DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF HYBRID BRAKING SYSTEM 2018-2019

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The current problem in the conventional brakes is that the braking torque is not sufficient
for the automobiles that are in production these days and also have consistent wear of
brake pads. The chances of failure are even higher at high speeds. So a hybrid braking
system is developed in order to overcome these problems. It’s called a hybrid braking
system because it is a combination of two braking systems, namely eddy current braking
and electromagnetic braking systems. The mechanism is divided into two main parts
which are listed below.

1.1 Eddy current braking:

Principle: The braking mechanism is governed by Lenz’s law which states that the
direction of the induced current is always such as to oppose the change in magnetic field
that produces it. Eddy currents are induced in the rotor with the help of an electromagnet
and the direction of current is such that it opposes the rotation of the rotor. So that the
speed of the rotor is reduced. This brings an advantage of zero wear since there is no
contact required.

Fig 1.1: Principle of eddy current braking

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVJCE, Bengaluru. 1

The movement of a metal plate in a magnetic field induces a voltage which in turn creates
eddy currents and metal plate decelerates. The better the conductivity and permeability of
the plate, the stronger the braking force. There is no mechanical contact between the
brakes and hence is wear free and silent and requires minimal maintenance. The braking
force is independent of the coefficient of friction ensuring high efficiency regardless of
wheel rail adhesion for example damp conditions. This means that relatively high braking
forces can be applied which remain almost constant even in high speed Applications. The
braking force can be accurately controlled by regulation of the magnetic field. Intensity of
magnetic field allows the brake to be finely controlled as the magnetic field is created
using electromagnets fed from an external power supply. So, there are obviously
significant potential savings if the use of eddy current brakes can be extended. Eddy
current brakes provide non-contact means to produce braking forces required to
decelerate the motion of a moving object. With the rapid expansion of high speed lines
and highways around the world, there is clearly considerable potential for a wider
application of frictionless braking.

Good braking performance is an important guarantee for safe driving. When an

automotive runs at a constant speed on the downhill where slope is greater than 6% or 7%
braking ability of main braking mechanism, and it is hard to meet the requirements of
safety driving. As one of auxiliary braking sets eddy current retarder has been used for
heavy duty vehicles and top-grade buses widely now. Its braking performance has a short
response time, a large brake torque. And in certain conditions the speed of vehicles is
maintained within the specified range. 30 to 80% of braking load can be split by eddy
current retarder, and braking distance and braking time can be decreased by 15 to 19%,
meanwhile, brake temperature- rise decreases from 38 to 50%, so the life of the main
braking mechanism can be extended.

Types of eddy current brakes:

1.1.1 Disk eddy current brakes:
Disk electromagnetic brakes are used on vehicles such as trains, and power tools such as
circular saws, to stop the blade quickly when the power is turned off. A disk eddy current
brake consists of a conductive non-ferromagnetic metal disc (rotor) attached to the axle of
the vehicle's wheel, with an electromagnet located with its poles on each side of the disk,
so the magnetic field passes through the disk. The electromagnet allows the braking force
to be varied. When no current is passed through the electromagnet's winding, there is no
braking force. When the driver steps on the brake pedal, current is passed through the
electromagnet windings, creating a magnetic field, The larger the current in the winding,
the larger the eddy currents and the stronger the braking force. Power tool brakes use
permanent magnets, which are moved adjacent to the disk by a linkage when the power is
turned off. The kinetic energy of the vehicle's motion is dissipated in Joule heating by the
eddy currents passing through the disk's resistance, so like conventional friction disk
brakes, the disk becomes hot. Unlike in the linear brake below, the metal of the disk
passes repeatedly through the magnetic field, so disk eddy current brakes get hotter than
linear eddy current brakes.

Fig 1.2 Eddy current braking system in bullet trains (N700 Series Shinkansen)

Japanese Shinkansen trains had employed circular eddy current brake system on trailer
cars since 100 Series Shinkansen. However, N700 Series Shinkansen abandoned eddy
current brakes in favour of regenerative brakes, since 14 of the 16 cars in the trainset used
electric motors. In regenerative brakes, the motor that drives the wheel is used as a
generator to produce electric current, which can be used to charge a battery, so the energy
can be used again.
1.1.2 Linear eddy current brakes:
Linear eddy current brakes are used on some vehicles that ride on rails, such as trains.
They are used on roller coasters, to stop the cars smoothly at the end of the ride. The
linear eddy current brake consists of a magnetic yoke with electrical coils positioned
along the rail,
which are being magnetized alternating as south and north magnetic poles. This magnet
does not touch the rail, but is held at a constant small distance from the rail of
approximately 7 mm (the eddy current brake should not be confused with another device,
the magnetic brake, in wide use in railways, which exerts its braking force by friction of a
brake shoe with the rail). It works the same as a disk eddy current brake, by inducing
closed loops of eddy current in the conductive rail, which generate counter magnetic
fields which oppose the motion of the train.

Fig 1.3 Eddy current brakes of a roller coaster

The kinetic energy of the moving vehicle is converted to heat by the eddy current flowing
through the electrical resistance of the rail, which leads to a warming of the rail. An
advantage of the linear brake is that since each section of rail passes only once through
the magnetic field of the brake, in contrast to the disk brake in which each section of the
disk passes repeatedly through the brake, the rail doesn't get as hot as a disk, so the linear
brake can dissipate more energy and have a higher power rating than disk brakes. The
eddy current brake does not have any mechanical contact with the rail, and thus no wear,
and creates no noise or odour. The eddy current brake is unusable at low speeds, but can
be used at high speeds both for emergency braking and for regular braking.

The TSI (Technical Specifications for Interoperability) of the EU for trans-European

high- speed rail recommends that all newly built high-speed lines should make the eddy
current brake possible. The first train in commercial circulation to use such a braking
system has been the ICE 3. Modern roller coasters also use this type of braking, but in
order to avoid the risk posed by potential power outages, they utilize permanent magnets
instead of
electromagnets, thus not requiring any power supply, however, without the possibility to
adjust the braking strength as easily as with electromagnets.

1.2 Electromagnetic braking:

Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM brakes) slow or
stop motion using electromagnetic force to apply mechanical resistance (friction). The
original name was "electro-mechanical brakes" but over the years the name changed to
"electromagnetic brakes", referring to their actuation method. Since becoming popular in
the mid-20th century especially in trains and trams, the variety of applications and brake
designs has increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same. Both
electromagnetic brakes and eddy current brakes use electromagnetic force but
electromagnetic brakes ultimately depend on friction and eddy current brakes use
magnetic force directly.

Principle: This mechanism uses an electromagnet to apply the mechanical torque instead
of mechanical linkages, hydraulics, pneumatics, etc. The electromagnet pulls the brake
pad against the rotating disc. This helps to bring the rotating member to a complete stop
which cannot be achieved by the eddy current brakes.

Fig 1.4: Principle of electromagnetic braking

There are many types of electromagnetic brakes (tooth, multiple disc, hysteresis,
magnetic particle). The most widely used version is the single face design.
Electromagnetic brakes operate electrically but transmit torque mechanically. This is why
they used to be referred to as Electro Mechanical clutches and brakes. Over the years EM
became known as electromagnetic verses electro mechanical referring more about their
actuation method verses physical operation. Since electromagnetic brakes started
becoming popular, over seventy years ago, the variety of applications and brake designs
has increased dramatically but the basic operation of the single face electromagnetic
brake still remains the same. Think of the coil shell as a horseshoe magnet having a north
and South Pole. If a piece of iron contacted both poles a magnetic circuit is created. When
power is applied a magnetic field is created this field (flux) overcomes the air gap
between field and the armature. This magnetic attraction pulls the armature in contact
with the brake field face. The friction and the strength of the magnetic field, is what
causes the rotational motion to stop. Almost all of the torque comes from the magnetic
attraction and coefficient of friction between the steel of the armature and the steel of the
rotor or brake field. But for many industrial clutches or brakes, friction material is used
between the poles. The material is mainly used to help decrease the wear rate. But
different types of material can also be used to change the coefficient of friction for special
applications. For example if the brake was required to have an extended time to stop or
slip time, a low coefficient material can be used. Conversely, if the brake was required to
have a slightly higher torque, a high coefficient friction material could be used.

Copper (sometimes aluminium) magnet wire used to create the coil which is held in the
shell either by a bobbin or by an epoxy / adhesive. For most industrial brakes, friction
material is then placed over the coil and is set between the inner and outer pole. The
friction material is flush with the surface of the brake because you want to have metal to
metal contact between the coil shell and the armature.

Types of electromagnetic brakes:

1.2.1 Single face brake:

A friction-plate brake uses a single plate friction surface to engage the input and output
members of the clutch. Single face electromagnetic brakes make up approximately 80%
of all of the power applied brake applications.
1.2.2 Power off brake:
Power off brakes stop or hold a load when electrical power is either accidentally lost or
intentionally disconnected. In the past, some companies have referred to these as "fail
safe" brakes. These brakes are typically used on or near an electric motor. Typical
applications include robotics, holding brakes for Z axis ball screws and servo motor
brakes. Brakes are available in multiple voltages and can have either standard backlash or
zero backlash hubs. Multiple disks can also be used to increase brake torque, without
increasing brake diameter. There are 2 main types of holding brakes. The first is spring
applied brakes. The second is permanent magnet brakes.

i. Spring type:

When no electricity is applied to the brake, a spring pushes against a pressure plate,
squeezing the friction disk between the inner pressure plate and the outer cover plate.
This frictional clamping force is transferred to the hub, which is mounted to a shaft.

ii. Permanent magnet type:

A permanent magnet holding brake looks very similar to a standard power applied
electromagnetic brake. Instead of squeezing a friction disk, via springs, it uses permanent
magnets to attract a single face armature. When the brake is engaged, the permanent
magnets create magnetic lines of flux, which can in turn attract the armature to the brake
housing. To disengage the brake, power is applied to the coil which sets up an alternate
magnetic field that cancels out the magnetic flux of the permanent magnets.

Both power off brakes are considered to be engaged when no power is applied to them.
They are typically required to hold or to stop alone in the event of a loss of power or
when power is not available in a machine circuit. Permanent magnet brakes have a very
high torque for their size, but also require a constant current control to offset the
permanent magnetic field. Spring applied brakes do not require a constant current control,
they can use a simple rectifier, but are larger in diameter or would need stacked friction
disks to increase the torque.

Applications

In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an electromagnetic braking

component. Trams and trains use electromagnetic track brakes where the braking element
is pressed by magnetic force to the rail. They are distinguished from mechanical track
brakes, where the braking element is mechanically pressed on the rail. Electric motors in
industrial and robotic applications also employ electromagnetic brakes. Recent design
innovations have led to the application of electromagnetic brakes to aircraft applications.
In this application, a combination motor/generator is used first as a motor to spin the tires
up to speed prior to touchdown, thus reducing wear on the tires, and then as a generator
to provide regenerative braking.

1.3 Significances: The following are the significances,

 Eddy current brakes satisfy all the energy requirements of braking without the use
of friction. They have better heat dissipation capability to avoid problems that
friction brakes faces times.
 The fabricated braking system is be able to slow down the setup without any
contact at higher speeds, because that’s when there is maximum wear, heat due to
friction and maximum chances of failure.
 The braking torque can be controlled very accurately just by varying the voltage
across the coils.
 They can also be used as a supplementary retardation equipment in addition to the
regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles.
 The electromagnetic brakes are efficient in stopping the rotor completely in case
of emergencies.
 No leakage of Oil, as they are not used in the mechanism.

1.4 Limitations: The following are the limitations,

 The installation of an electromagnetic brake is very difficult if there is not enough
space between the gearbox and rear axle.
 The braking system is much heavier compared to the conventional brakes.
 Extra source of power is required to supply current to Electromagnets, which
adds up unnecessary weight in regular IC engine vehicles.
CHAPTER
2
LITERATURE SURVEY
The current development in eddy current brakes is taking place mainly in bullet trains and
not much is focused on automobiles. Even the few systems which use eddy current
brakes, use it as a secondary brakes along with conventional hydraulic brakes. The current
research is mainly focused on reducing the size of the system and fulfil its power
requirements. Electromagnetic braking systems are also being used in trains, Electric
motors in industrial and robotic applications also employ electromagnetic brakes. Recent
design innovations have led to the application of electromagnetic brakes to aircraft
applications. In this application, a combination motor/generator is used first as a motor to
spin the tires up to speed prior to touchdown, thus reducing wear on the tires, and then as
a generator to provide regenerative braking.

2.1 Present art of work:

 In this literature paper, G.L. Anantha Krishna, K.M. Sathish Kumar has conducted
an investigation on eddy current braking mechanisms. They have observed that
changing magnetic field will induce eddy currents in the conductor. These
currents will dissipate energy in the conductor and generate drag force. It is found
that Aluminum is the best material as conductor compared to Copper and Zinc.
Also, it is found that the larger thickness of disc, more number of turns of
electromagnet and higher electrical conductivity of conductor influences the
generation of greater braking torque. Permanent magnet eddy current brake uses
Neodymium – Iron – Boron (NdFeB) magnets. The analysis of Permanent magnet
eddy current shows that the parallel magnetized eddy current topology has the
superior braking torque capability. In electrically controlled eddy current braking
mechanism subjected to time varying fields in different wave forms, the triangular
wave field application resulted in highest braking torque. Electromagnetic brakes
were found to interfere with the signaling and train control mechanism. Permanent
magnet eddy current brakes are a simple and reliable alternative to mechanical or
electromagnetic brakes in transportation applications. Greater the speed greater is
the eddy current braking efficiency. Hence, author intends to work on the
development and investigation of
 permanent magnet eddy Current braking mechanism. We are going to use this
concept in the high speed retardation through eddy currents.[1]
 In this literature paper Liu Chengye, and Shen Jianming have studied the design
technologies of eddy current retarder, In this paper, key technologies of eddy
current retarder, such as braking torque, working volt and current, magnetic
circuit, material of rotor plate and iron, heat dissipation performance of rotor
plate, match between eddy current retarded and automobile, and effect of
temperature rise on its braking performance were presented and discussed in
detail. Meanwhile, advantage and disadvantage of eddy current retarder were
analyzed. Auxiliary brake sets had been widely used for heavy duty trucks and
advanced buses. They played a role of split-flow braking load of main brake
mechanism. As one of auxiliary brake sets eddy current retarder had good braking
performance and braking stability, and it is automotive and maintain constant
speed by its continual braking. [2]
 In this literature paper E. Galardi, E. Meli, D. Nocciolini, L. Pugi & A. Rindi have
done a survey on efficient models of magnetic braking mechanisms of railway
vehicles and observed that in modern railway vehicles, the use of Magnetic
Braking Mechanisms is continuously increasing, because they are characterized
by high braking performances and low Energy consumptions. Hence, the study
and the accurate modelling of Magnetic Braking Mechanisms is a very important
issue, because they significantly affect the Dynamics of vehicle and electrical
supply circuit. Usually, the performances of Magnetic Braking Mechanisms are
evaluated on test-rigs in order to reduce times and Costs of testing phases. For this
reason, the authors focus on the development of a complete 3D model of Magnetic
Brake Mechanism test-rig (built in COMSOL), including all the electromagnetic,
circuital and mechanical parts. These parts are often studied separately in the
literature; however, a combined analysis is crucial to correctly describe the
behavior of the whole mechanism. The proposed model is highly modular (to
describe different Magnetic Brake Mechanism test-rig layouts characterized by a
different number of magnetic polar expansions) and aims at obtaining a
compromise between accuracy and numerical efficiency. Subsequently, a second
simplified lumped parameter model derived from the complete one and built in
MATLAB is developed, to further reduce the computational load without
decreasing the results accuracy. In this
 Work, both the models have been developed and validated in collaboration
Ferrovie dello Stato and compared with other simplified models present in the
literature.[3]
 In this literature paper Lionginas Liudvinavičius & Leonas Povilas
Lingaitis(2007) have studied the electrodynamic braking in high speed rail
transport. The paper considers electrodynamic braking of trains, which is of
particular importance for high-speed railway transport from theoretical and
technical perspectives. Braking methods used for high-speed trains should ensure
Compatibility and redundancy of braking mechanisms. They include a mechanical
method (based on adding frictional disks to wheelsets), as well as magnetic
braking, which is being currently implemented and based on eddy currents,Etc.
High-speed trains have AC/DC engines, for which the principles of electric
braking can be applied. Electrodynamic braking is of particular importance for
high-speed transport using linear motors and developing the speed of400–500
km/h. These traction rolling stocks will not have commonly used trucks. The tests
in this area are being conducted in Japan and Germany now. The paper suggests
some theoretical and practical solutions to these problems. Schematic diagrams of
the locomotive braking and ways of controlling the braking force by varying
electric circuit parameters are presented. The authors suggested contact-free
regulation of braking rheostat resistor for controlling braking force in rheostatic
braking. A schematic diagram of harmonizing electrified railways and power
mechanism’s upgrading aimed at ensuring power regeneration is also presented.
[4]
 In this literature paper Ren He, Et. All have studied the brake performance and
analysis of ABS for eddy current and electrohydraulic hybrid brake mechanism.
This paper introduces an eddy current and electro-hydraulic hybrid brake
mechanism to solve problems such as wear, thermal failure, and slow response of
traditional vehicle brake mechanism. Mathematical model was built to calculate
the torque of the eddy current brake mechanism and hydraulic brake mechanism
and analyze the braking force distribution between two types of brake
mechanisms. A fuzzy controller on personal computer based on LabVIEW and
Mat lab was designed and a set of hardware in the loop mechanism was
constructed to validate and analyze the performance of the hybrid brake
mechanism. Through lots of experiments on dry and wet asphalt roads, the hybrid
brake mechanism achieves perfect performance on the experimental bench, the
hybrid mechanism reduces
 abrasion and temperature of the brake disk, response speed is enhanced obviously,
fuzzy controller keeps high utilization coefficient due to the optimal slip ratio
regulation, and the total brake time has a smaller decrease than traditional
hydraulic brake mechanism.[5]
 In this literature paper Ashish Ranjan, Et. All have studied design and control of
electromagnetic clutch actuation mechanism for automated manual transmission.
There is a growing interest towards Automatic Transmission in India as it
provides better comfort and drivability. But the high cost of this mechanism is
limiting itself to be successful in the Indian markets. Due to this, Automated
Manual Transmission
(AMT) is considered which provides a better solution towards automation as it
enhances the drivability and fuel consumption characteristics of a manual
transmission at lower costs. However, torque lag and comfort are major issues
with AMT which can be addressed by reducing the shift time. In this paper we
describe an Electromagnetic Linear Clutch Actuator as a replacement to current
electrohydraulic and electromechanical actuator. A control mechanism for the
actuator is presented and a clutch engagement strategy is also implemented which
reduces the engagement time to 0.78 seconds while reducing jerk and torque lag.
The actuator and control mechanism is simulated on a MATLAB Simulink and
agreeable results have been obtained.[6]
 In this literature paper M.Z.Baharom1, Et. All have braking torque analysis on
electromagnetic braking study using eddy Current for Brake Disc of Al6061 and
Al7075. . Two different series of Aluminium which are Al6061 and Al7075 has
been studied as the brake disc material for this electromagnetic braking system
using eddy current. Both series been studied experimentally by varying a few
parameters such as current induced to the electromagnet, air-gap, brake disc
thickness, number of turns and voltage supplied for the DC motor. PULSE
analyzer been used to capture the speed (rpm) and time (s). This paper also
addressed the calculation for the braking torque that been generated during the
process by using previous study equation. From this research, it can be concluded
that thicker disc performs better with electromagnetic braking and smaller air-gap
produced high braking torque in order to stop the disc rotation. Besides that
Al6061 have greater performance than Al7075 for electromagnetic braking
purposes as the brake disc material. [7]
2.2 Research gap:
 Eddy current braking is suitable for reducing wear and chances of failure is less at
very high speeds as it is contactless.
 Thicker the aluminum disc, more will be the braking torque.
 Increasing the magnetic flux passing through the rotor can increase the braking
torque.
 The magnetic flux in the electromagnets is directly proportional to the square of
current passing through the coils.
 The braking torque decreases as the distance between the electromagnets increases
as they are inversely proportional to each other. So the electromagnets are
supposed to be placed close to the rotor as much as possible.
 Although the brakes are only effective at high speeds.
 The brakes cannot bring the rotor to complete stop.
 Use of brake pads in electromagnetic brakes can help achieve the desired
coefficient of friction based on the application.
 On the other hand electromagnetic braking is very effective and powerful.
 Increase in magnetic flux can increase the pulling force of brake pads and hence
increasing the braking torque.
 If both the braking mechanisms are used together, then it could bring a revolution
in the braking mechanisms over the disadvantages of the brakes which are used
currently.

2.3 Objectives:

 To fabricate a hybrid of eddy current braking and electromagnetic braking

mechanisms as a replacement for hydraulic braking mechanism that could
potentially be used in high speed vehicles.
 To make a safer and more accurate braking system than the conventional brakes.
 To provide an alternate braking system which can be used in high speed vehicles
and trains.
 To reduce the overall brake wear.
CHAPTER 3
METHOD OLOGY
Basically, this project was to fabricate a combination of eddy current and electromagnetic
braking mechanism as a secondary measure for the hydraulic braking mechanism.

Methodology flow chart

DESIGNING THE FRAME FOR THE WHOLE SETUP

SELECTION OF ALUMINUM DISC

SELECTION OF ELECTROMAGNETS

SELECTION OF SHAFT AND MOTOR BASED ON CALCULATION

SELECTION OF BRAKE DISC

SELECTION OF SUPPORTING COMPONENTS

DEVELOPING THE MODEL AND TESTING

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Fig 4.1 Flow chart for fabrication of hybrid braking sytem

3.1 Designing the frame for the whole setup:

Based on the predicted size of different components a rectangular metal frame is
designed and welded. The weights of the components are also taken into account. The
width and height should be enough to incorporate an aluminium disc of diameter 200
to 250mm and also have some clearance to incorporate the electromagnets. The length
of the frame should be enough to accommodate a shaft with all the components
resting
 on it and also a coupling connected to a motor. The length predicted came around
600mm. So a stainless steel frame of dimensions 600*500*200mm is welded.

3.2 Selection of aluminum disc:

Based on the literature survey we have found that the best material for eddy current
braking is aluminium as it has low resistance and high permeability so it allows
magnetic field to pass through easily. Also that eddy current generation increases as
we increase the thickness of the disc and the disc should have enough surface area to
allow the magnetic flux to pass through it. So based on the required criteria and also
availability in the market a square plate of 260*260*20mm is selected. Now this plate
is machined on a 4jaw chuck lathe to produce an aluminium disc of 255mm diameter
and thickness 20mm.

3.3 Selection of electromagnets:

Electromagnets require high accuracy and precision in winding and also a good core
material of right shape it can be very difficult to make electromagnet from scratch. So
a microwave oven transformer is selected to make electromagnets. A microwave oven
transformer has 3 windings. Primary and secondary windings are the main and in the
middle there is another winding for third output. We need only the primary winding
as it has thicker coils and can carry high current. So the other two windings are
removed manually and primary is kept back in the core. Now this will act as an
electromagnet once current is passed through the coils. The electromagnet has enamel
coated aluminium wire of gauge 21 and has 250 turns. The coil can carry a max
current of 16 ampere.

3.4 Selection of shaft and motor:

The motor is selected based on the power requirements to rotate the shaft and the disc
at different speeds. A 1/8hp of single phase induction motor is selected which has a
speed range of 0 to 5000rpm. The shaft is selected based on the calculations of
torsional force during power transmission. The shafts length must be enough to
accommodate the other components. So a shaft of diameter 10mm and length 450mm
is selected.

3.5 Selection of brake disc:

A brake disc is usually made up of cast iron as its compressive strength is high and
good heat dissipation. But due to design issues a pre manufactured brake disc cannot
be selected. So a mild steel plate of dimensions 200*200*4mm is selected as it can be
 machined easily. This plate is made into a disc of diameter 200mm and thickness 4mm
with help of gas cutting. This plate can be hardened by heating and quenching.

3.6 Selection of supporting components:

The supporting components includes
Bearing blocks: based on diameter of shaft 2 bearing blocks are chosen to support the
shaft.
Coupling: A bush type coupling is made with one end having hole of 10mm and other
end with 8mm hole. The shaft and the motor are connected through these couplings.
They are tightened with the help of screws.
Brake pads: Since there is no specific requirement for brake pads. Pre manufactured
ceramic brake pads are selected.
Support plates: These are mild steel plates to help in engagement and disengagement
of brake pads on the disc.
Partially threaded bolts: These are present to act as guideways for the support plates.
Springs: These are meant to provide the restoring force to disengage the brake pads.
Nuts and bolts: These are of different shapes and sizes to fix motor, bearing blocks
etc. on the frame.

3.7 Developing the model and testing:

All the components are taken and assembled on the frame step by step
 The aluminum disc is fixed on the shaft with help of a key. The brake disc is fixed on
the shaft with a coupling and tightened with screws.
 The shaft is fixed in the bearings and placed on the frame.
 The motor is coupled with the shaft with the help of coupling and motor is fixed to
the frame with the help of nuts and bolts.
 The brake pads are assembled on the electromagnets.
 The electromagnets are attached to the frame at required positions.
 The necessary wirings are done and controller is connected.

The braking system is complete and ready for testing. Further conclusions can be drawn
from the test results.
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BRAKING
SYSTEM
The braking system can be manufacturing can be done by first designing the components,
then selection of components and then assembling the parts. The designing includes
mainly calculations while selection of components includes availability in market and
affordability. The assembly can be done systematically based on convenience.

4.1 Design:
4.1.1 Eddy current braking system:-
Radius of Aluminium disc: r = 255mm
Air Gap: g = 2mm
No of turns in electromagnet: n = 200mm
Distance between centre of disc and centre of pole: R = 60mm
Pole area: S = 3600mm2
Conductivity of aluminium: σ = 3.7*107 S/m
Current: I = 12amp
Permeability of air: µ = 12.568*10-7
The Magnetic flux density can be expressed in the form of,
B = µ*n*i/g................................................................................................................4.1
B =1.508 T
Angular Velocity: θ = 1000rpm
While the current density, J that been induced at Centre of the pole as
J = σ (Rθ* B).............................................................................................................4.2
J = 5.579 * 107 A/m2
The braking torque can be expressed in the form of
Tb = σR2sdθ(µn/g)2I2................................................................................................................................................4.3
Tb = 363Nm
4.1.2 Calculation of shaft:-
Diameter of shaft: D= (1.33*106*P/N)1/3..................................................................................................4.4
Power of motor: P = 1/8 HP
Speed of rotation: N = 1000rpm
 D= 7.4mm = 10mm
4.1.3 Coupling: - bush type coupling selected = 10mm

4.1.4 Motor Calculation:-

Power P = 1/8 hp
Speed N = 1000rpm
Torque,
T = (9548.8*P)/N......................................................................................................4.5
T= 1.19 Nm
4.1.5 Electromagnetic braking system:-
Max force due to electromagnets F = 1960N
Perpendicular distance b/w axis and point of force l = 0.08m
Coefficient of friction µ = 0.42
Torque,
T = F*l*µ...................................................................................................................4.6
T = 65.856Nm
Now the above torque is only due to one brake pad, for both brake pads it will be two
times. Therefore,
Braking torque = 131 N/m
4.1.6 Spring Calculations:-
Mass m = 0.1 kg
Acceleration g = 9.8 m/s-2
Force,
F = m*g
F = 0.98 N
Displacement x = 40mm = 0.04m
Stiffness
k = F/x
k = 24.5 N/m

4.2 Fabrication:
4.2.1 Selection of components
i. Frame: This is a cast iron rectangular frame. The whole setup is going to rest on
the frame.
  Dimensions: 600*500*200mm

Fig 4.1: Frame

ii. Electric Motor: An Electric motor is an electrical device that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors
operate through the interaction between an electric motor's magnetic field and
winding currents to generate force within the motor. Electric motors may be
classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of
motion output, and so on.

 Power: 1/8hp

 Speed: 0 to 5000rpm
Fig 4.2: Motor
iii. Shaft: The shaft is going to act like the axle an which the braking system is fixed.

 Diameter: 10mm

 Length: 400mm

Fig 4.3: Shaft

iv. Bearing blocks: A pillow block is a pedestal used to provide support for a rotating shaft
with the help of compatible bearings & various accessories. Housing material for a pillow
block is typically made of cast iron or cast steel. These are meant to hold the shaft at
the ends and reduce friction.

 Internal Diameter: 10mm

Fig 4.4: Bearing blocks

v. Coupling: A coupling is a device used to join two shafts together at their ends for the
purpose of transmitting power. The purpose of couplings is to join two pieces of rotating
equipment while allowing some degree of misalignment or end movement or both. This
is a bush type coupling used to connect the shaft and the motor.

Fig 4.5: Coupling

vi. Electromagnet: An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic
fields produced by an electric current .The magnetic field disappears when the
current is turned off. Electromagnets usually consist of insulated wire wound into
a coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in
the hole in the center of the coil. The wire turns are often wound around a
magnetic core.

Fig 4.6: Electromagnet

vii. Aluminium disc: This is a disc made up of aluminium. The eddy currents are
produced in this disc due to change in magnetic field which helps to reduce the
speed.

 Diameter: 255mm

 Thickness: 20mm

Fig 4.7: Aluminium disc

viii. Brake disc: This is a cast iron brake disc for the electromagnetic braking system.
It helps to completely stop the shaft rotation.

Fig 4.8: Brake disc

ix. Brake pads: The brake pads are fixed on the second electromagnet. They help in
the electromagnetic braking by making contact with brake disc.
 Fig 4.9: Brake pads
x. Controller: This is basically voltage and current regulator used to control the
speed of motor.

Fig 4.10: Controller

xi. Support plates: These are mild steel plates of dimension 12.5*8*2mm. There are
four such plates. These plates are attached to the electromagnets and also to the
brake pads. There are four 6.5mm holes at the corners.

Fig 4.11: Support plates

xii. Partial threaded bolts: There are 8 partially threaded bolts which act as guide to
the support plates.
  Length: 100mm

 Thread: M6

Fig 4.12: Partially threaded bolts

xiii. Springs: There are eight compression springs which are passed over the partially
threaded bolts. These springs help in disengagement of the brakes when the
electromagnets are desensitized by removing currents.

 OD: 11mm

 Length: 80mm

Fig 4.13: Spring

4.2.2 Assembly:
 The bearing blocks along with the shaft having the aluminum disc and brake
disc is fixed on the frame with help of bolts and nuts.
 The aluminum disc should be as close as possible to the primary
electromagnet.
 The coupling is attached to the free end of the shaft.
 The motor is connected to the other end of the coupling.
 The alignment of the shaft, coupling and the motor should be in a straight
line, otherwise it will lead to vibrations.
  The allen key screws on the coupling are tightened after checking alignment.
 The partially threaded bolts are inserted in the movable support plates of the
electromagnets along with the springs.
 The plates are now attached to the fixed support plates with help of nuts.
 The brake disc is now adjusted on the shaft to ensure proper engagement of
brake pads to it.
 The controller is connected to the motor and input wires are connected to the
electromagnets.

Fig 4.14: Fabricated braking system.

CHAPTER
5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Eddy current brakes: The below diagram shows the actual setup of the
eddy current braking system.

Aluminium disc

Shaft Electromagnet
 Fig 5.1: Working of eddy current braking system

It consists of an electromagnet and an aluminium disc. The disc is fixed on the shaft with
the help of a key. The shaft is connected to the motor and supported by bearings. The
electromagnet can be connected to a variable voltage supply.

When the current is passed through the electromagnet it induces eddy current in the
aluminium disc by the principle of electromagnetic induction. These eddy currents are in
the form of whirls. The eddy currents will have their own magnetic field and based on
their direction whether clockwise or anticlockwise, their polarity can be determined.

And their polarity is always such that it tries to oppose the motion, according to Lenz’s
law. This retards the rotor (aluminium disc) from very high speed to low speed. But after
slowing down the disc the torque is not enough to stop the disc rotation. At this point the
secondary brakes can be employed.
 Fig 5.2: Polarity of induced eddy current based on current direction

5.2 Electromagnetic brakes: The below figure shows the actual setup of the
electromagnetic system used.

Springs
Support plates

Electromagnet

Brake pads
Partially
threaded bolts

Brake disc

Fig 5.3: Working of electromagnetic braking system

The above system consists of an electromagnet, rigidly attached to frame. There are two
support plates, one of which is welded to the electromagnet and another one is free to
move on four partially threaded bolts. There are springs present on the bolts to retract the
movable
plate. There is a brake pad attached to the movable plate with help of an L-shaped
linkage. There is a brake disc attached on the shaft with help of Allen key screws.

When current is passed through the electromagnets it attracts the movable plate and
engages the brake pads on the brake disc. Due to the friction the brake disc retards. Based
on the amount of current flowing through the coils, the magnetic force can be varied. The
current can be changed through a variable voltage supply.

When the current is removed from the coil, the springs push the movable plate back to its
initial position and hence disengaging the brake pads. This system is only used during
emergencies, which is when a sudden stop is needed.

5.3 Testing procedure:

 To test the braking system both the braking systems are tested with Help of auto
transformer. Initially only the eddy current brakes are tested.
Auto Transformer: An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding wound
on a laminated core. An auto transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but
differ in the way the primary and secondary winding are interrelated. A part of the
winding is common to both primary and secondary sides. On load condition, a part of the
load current is obtained directly from the supply and the remaining part is obtained by
transformer action. An Auto transformer works as a voltage regulator.

 Now an ammeter is connected in series with the coils and the transformer.
Ammeter: An ammeter (from Ampere Meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure
the current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name.
Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range,
are designated as milliammeters or microammeters. They can accurately measure the
current for a supplied voltage. The range is 0 to 10 A.
 The shaft is rotated at 1000rpm, with help of the motor and controller.
 The speed can be measured with the help of a digital tachometer.
 Now the system is tested by providing currents to the electromagnets and the stopping
time is recorded for different currents and the values are tabulated.
 Fig 5.4: Eddy current brake testing

5.4 Results:
CURRENT(A) VOLTAGE(V) STOPPING TIME(s)
1 10 18
2 14 15
3 19 15
4 23 14
5 28 13
6 31 12
7 35 11
8 40 9
9 46 7
10 53 6
Table 5.1: Tabular column for results.
The secondary brakes are tested similarly by applying current to both the electromagnets
through auto transformers and the current is measured. It is found that AC mains supply
of current is enough to stop the disc immediately.
The auto transformer is rated only up to 10 ampere so beyond that it may cause heating
and circuits might burn. That is why the braking system cannot be tested beyond 10A.
But the wires used in the coils are rated for 16A.
Conclusions drawn from results

1. The fabricated braking system is be able to slow down the setup without any contact
at higher speeds, because that’s when there is maximum wear, heat due to friction and
maximum chances of failure.
2. The system can perform better under required power supply.
3. The electromagnetic brakes are efficient in stopping the rotor completely in case
of emergencies.
CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE AND WORK

6.1 Conclusion:
The current development in the automobile industries shows a constant increase in the
average speed of running vehicles but there’s not much development in the safety and
efficiency of brakes. Because there’s not much that can be improved in conventional
hydraulic brakes.

The hybrid braking system can be an answer to all this. Since eddy current braking
systems have proven to be more efficient and are used in bullet trains, so if it can be made
compact and power requirements are fulfilled then they can be used in other transport
systems. The current development of electric vehicles can certainly fulfil the power
requirements as they have huge batteries. And also that they have more space compared
to IC engine vehicles due to fewer components.

This braking system might also open a whole new area for development of ABS as the
braking torque can be controlled very accurately by changing the current in
electromagnets. And there is no need for any external components like pumps and valves
used in Anti-lock braking system of hydraulic brakes.

6.2 Future scope:

This project is a small step to emphasize that there can be a better braking system than the
conventional brakes in terms of efficiency and safety.

 The braking system is very heavy so future work needs to be done in reducing its
weight.
 The braking system takes a lot of space to make it commercial it should be made as
compact as possible.
 The power requirements of the braking system is very high. So it can only be
implemented in electric cars and trains.
 This braking system can be implemented in F1 racing cars as they don’t stop
immediately and just need small retardations at regular intervals.
 The braking torque of the secondary braking system is quite low compared to
conventional brakes. So more work is needed to make it more efficient.
 These braking system can have future in Anti-lock braking systems as the braking
torque can be controlled very accurately.
REFERENCES
1. Liu Chengye, and Shen Jianming , Design Technologies of Eddy Current Retarder
Used in an Automobile, School of Mechanical & Automotive Engineering,
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2. G.L.Anantha Krishna1, K.M.Sathish Kumar, Investigation on Eddy Current

Braking Mechanisms , BMS Institute of Technology(2014), ISSN: 1662-7482,
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PUBLICATION:
1. Aman Vishwakarma, Madhusudana CK, Alfred VK, Badal Dey, Brain Lara,
“Design and fabrication of hybrid braking system”, International conference on
Advance research in mechanical Engineerting (ICARME-2019), MVJCE-
Bangalore, 29-30 April 2019