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07 - Chapter 2 PDF
07 - Chapter 2 PDF
07 - Chapter 2 PDF
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Socialization
iii) Personality
2.1 Introduction ;
on women studies etc. Wherever possible the researcher tried to get the
instead of quoting the original reference, she has quoted the volume
There are some areas where the researcher could find literature
published and which throw a good light on how socialization takes place
among these socially deprived classes. This has already been mentioned
in the earlier chapter. Not much research work was available on the
discussed.
has been thought and done in that particular area. The investigator has
researchers.
at the end of this chapter, along with summaries of some major studies
2.2 Socialization ;
society hands down its culture, that is its system of values, norms
2
Fowlkers, Diane L. observed that Members of subdominant groups,
3
Bloom, Leonard (1982) - The socialization of dependence among the
and less punitive and less conformity producing modes of training and
estimated.
4
Frese, Michael (1983) Socialization through work is investiga
5
Geulen, Dieter (1983) The history of the relationship between
deals primarily with existing conditions ; and how they arose, how, the
6
Battersby, David and Ransay, Peter D.K. (1983): Have review
7
o McArther, Jhon (1979) Has done an empirical study of the
vary from 20 (not custodial) to 100 (very custodial). Out of the 1978
survey, 354 were still teaching with a mean score of 52.76 while 102
8.
Long, Theodore E. & Hadden, Jeffrey K. (1983) They found that
questions to be investigated.
9
Adler, Patricia A. & Adler Peter (1984) observed that Car-pool
socializing agents : the peer group, the family and the school.
children and adults, and among peers,along with the patterns and roles
10
Rossbach, Hans - Gunther (1984) State that socialization
11
Eisenhart, Margaret A & Hallad, Dorothy C. (1983) They found that
data of 125 students and elicipation data from students, are used to
oppose adult efforts. Viewed from inside the school, peer groups
compatible with the positions and roles assigned by the larger society.
Thus it appears that peer groups play a distinct and major role in
generations.
12
Dinello, Raimundo (1981) Starting from semantic definitions of
challenges of adult life. The above definitions shed new light on the
generations.
13
Clausen, Jhon A. (1984) has presented a discussion, originally
bear.
14
Amy G. Halberstadt States that most theorists agree that
emotional expression (e.g. Buck 1979, Ekman & Frlesen, 1969, Izard,
1971, Jones, 1950, 1960). Most theorists would also agree that the
society.
15
Berton J. Hirsch & Bruce D. Rapkin (1986) Their research in
this area has typically examined the effect of paid employment and
Historically, women have ben responsible for home and family. The entry
of married women into the paid labour force has not substantially
15. Barton J. Hirsch and Bruce D. Rapkin (New York), "Multiple Roles,
Social Networks and Women's well being", Psychological Abstracts,
1986, pp. 109 - 114.
52 ..
been found to have a negative effect on the well being of married women
(Warr & Parry, 1982). Indeed, women with both roles have frequently
reported superior health (e.g. Cooke & Rousseau, 1984, Kandel, Davies &
outcomes on the average, without a doubt there are women for whom the
different outcomes occur, (cf. Long & Porter 1984, Stryker 1980).
16
Martha T Shuch's Mednik (1975) two review papers framed in
do not develop adequate mastery skills. She argues that female achie
training for girls is suggested. However, Stein & Bailey conclude that
girls and women are achievement oriented but learn to value sex roles
appropriate social skills. The basis for learning is the same for boys
and girls. They reject the hypothesis that the males and females are
experiments. Stein & Bailey and Hoffman agree that certain kinds of
role training pattern, and that independence and mastery training must
be facilitated.
17
David Elkind and Arnold Samerroff (1970) Undertook studies which
social behaviour and class-room behaviour. The details of the same are
as follows :
found still more evidence for the superiority of first born children on
may be greater for siblings close in age and for first born girls. Some
born children.
depressive effect upon the children. This depressive effect was most
for boys without brothers and for girls with younger brothers. Surpri
singly, father absence also appeared to have more negative effects for
area has to do with the conditions under which children will violate
rules Libert & Ora reported, among other things, that high incentive
was more conducive to rule violation when the child was lone than was
low incentive.
and lenient norms which indicated that adherence to the strict norm was
greatest among children who were taught the norm and who also observed
were the most ambivalent and the least likely to violate both strict
and his age (second to fifth grade) the less frequent were his
specific situations. Results showed that there was most agreement with
'In general, the concepts for which there was the highest agreement in
investigations found support among 6 to 7 year old boys and girls for
the hypothesis that similarity between sex of the subject and of the
terminated. Likewise, Madsen, Becker & Thomas also found that when
are poorly understood owing to the paucity of research dealing with the
18
Eleanor E. Macopby (1964). Observed that there are several new
social class, and obtain the now-familiar finding that lower class
was collected in six countries. The overall plan of the six field
children's aggression.
19
Barber, Brian K & Thomas, Darwin L. (1986) Post research has
affection and sustained contact on the basis of the sex of the child,
with mere to daughters than sons. Both parent report more companionship
v/ith the same sex child. Regression analysis reveals that daughter's
20
Peters, Jhon F. (1985) An examination of the process of
socialization that takes place in the parent, with the child and
and only from parent to child; while the published literature generally
21
Hendrix, Lewwllyn & Jhonson, G. David. (1985) Have reevaluated
22
Green, Richard, Williams, Katherine & Goodman, Marilyn (State U.
Though some results are consistent with previous research, others are
can explain gender, role identity could not be measured within this
study design.
23
Baethge, Martin (1985) Argued that current changes in
consumerist socialization.
24
Lutz, Catherine (1983) Reports on the participant observation
25
Block, Jeann H. (1983) argued that the sex differentiated
offered regarding the different self and world views currently created
26 0
Katase, Kazuo (1983) reviewed Eriks^ns’ work as follows : Eric
H. Erikson*s theory of life cycle has been often quoted in the context
Erikson shows in his study of Mohandas Gandhi how the genera-tive man
socialization.
27
Rockwell, Joan (1977) observed that literature, especially
socialization process.
27. Rockwell, Joan England, "A theory of literature and society. The
sociological Review Monograph, 25, Aug. 1977", Sociological
Abstracts, Vol. 4, pp. 33 - 42.
.. 664 • •
28
Hosek, A Petrovic, K. Momirovlc, K Horga, S. (1982) examined the
lity.
29
Pignataro, Lida Capri (1975) offer philosophical
30
Corcoran, Mary & Clark, Shirley M. (198A) As one aspect of a
sciences, and (2) a selected sample (N = 63) of faculty from the same
31
Mortimer and Simmons (1978) - observed in their review of the
family, it was found that high parental support combined with high
fear combined with total control of the sociali-zee can have similar
individual's acts are initially coerced and do not reflect the senti
32
Coleman's (1961, 1966) significant and extensive studies (as
shows that peers constitute an important reference group for the child,
boys ; being popular with peers was most important for girls. Hence
status in the peer group was based upon quite different criteria from
that of the classroom. One function this serves for the pupil is to
33
Melvin Kohen and his assosicates - (1969, 1973, 1978, 1980)
shown that certain structural features of work (for example, the amount
PERSONALITY
34
Paul B. Horton, Chester L. Hunt (1984 ) Selected for their
in West Africa. Horton and Hint found that upon arrival, the negroes
35
Zajonc (1968). There are several important socialization conce-
children from small families, even when the effects of social class are
ment motivation than do those from larger families. The most extensive
country and elsewhere, Zajonc has argued strongly for the negative
available to the child. The basic idea of the confluence model proposed
On the contrary first borns are also more likely to be more anxious,
36
N.L. Munn (1961) observes that studies of socialization are
prescribes that women should have equality with men in work, that the
primary unit is the collective rather than the family, and that
prescriptions. The Kibbutz child is weaned early, and after his mother
the child during the early years exert the most powerful influence
unsatisfactory or inappropriate.
37
Lynn (1972) According to him, the process of sex role
learning for girls is rather simple, observing mother and modeling her
behaviour. But since the father is less visible, the process of sex
Roles, values, norms and beliefs are the main cultural contents
of socialization.
38
L.Broom & others - observe that discontinuities and failures of
conscience.
ordinate roles relative to whites and men. Until fairly recently, girls
have been socialized for affiliation - rather than mastery over their
environment, with the result that women often have a limited sense of
tend to score relatively lovj on such tests, but it has been shown that
children.
Social Isolates
39
P.B. Horton : conclude that to some degree, person is dependent
40
Anderson (1960 ) - found that intelligence in childhood was
socialization process.
41
Lindzey, G. & Aronson E. (1960) view successful socialization as
lives.
42
Barry, Bacon, and Child (1957) interprete the tendency for
innate patterns exist, that they play an important role in the develop
44
Goodman Norman (1985) : conceptualized the socialization process
45
Goodman N. (1985) - views socialization as a lifelong
is examined.
Family
46
Cohen, Jene :(1976) quotes ’data from 5, 498 respondents to
James Coleman's survey (The adolescent society, New York : Free Press,
1961) and its 15 year follow up which shows that parents' effect on
influence due to modeling and to defining varied with sex of child and
effects, were stronger in the white collar class than in the blue-
collar class. Mothers and fathers were roughly equal in their modeling
47
Bhoite Anuradha (1986) assessed problems of socialization of
girls in white collar middle class families. She found that in India
changing existing sex role stereotypes and regarding the social status
46. Cohen, Jene, (1976 Journal of Marriage and the Family 1987,49,
2 May, pp. 339 - 351.
47. Bhoite Anuradha Uttam (University of Poona 411007, India),
"Problems of socialization of girls in white collar Middle class
families". Sociological Abstracts, Aug. 1986. pp. 785 - 794.
.. 8 0 ..
Gender Role
48
Bush D. M. (1985) examined the relationship of cohort, age and
press 1982), and Sandra Lipsitz Bem. The proposed theory is broader
49
Suma Chitnis (1975) discussed the significance of three
and peace, in the Indian context. This paper focuses attention mainly
50
Shrlnivas M. N. (1978) approaches the problem, keeping in view
social reform as well as the freedom movement and refers to the recent
51
Khalkdina Margaret : obseves that the birth of a daughter is
still not a welcome event, and her upbringing has many constraints and
taught to perform all the rituals and transmit them to her future
52
Mittal, V.K. (1965) administered a questionnaire was given to 50
53
Viola Klein (1960) emphasizes the attainment of occupational
54
Promilla Kapur (1970) found that educated married women are
working for economic reasons but there are various other socio-psycho-
educated married working women feel that they are satisfactorily able
to combine their dual responsibilities of home and work and do not feel
that they are neglecting them or that it makes an extra demand on them,
55
Promilla Kapur (1970) has empirically shown that when educated
married working women feel that they are satisfactorily able to combine
their dual responsibilities of home and work and do not feel that they
are neglecting them or that it makes an extra demand on them, they are
56
Chitra M. N. (1969) - Theaim of the study was to identify the
that
(3) among backward classes, the upper layers have been the
(4) in both the colleges, students from the higher income strata
57
Ramchandran P., Mutatkar M.D. and Fernandes M. (1963) undertook
a study which revealed that the rate of Indian women had changed in the
recent past. Legally women have equal rights with men. However, they
are not yet fully conscious of these rights. The role of women today,
is much broader not the traditional role of wife and mother. Various
careers are now open to women. With education, women's role has
changed. Instead of just being a housewife and mother she can now
family. Today the roles of men and women overlap. The main reason and
58
Heer (1958) has stated that both in the working class and in
the middle class the working wife exerts more influence in the family
59
Durand (1946) observes that an increase In the rate of married
decline in fertility but both may have been caused by some other
may simultaneously motivate a woman to enter into paid work and limit
60
Viola Klein (1960) observed that there is a good deal of
vjomen is very intimately related with the marriage pattern, and the
because of the economic contribution that they make towards the family
independence and self confidence. Hence they may want to have freedom
61
Promilla Kapur (1970) has empirically shown that when educated
married working women feel that they are satisfactorily able to combine
their dual responsibilities of home and work and do not feel that they
are neglecting them or that it makes an extra demand on them, they are
62
Klingler (1951) has shown that the working mother influenced
a greater extent than did the non-working mother. The working wife may
appeal to her husband to help her in her household work, which may not
are more likely to help them in their household work. The working women
outlook. They may like to have a greater say in the family matters and
63
Durand (1946) observes that an increase in the rate of married
decline in fertility but both may have been caused by some other
may simultaneously motivate a woman to enter into paid work and limit
Once women are already in the labour force, it appears that they
create a condition which may force them to withdraw from work. Hence,
families. It has been found that employed women not only start the use
of birth control methods soon after marriage but they also use them
2.4 S c h e d u l e d Ca s t e s and t h e i r S o c i a l i z a t i o n
however, Issac did not meet any member of the B.C. who thought that
caste identity ; but they have not yet been able to build up a
castes.
possibilities for the poorest communities and although this may take
time, there is no doubt that the S.C. ought to make substantial gains
taking place among S.C. in post independent^ India. She believes that
have been reported from Rajastan, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra and Mysore. On
the Christmas night of 1968, 42 S.C. men and women and children were
burnt alive for asserting their rights as human beings and demanding
Tamilnadu. The same year, a Harijan farm hand, Paritala Kotasu, was
found that this wave of anti Harijan atrocity and violence generally
takes place in semi urban areas where the levels of literacy, prospe
rity and social development were higher than in adjoining rural areas.
There have been cases in which prominent S.C. leaders have not been
Rajasthan. The S.C. representatives in the Pachayati Raj bodies are not
There is a big gulf between the S.C. politician, the educated and
common man. Most of the educated Harijans get Govt, jobs and are
alienated from their own people. The same is the case with the
.. 90 ..
betterment has brought about class consciousness but has not helped to
remove the stigma of untouchability. The only panacea for the problems
There are just three books which deal exclusively with social
change among the S.C.. Of these, only Alexander's book (1966) deals
directly with the problem of social change among the scheduled caste
with respect to the S.C. has national relevance. This may be directed
states. While the Tribal Research Institutes are doing such evaluation
in respect of the tribes, there is no such agency for the S.C. This
not only the shortcomings at the implementation level, but also lacunae
monographs have been published on the impact of the caste system on the
.. 91 ..
among the upper castes in Rajasthan village and the more recent
A_ II
publication by M. Leigh and Hitchcock, the Rajputs on Khalapur (1968).
do not always run in the same direction and sometimes they may even run
The changes come along three avenues. The first avenue was
provided by the reform movements which took place among some S.C. at
the upper castes. The third avenue was inspired by the process of
patterns in dress, manners and customs. It brings in its wake new norms
and values and new symbols of prestige. We have literature on all the
three kinds of change though the data is uneven and differs in depth
.. 92 ..
and coverage. Although the three processes have been dealt with In this
communities".
social change.
of -
.. 94 ..
punishments,
their interrelationships.
and to have some idea of the different role demands made upon
.. 95 . .
process, but draw their conclusions about the influence of this process
the education process per sec. He analyzes the impact of the curricula,
the course, the patterns of interaction and the division of roles and
Dev Datta Sharma (1968) has studied the part played by education
manner in which the school system has led to the decay of traditional
education on the Bhil tribe and examined the manner in which the
R.N. Kulkarni, 'A study of S.G. students in college and High-school and
study of 'Education and literacy among the S.C. of Hubli City'. There
(1968). These studies examine how the role and the status of women
and status in the home, and also examine her emploj^-ment status both
fundamental concern. Among other things, the school system presents the
vr'l.l have to take his place as an adult and it does this not only as a
findings in practice have been limited b^^ the fact that independence is
gap between what the parents have achieved and vjhat society demands.
youngsters who may be a bit too passive for many of the social posi
working class family that has produced a sullen and resentful potential
serve.
deprivation that many lower class children are exposed to (Deutsch and
Cognitively more advanced children tend to come from homes where there
are more books and where adults read more books to children and
demands on their children. Their demands will concern matters that they
regard as both important and problematical, in the sense that they can-
.. 100 .. q 2 . 1 L.
not take it for granted that the child will develop in the desired
not the same for middle and working class parents. For example, there
is fairly good evidence to suggest that while working class parents are
are more concerned about the problem and virtues of self control.
(Kohn, 1959). M. Kohn has pointed out that this difference runs
66
Dreeben (1968) argues for the importance of school as a
upon the observation that conduct in the family and conduct on the job
are also other important influences from the larger social context that
67
Robert Merton (1957) - 'Teacher socialization includes the
both seen and interpreted in a new way'. The aims and purposes of
socialization :
their evaluators.
superiors.
Many areas of research have been studied for the purpose of the
situations,
v) Personality differences,
viii)Educated women,
and guidance.
development, performance.
a transitional institution.
transmission of culture.
tion in adolescence.
that there was hardly any work on teachers' socialization. There has
studies.
very few researchers have studied the role of gender in socializa tion.
Many more studies are available on education. The researcher could find
that 'education was the most important factor that facilitated women to