop STPTL.
2000 2000
1500 1500
(No T. S) 10% 30% 50% 70% 90% (No T. S) 10% 30% 50% 70% 90%
FR (%) FR (%)
(a) (b)
1000 0.020
980
Figure 3. Cont.
0.018
34a Mass flowrate (kg/s)
0.016
orking Pressure (kPa)
960
0.014
940 0.012
920 0.010
0.008
900
0.006
T = 21 °C Ta = 21 °C
EnergiesEnergies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2019, 12, 105 9 of 18
9 of 18
(a) (b)
1000 0.020
0.018
980
R‐134a Mass flowrate (kg/s)
0.016
Working Pressure (kPa) 960
0.014
940 0.012
920 0.010
0.008
900
0.006
880 Ta = 21 °C Ta = 21 °C
0.004
Ta = 23 °C Ta = 23 °C
860 0.002
Ta = 25 °C Ta = 25 °C
840 0.000
10% 30% 50% 70% 90% 10% 30% 50% 70% 90%
FR (%) FR (%)
(c) (d)
FigureFigure 3. Total power consumed by the cooling system and the corresponding working pressure and
3. Total power consumed by the cooling system and the corresponding working pressure and
mass flow rate of working fluid at different filling ratios: (a) Case (1), total power consumption when
mass flow rate of working fluid at different filling ratios: (a) Case (1), total power consumption when
Tc,i ◦= 15 °C; (b) Case (2), total power consumption when T
Tc,i = 15 C; (b) Case (2), total power consumption when Tc,i c,i = 20 °C; (c) Working pressure at different
= 20 ◦ C; (c) Working pressure at different
filling ratios when Tc,i = 15 °C; (d) Mass flowrate of R‐134a at different filling ratios when T c,i = 15 °C.
filling
Energies ratios
2018, 11, x when = 15 C; (d) Mass flowrate of R-134a at different filling ratios when Tc,i9 =of1518◦ C.
◦
Tc,i REVIEW
FOR PEER

FR = 10 % FR = 30 % FR = 50 %
FR = 70 % FR = 90 %
FR = 10 % FR = 30 % FR = 50 % FR = 70 % FR = 90 %
Ta = 21 °C Ta = 21 °C Ta = 21°C Ta = 21°C Ta = 21°C
Ta = 21 °C Ta = 21 °C Ta = 21°C Ta = 21°C Ta = 21°C
Tc,i = 20 °C Tc,i = 20 °C Tc,i = 20 °C Tc,i = 20 °C Tc,i = 20 °C
SD = 5.24 °C SD = 5.10 °C SD = 4.38 °C SD = 1.72 °C SD = 2.87 °C

FR = 10 % FR = 30 % FR = 50 % FR = 70 % FR = 90 %
FR = 10 % FR = 30 % FR = 50 % FR = 70 % FR = 90 %
Ta = 23°C Ta = 23 °C Ta = 23 °C Ta = 23 °C Ta = 23 °C
Ta = 23°C Ta = 23 °C Ta = 23 °C Ta = 23 °C Ta = 23 °C

FR = 10 % FR = 30 % FR = 50 % FR = 70 % FR = 90 %
FR = 10 % FR = 30 % FR = 50 % FR = 70 % FR = 90 %
Ta = 25 °C Ta = 25 °C Ta = 25 °C Ta = 25 °C Ta = 25 °C
Ta = 25 °C Ta = 25 °C Ta = 25 °C Ta = 25 °C Ta = 25 °C
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Racks’
Racks’outlet
outlettemperature distribution
temperature (Tc,i =(T
distribution = 20 ◦ C).
20c,i°C).
In Figure 3, the test results showed that the performance of the STPTL is improved with the rise
of filling ratios and the maximum energy saving occurs at a filling ratio of 70%, and a further increase
of the filling ratio to 90% leads to a moderate decline of energy saving. At a low filling ratio such as
10% and 30%, despite some energy saving is still achievable for such low filling ratios, the uneven
high outlet temperatures as shown in Figure 4 implicates that the low filling ratios cannot effectively
Energies 2019, 12, 105 10 of 18
In Figure 3, the test results showed that the performance of the STPTL is improved with the rise
of filling ratios and the maximum energy saving occurs at a filling ratio of 70%, and a further increase
of the filling ratio to 90% leads to a moderate decline of energy saving. At a low filling ratio such as
10% and 30%, despite some energy saving is still achievable for such low filling ratios, the uneven
high outlet temperatures as shown in Figure 4 implicates that the low filling ratios cannot effectively
provide a temperature uniformity, the standard deviation of the temperature variation of airflow at the
outlet of thermosiphon heat exchanger is as high as 5.52 ◦ C. Details about energy saving percentage
are explained in Tables 4 and 5. Notice that percentage of energy savings can reach up to 33.2% in one
of 30% filling ratio cases.
Table 4. Energy consumption and energy savings details at Tc,i = 15 ◦ C.
Ta (◦ C) All Cases Pac (W) Pch (W) Pf (W) Pp (W) Pt (W) E.S (%)
(No T.S) 4493.7 0.0 66.48 0 4560.2 0.0
FR (10%) 3338.0 230.0 66.48 60 3694.5 19.0
FR (30%) 3085.8 417.7 66.48 60 3630.0 20.4
21
FR (50%) 3025.3 526.6 66.48 60 3678.4 19.3
FR (70%) 2520.8 592.9 66.48 60 3240.2 28.9
FR (90%) 2478.8 684.5 66.48 60 3289.8 27.9
(No T.S) 3901.0 0.0 66.48 0 3967.4 0.0
FR (10%) 2606.0 142.9 66.48 60 2875.3 27.5
FR (30%) 2483.1 171.4 66.48 60 2781.0 29.9
23
FR (50%) 2317.1 276.2 66.48 60 2719.8 31.4
FR (70%) 1933.4 385.7 66.48 60 2445.6 38.4
FR (90%) 1873.6 447.6 66.48 60 2447.7 38.3
(No T.S) 2604.6 0.0 66.48 0 2671.0 0.0
FR (10%) 2068.6 99.2 66.48 60 2294.3 14.1
FR (30%) 1913.7 205.5 66.48 60 2245.7 15.9
25
FR (50%) 1733.6 241.9 66.48 60 2102.0 21.3
FR (70%) 1373.6 211.2 66.48 60 1711.3 35.9
FR (90%) 1371.2 285.7 66.48 60 1783.4 33.2
Table 5. Energy consumption and energy savings details at Tc,i = 20 ◦ C.
Ta (◦ C) All Cases Pac (W) Pch (W) Pf (W) Pp (W) Pt (W) E.S (%)
(No T.S) 4493.7 0.0 66.48 0 4560.2 0.0
FR (10%) 3830.7 166.7 66.48 60 4123.8 9.6
FR (30%) 3153.4 369.0 66.48 60 3648.9 20.0
21
FR (50%) 3147.9 381.0 66.48 60 3655.3 19.8
FR (70%) 2601.8 409.8 66.48 60 3138.0 31.2
FR (90%) 2559.8 473.8 66.48 60 3160.1 30.7
(No T.S) 3901.0 0.0 66.48 0 3967.4 0.0
FR (10%) 3005.7 119.0 66.48 60 3251.2 18.1
FR (30%) 2358.3 166.7 66.48 60 2651.5 33.2
23
FR (50%) 2450.0 190.5 66.48 60 2766.9 30.3
FR (70%) 2066.2 238.1 66.48 60 2430.8 38.7
FR (90%) 2039.3 285.7 66.48 60 2451.5 38.2
(No T.S) 2604.6 0.0 66.48 0 2671.0 0.0
FR (10%) 2148.5 81.0 66.48 60 2355.9 11.8
FR (30%) 1981.3 125.2 66.48 60 2233.0 16.4
25
FR (50%) 1964.9 156.2 66.48 60 2247.6 15.9
FR (70%) 1604.9 166.7 66.48 60 1898.1 28.9
FR (90%) 1617.4 202.4 66.48 60 1946.2 27.1
As shown in Tables 4 and 5, the best power consumption was obtained at filling ratio of 70%
where the energy savings is as high as 38.7%. This is because the evaporator is fully flooded with such
filling ratio, and the evaporator can fulfill effective evaporation. Yet the yielded higher pressure with
such high filling ratios also ensure circulating more working fluid across the circuitry as shown in
Figure 3c, since the flowrate also increases with the rising pressure. Figure 3d depicts the working
Energies 2019, 12, 105 11 of 18
fluid’s flowrate at different filling ratios. This can also make clear from the temperature contour at the
outlet of data rack as seen in Figure 4 where the temperature uniformity is almost attainable when
the filling ratio exceeds 70%. However, a further increase of filling ratio to 90%, result in a slightly
reduction of energy saving as compared to the filling ratio of 70%. The results indicate that there is no
extra energy saving benefit when the filling ratio exceeds the fully flooded condition of the evaporator.
Hence, increasing filling ratio beyond fully flooding is actually not helping as far as energy saving is
concerned, indicating overfilling might lead to degradation in heat transfer rate. This can be elaborated
from the pressure measurement as depicted in Figure 3c where the system pressure for 90% filling
ratio is slightly lower (about 10 kPa less) than a filling ratio of 70%. The energy saving is actually in
line with the system pressure, and the maximum energy saving (70%) occurs at the maximum system
pressure. Note that the system pressure is gradually increased from about 855 kPa to 990 kPa while
the filling ratio ranges from 10~70%. The results reveal a plateau at an optimum filling ratio near 70%.
The system pressure then drops about 10 kPa when the filling ratio is further raised to 90%. To explain
this phenomenon, one would need to understand the phase change process of the thermosiphon at
the present constant heating load condition. For a low filling ratio of 10–30%, the evaporator can be
divided into two portions, the lower part of thermosiphon is the boiling zone while the upper part
of the thermosiphon is simply a superheated zone, and the schematic of the low filling ratio can be
depicted in Figure 5a. The level of the working fluid in these cases could not exceed 0.22 m height
in the STPTL. The under-filling situation starves the evaporator, thereby leading to a higher uneven
temperature distribution especially at the upper part of the thermosiphon heat exchanger as shown in
Figure 4. Thereby, the cooling capacity and circulation flowrate will be decreased. With continuous
rise of filling ratio from 10% to 70%, the system pressure also increases accordingly and the flow inside
the evaporator may become fully flooded at a filling ratio near 70% with the lower part being the
boiling zone while the upper part being evaporation zone as schematically seen in Figure 5b. Boiling
of the refrigerant at the lower part generates appreciable amount of vapor flow that brings the liquid
entrainment toward the upper part of the thermosiphon that eventually hits and retains on the upper
periphery of the thermosiphon by vapor flow, thus resulting in a film like structure, hence the heat
transfer mode at the upper part is via evaporation rather than the boiling mode at the lower portion.
The simultaneous presence of evaporation regime and boiling zone in a typical closed thermosiphon
was first reported by [18] who experimentally reported geyser boiling in a vertical annular two-phase
closed thermosiphon. A schematic about the geyser boiling is shown in Figure 6 by Khazaee et al. [19].
As seen in the figure, small bubbles are generated from the nucleate boiling zone, followed by growing
size to the diameter of the thermosiphon tube. The vapor plugs then pushes the liquid slug upwards
and eventually breaks up to spread around the tube periphery to yield annular flow zone as depicted
in Figure 5b. This phenomenon was also numerically verified by Jouhara et al. [20].
In this range with filling ratios from 10% to 70%, a continuous rise of vapor fraction through phase
change via boiling or evaporation can effectively expand the vapor volume pronouncedly, therefore
leading to a rise of system pressure. On the other hand, when the filling ratio is increased to 90%
where the evaporator is in a state of overfilling as seen in Figure 5c. In this case, the evaporator is
simply contained with a single boiling zone. The overfilling into the evaporator will not induce more
vapor volume since the total heat input still maintains the same. Instead, it will reduce the mean
vapor quality at the evaporator. Figure 7 shows the levels of liquid in evaporator and condenser at
different filling ratios subject to no heat inputs, it is obvious that the liquid level of 90% FR exceeds
the height of the rack. As a consequence, part of the liquid does not expose to the hot air. Note that
the boiling heat transfer coefficient is normally higher than the evaporation heat transfer coefficient.
This is normally the case in the present thermosiphon design for the vapor velocity is comparatively
low. Notice that the present thermosiphon design is a passive device which differs greatly from active
designs (forced convective boiling via compressor or pump). In essence, effect of nucleate boiling
may surpass the influence of convective evaporation. The results indicate the effective heat transfer
coefficient for the 90% filling ratio is higher than that of filling ratio of 70%. Based on a simple relation
different filling ratios subject to no heat inputs, it is obvious that the liquid level of 90% FR exceeds
the height of the rack. As a consequence, part of the liquid does not expose to the hot air. Note that
designs (forced convective boiling via compressor or pump). In essence, effect of nucleate boiling
designs
Energies (forced
2019, 12, 105 convective boiling via compressor or pump). In essence, effect of nucleate boiling 12 of 18
of Newton’s cooling law where Q = hA (Tw – Tsat), where h is the heat transfer coefficient, Tw is the
surface temperature and T
of Newton’s cooling law where sat is the saturation temperature. The corresponding saturation temperature
of Newton’s cooling law where Q = hA (T Q = hA (Tw −T
w – T ), where h is the heat transfer coefficient,
), where h is the heat transfer coefficient, T
satsat Tw is the
w is the
surfacemust be reduced

temperature anddue
surface temperature and T T to a
ishigher
the boiling
saturation heat transfer
temperature. coefficient
The for a
corresponding filling ratio of
saturation
satsat is the saturation temperature. The corresponding saturation temperature
90%. In this
temperature
must regard, the corresponding system pressure is slightly decreased with a filling ratio of 90%.
must be reduced
be reduced duedue
to ato a higher
higher boiling
boiling heatheat transfer
transfer coefficient
coefficient forfor a filling
a filling ratio
ratio ofof 90%. InIn
90%. this regard,
this
regard, the corresponding system pressure is slightly decreased with a filling ratio of 90%.
the corresponding system pressure is slightly decreased with a filling ratio of 90%.

Figure 5. Schematic of the pool boiling process subject to different filling ratios.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 6. A schematic presentation about geyser boiling in a closed thermosiphon [19]. 13 of 18
Figure 6. A schematic presentation about geyser boiling in a closed thermosiphon [19].
Figure 6. A schematic presentation about geyser boiling in a closed thermosiphon [19].
Figure 7. Liquid levels in the STPTL for different filling ratios.
Figure 7. Liquid levels in the STPTL for different filling ratios.
4.2. Thermal Resistance of the STPTL Calculations and Results
For further elaboration of the performance of thermosiphon heat exchanger, performance was
investigated in terms of thermal resistance of the STPTL. The heat dissipation from the heater is
regarded as Q and 45 thermocouples were used to measure the average air inlet temperature (Tai) and
outlet temperature (Tao), and some other thermocouples were used to measure the average
Energies 2019, 12, 105 13 of 18
4.2. Thermal Resistance of the STPTL Calculations and Results

For further elaboration of the performance of thermosiphon heat exchanger, performance was
investigated in terms of thermal resistance of the STPTL. The heat dissipation from the heater is
regarded as Q and 45 thermocouples were used to measure the average air inlet temperature (Tai ) and
outlet temperature (Tao ), and some other thermocouples were used to measure the average temperature
(Tc,avg ) of the condenser. As mentioned earlier, the experiment was conducted at constant heating
load (4 kW). However, the actual heat absorbed by the thermosiphon varies with operating conditions,
such as rack inlet temperature (ambient temperature) and filling ratio. As depicted in Figure 8, there
is no direct contact between heaters and thermosiphon, yet; the amount of heat transferred to the
evaporator depends on the temperature in-between the heaters and thermosiphon (Th ). Hence, heaters’
temperature can be calculated as:
QH
Th = + Tai (8)
ṁa1 cpa
where QH represents the heaters’ power into the data rack. As can be seen in Figure 8, air temperature
and air flowrate changed after exiting the thermosiphon. Accordingly, the amount of heat absorbed by
the thermosiphon can be calculated as,
Q = ṁa2 Cpa (Tao − Th ) (9)


Figure 8. Changes of air temperature and flow rate during experiment.
Figure 8. Changes of air temperature and flow rate during experiment.
TheThe average temperature of evaporator was measured at the surface, then experimental overall
average temperature of evaporator was measured at the surface, then experimental overall
thermal resistance can be calculated as,
thermal resistance can be calculated as,
T,
R R, Te,avg, − Tc,avg (10)
th,exp = Q (10)
Q
The overall thermal resistance is plotted in Figure 9 as a function of filling ratios. The results
The overall
showed thermal
that lower resistance
thermal is plotted
resistance inhigh
occurs at Figure 9 asratios
filling a function of 90%)
(70% and fillingand
ratios. The results
at a higher
showed that lower thermal resistance occurs at high filling ratios (70% and 90%) and at a higher
ambient temperature. Correspondingly, the boiling heat transfer coefficient is higher at high filling
ambient temperature. Correspondingly, the boiling heat transfer coefficient is higher at high filling
ratios. This is because the corresponding boiling heat transfer coefficient is increased with the system
pressure. Conversely, the condensation heat transfer coefficient decreases with the rise of pressure.
ratios. This is because the corresponding boiling heat transfer coefficient is increased with the system
In a typical thermosiphon, the increase of boiling heat transfer coefficient is always higher than the
pressure. Conversely, the condensation heat transfer coefficient decreases with the rise of pressure. In a
decline in condensation
typical thermosiphon, heat transfer
the increase coefficient,
of boiling this can
heat transfer be made isclear
coefficient through
always highersome
thantypical
the decline
correlations applicable for boiling and condensation, e.g., Equations (11) and (12). In essence, a slight
in condensation heat transfer coefficient, this can be made clear through some typical correlations
reduction in overall thermal resistance is seen with the rise of ambient temperature. To validate the
applicable for boiling and condensation, e.g., Equations (11) and (12). In essence, a slight reduction in
experimental data of overall thermal resistance, some empirical correlations can be used to predict
overall thermal
pool boiling resistance is seen with heat
and film condensation the rise of ambient
transfer temperature.
coefficients are made. To validate
For current the experimental
study, The
datacorrelations for estimating the boiling heat transfer coefficient in a thermosphion by Imura et al. [21]
of overall thermal resistance, some empirical correlations can be used to predict pool boiling and
film has been chosen to predict pool boiling heat transfer coefficient (h
condensation heat transfer coefficients are made. For current study, The correlations for estimating
b), while Nusselt’s theory of film
the boiling heat transfer coefficient in a thermosphion by Imura et al. [21] has been chosen to predict
condensation on a vertical flat plate can be applied to predict the average heat transfer coefficient of
the nucleate liquid film boiling (hco) [22], these correlations are as follows:
. . . . .
ρ k C g P
h 0.32 . q . (11)
ρ . h μ . P
Energies 2019, 12, 105 14 of 18
pool boiling heat transfer coefficient (hb ), while Nusselt’s theory of film condensation on a vertical flat
plate can be applied to predict the average heat transfer coefficient of the nucleate liquid film boiling
(hco ) [22], these correlations are as follows:
!
ρl 0.65 kl 0.3 Cpl 0.7 g0.2 Pv 0.3 0.4

hb = 0.32 q (11)
ρv 0.25 hfg 0.4 µl 0.1 Patm
!1
ρl (ρl − ρv ) g kl 3 hfg 4
hco = 0.707 (12)
µl (Tsat − Tw )lc
Subsequently, the predicted overall thermal resistance can be calculated such that:
1 1
Rth,pre = + (13)
he Ae hc Ac
The results of the predicted overall thermal resistance are shown in Figure 9. It is obvious
that predicted values of thermal resistance are in line with the experimental data, especially at high
filling ratios. This is because the thermal resistance can be well described by the boiling heat transfer
correlation since the evaporator is fully flooded. Yet the influence of the ambient temperature on the
overall thermal resistance is rather small as explained earlier. Note that a higher ambient temperature
into the data rack leads to a higher heating
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW load of the thermosiphon, and a lower thermal15 resistance
of 18
accordingly. Analogous results were obtained by Fadhl et al. [23] who also concluded that the thermal
resistance of the thermosiphon tends to increase at low heating input, while it was appreciably
resistance of the thermosiphon tends to increase at low heating input, while it was appreciably
decreased at high heating inputs. Their results showed that thermal resistance becomes relatively
decreased at high heating inputs. Their results showed that thermal resistance becomes relatively
stable at a specific high heating input. However, as shown in Figure 9, the measured overall thermal
stableresistance of the thermosiphon at lower filling ratios (e.g., 10~30%) are detectably higher than those
at a specific high heating input. However, as shown in Figure 9, the measured overall thermal
resistance of the thermosiphon at lower filling ratios (e.g., 10~30%) are detectably higher than those of
of calculations. The departure amid the predictions and the experimental measurements is because
calculations. The departure
of the starvation amid theat
of evaporator predictions and the
such low filling experimental
ratios where the measurements is because
heat transfer process of the
in the
starvation of evaporator at such low filling ratios where the heat transfer process in the evaporator is
evaporator is appreciably offset by the upper part of the evaporator where only single‐phase heat
transfer
appreciably for vapor
offset by theprevails.
upper part To sum up,
of the thermal performance
evaporator where onlyof the thermosiphon
single-phase tends to
heat transfer forget
vapor
improved by raising the filling ratios. However, the performance may reach
prevails. To sum up, thermal performance of the thermosiphon tends to get improved by raising the a plateau when the
fillingevaporator is fully flooded, and a further overfilling may impair the overall performance.
ratios. However, the performance may reach a plateau when the evaporator is fully flooded,
and a further overfilling may impair the overall performance.
0.12
0.10 Rth, exp at Ta = 21 °C
Thermal Resistance (°C /W)
Rth, exp at Ta = 23 °C
0.08 Rth, exp at Ta = 25 °C
Rth, pre at Ta = 21 °C
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
10% 30% 50% 70% 90%
FR (%)
9. Experimental and predicted thermal resistance of the STPTL for different filling ratios,
FigureFigure 9. Experimental and predicted thermal resistance of the STPTL for different filling ratios, (Tc,i
15 ◦ C).
(Tc,i == 15 C).
5. Conclusions
This experimental study aims to investigate the energy saving potential by using a separated
two‐phase thermosiphon loop (STPTL) as a free cooling technique in datacenter. The thermosiphon
heat exchanger takes the form as fin‐and‐tube configuration and is installed at the exit of a data rack.
R‐134a is used as the working fluid, and a water‐cooled shell and tube heat exchanger is used as the
condenser. The connected adiabatic piping, i.e., riser and downcomer, are made via PFA for easier
Energies 2019, 12, 105 15 of 18
5. Conclusions
This experimental study aims to investigate the energy saving potential by using a separated
7 of 18
two-phase thermosiphon loop (STPTL) as a free cooling technique in datacenter. The thermosiphon
heat exchanger takes the form as fin-and-tube configuration and is installed at the exit of a data rack.
mocouples (OMEGA, R-134a isSingapore, Singapore),
used as the working they
fluid, and were fixed
a water-cooled and
shell and tube heat exchanger is used as the
wn in Figure 2b. The mesh was fabricated to cover the whole fans
condenser. The connected adiabatic piping, i.e., riser and downcomer, are made via PFA for easier
installation
5) m². The obtained and mobility
temperature consideration.
values were used The tofin-and-tube
calculatethermosiphon
the heat exchanger is made of
copper pipes and aluminum fins. The surface area of the thermosiphon is 1.11 × 0.69 m2 including
ator (Te,avg). Incollector
order to measure the average temperature of the
and header, and it consists of 48 vertical copper tubes with 9.52 mm nominal diameter
rmocouples were (10.3installed
mm collar at the inlet
diameter after and the outlet
expansion). Tests ofare the pipe with filling ratio ranging from 0 to
conducted
◦ ◦
Figure 2(b). A90% rotameter flow meter
and the ambient was used
temperatures to measure
varies from 21 C to 25water
C. Based on the foregoing discussions, the
following
acy is ±0.2 l/min. conclusions can be
All thermocouples derived:
were calibrated by RTD with
f temperatures1. were
Theobtained
experimental byresults
usingindicate
digitalthat
recorder
the energy(LR8400-
saving increases with the rise of filling ratio.
he same data logger was used to measure the working pressureatofa filling ratio of 70%, a further increase
However, the optimum energy savings can be achieved
of filling ratio leads to a reduction in energy saving. A substantial energy savings of 38.7% can be
e values were recorded by using (Yokogawa, Tokyo, Japan) type
achieved at the filling ratio of 70%.
h was connected 2. with
At athe lowheader of the
filling ratio likethermosiphon
10%, the evaporatoras shown
starves in
for refrigerant and a very uneven air
is 0~20 kgf/cm , and
2 the measurement
temperature uncertainty
distribution occurring for ofvoltage
at the exit data rack.isThe uneven temperature distribution
umption was recordedis relieved considerably
for every case when
usingthe evaporator
WT210 is fully
digital flooded.
power
3.
model number 760401, It is also
andfound that the energy
its uncertainty is saving
±0.1 W. is in line with the rise of system pressure. Overfilling of
Experimental
the evaporator may lead to a decline of system pressure. This is because the evaporator is fully
h device are tabulated in Table 2.
flooded and only nucleate boiling prevails.
4. A lower overall thermal resistance occurs at high filling ratios and a higher ambient temperature.
Measurements devices and their
However, accuracy.
the effect of ambient temperature on the overall thermal resistance is negligible at high
filling ratios. Yet appreciable increase in overall thermal resistance is encountered at low filling
Accuracyratios due to the starvation of working
Unitfluid.
±0.1
5. m/s
It is found that the overall thermal resistance is in line with the predictions especially at the high
±0.01 filling ratios. V, A
±0.1 °C
Author Contributions: All the authors have contributed their efforts to complete the paper. H.M.D. conducted
±0.2 l/min
the experiments and wrote the first draft, M.W.S. provided technical assistance, K.-S.Y. supervised the experiment,
and C.-C.W. supervised the work and review and editing the manuscript.
±0.001 V
Funding: The authors are indebted to the financial support from the Ministry of Economics Affairs (Department
±0.1
of Industrial Technology), Taiwan, under grant Wnumber H301AR6100 and Ministry of Science and Technology,
Taiwan under contracts 107-2622-E-009-002-CC2 and 107-2221-E-009-142.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
was performedNomenclature
to validate the effectiveness of the STPTL. The
e traditional datacenter
T rack (with(◦no
temperature C) thermosiphon). Electrical
V voltage (V)
inlet air temperature (Tai), and outlet air temperature (Tao) of the
I electrical current (A)
compared with P the resultselectrical
of the power
otherconsumption
rack that (W)
is combined with
TL was investigated
Q at different filling
heat transfer ratios of the working fluid
rate (W)
ṁ mass flow rate (kg/s)
e filling ratio is defined by the following ◦Equation:
Cp specific heat (kJ/kg· C)
gѴl gravity acceleration (m/s2 )
FR% = (1)
Ѵe volume (m3 )
R thermal resistance (◦ C/kW)
me and Ѵ𝐞 is hthe volume heat
of the evaporator.
transfer Best
coefficient (W/m2 ·◦performance
C) of
e longest relief of compressor running time of the air-conditioning
vings can be obtained.
h no Thermosiphon.
outlet air temperature at front and back door of the rack, power
Energies 2019, 12, 105 16 of 18
A area (m2 )
P pressure (kPa)
q heat flux (W/m2 )
hfg latent heat (kJ/kg)
l length (m)
Greek symbols
ρ density (kg/m3 )
k thermal conductivity (W/m·◦ C)
µ Dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)
Subscripts
a ambient
c condenser
i inlet
o outlet
e evaporator
avg average
ai air inlet
ao air outlet
l liquid
ac air conditioner
f fans
tr traditional
t total
ch chiller
wa water
p pump
w wall
sat saturation
h hot air
H heater
th thermal
b pool boiling
co film condensation
v vapor
atm atmospheric
exp experimental
pre predicted
Abbreviations
STPTL separated two-phase thermosiphon loop
CRAC computer room air-conditioning
ISMT integrated system of mechanical refrigeration and thermosiphon
PFA perfluoroalkoxy
T.S thermosiphon
AC air conditioner
T.C thermocouple
PWM pulse-width modulation
RTD resistance temperature detector
FR filling ratio
COP coefficient of performance
P.C power consumption
E.S energy savings
SD standard deviation
Energies 2019, 12, 105 17 of 18
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© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Energies 2019, 12, 105; doi:10.3390/en12010105 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Table 1. Related literature in association with STPTL.

Source STPTL’s Description Working Fluid Operating Conditions Results

Source STPTL’s Description Working Fluid Operating Conditions Results

2. Experimental Setup and Approach

2.1. STPTL’s Working Principle

2.2. Introduction to the Experimental Setup

2.4. Experimental Approach and Operating Conditions

576 3.1. Consumed

23 4500 P.C at T = 23 °C

where Pf is the total power consumed by P.C at T the = 23 °C

34 traditional rack (Ptr) isbythe

Table 4. Energy consumption and energy savings details at Tc,i = 15 ◦ C.

Table 5. Energy consumption and energy savings details at Tc,i = 20 ◦ C.

surfacemust be reduced

4.2. Thermal Resistance of the STPTL Calculations and Results

Q = ṁa2 Cpa (Tao − Th ) (9)

10% 30% 50% 70% 90%

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