Transistors

UNIT 5 TRANSISTORS
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives

5.2 Transistor
5.2.1 Transistor and its Types
5.2.2 Transistor Connections
5.2.3 Transistor Action
5.2.4 Transistor Characteristics
5.2.5 Transistor Biasing
5.2.6 Amplifier
5.2.7 Oscillator

5.3 Photoelectronic Devices

5.3.1 Light Dependent Resistor
5.3.2 Light Emitting Diode
5.3.3 Phototransistor
5.3.4 7-segment Display

5.4 Summary
5.5 Answers to SAQs

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 4, you were introduced to P-type and N-type semiconductors, characteristics and
applications of semiconductor diodes. In the present unit, you will learn about transistors,
their classification, characteristics and applications such as in amplifiers, oscillators, etc.
We will also discuss about photoelectronic devices such as Light Dependent Resistance
(LDR), Light Emitting Diode (LED), Phototransistors, etc.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to

• describe the input/output characteristics of a transistor in Common Base

(CB) and Common Emitter (CE) configurations,

• describe how to bias a transistor using voltage divider biasing arrangement,

• explain CE and CB amplifiers,

• explain transistor oscillators and applications of piezo-electric crystals in

oscillator circuits, and

• list and describe various photoelectronic devices and their applications.

29
Electronics
5.2 TRANSISTOR
5.2.1 Transistor and its Types
Transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device, which consists of two PN junctions.
The word “TRANSISTOR” is derived from transfer resistor, which describes its action of
transferring a signal current from a low resistance input circuit to a high resistance output
circuit.
Transistors are of two types – Positive Negative Positive (PNP) and Negative Positive
Negative (NPN).
PNP Transistor
In a PNP transistor, an N-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two P-type
semiconductors as shown in Figure 5.1(a). Figure 5.1(b) depicts the symbolic
representation of a PNP transistor.

E C B
P N P

B
E

E
: Emitter B : Base C : Collector

Figure 5.1 (a) Figure 5.1 (b)

NPN Transistor
In an NPN transistor, a P-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two N-type
semiconductors as shown in Figure 5.2 (a). Figure 5.2(b) depicts the symbolic
representation of an NPN transistor.
C

C B
E
N P N

F B
E

Figure 5.2 (a) Figure 5.2 (b)

5.2.2 Transistor Connections

A transistor has three terminals. However, when a transistor is to be connected in a
circuit, we require four terminals, two for the input and two for the output. So, whenever
a transistor is connected in a circuit, one of its terminals is made common to both input
and output. Accordingly, three basic configurations of transistor connections are:
(a) Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
(b) Common Base (CB) Configuration
(c) Common Collector (CC) Configuration
30
Common Emitter Configuration Transistors

In this configuration, emitter is common to both the input and the output circuit.

O/P
B T

I/P

Figure 5.3 (a)

Common Base Configuration

In this configuration, base is common to both for the input, as well as, the output
circuit.

E T C

I/P O/P

Figure 5.3 (b)

Common Collector Configuration

Here, the collector is common to both the input, as well as, the output.

B
O/P
T

I/P
C

Figure 5.3 (c)

5.2.3 Transistor Action

Using an NPN Transistor
In this case, as shown in Figure 5.4, the emitter-base junction is forward biased by
connecting -ve terminal of VEE to N-type emitter terminal E and +ve terminal of
VEE to P-type base terminal B. Collector-base junction is reverse biased by
connecting +ve terminal of VCC to N-type collector C and -ve terminal of VCC to 31
Electronics P-type base terminal B. The majority carrier electrons in the emitter are repelled
towards the base due to the forward bias. This constitutes emitter current IE which
is opposite in direction to that of electron flow. As these electrons flow through P-
type base, they tend to combine with holes. Since the base is lightly doped and
very thin, only a few electrons (less than 5%) combine with the holes to constitute
base current IB. The remaining electrons cross over into the collector region.
B

N P N

E C

IE IC
B

IB
− + − +

VEE VCC

VEE : Emitter supply voltage − = Electrons (Majority Carriers)

VCC : Collector supply voltage 0 = Holes (Majority Carriers)

Figure 5.4

These electrons are attracted by +ve terminal of VCC constituting collector current
IC. Here IE = IB + IC. Since IB is very small, collector current IC is nearly equal to
B B

emitter current IE.

Using a PNP Transistor
In this case, as shown in Figure 5.5, the emitter-base junction is forward biased by
connecting +ve terminal of VEE to P-type emitter terminal E and -ve terminal of
VEE to N-type base terminal B. Collector-base junction is reverse biased by
connecting -ve terminal of VCC to P-type collector C and +ve terminal of VCC to
N-type base B. The majority carrier holes in emitter are repelled towards the base
due to the forward bias. This constitutes emitter current IE, which is in direction to
the flow of holes.
P N P

E C

IE B IC
IB
+ − + −

VEE V Emitter supply voltage VCC

: EE
Vcc : Collector supply voltage

Figure 5.5

As these holes flow through N-type base, they tend to combine with electrons.
Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, only a few holes (less than 5%)
combine with electrons to constitute base current IB. The remaining holes cross B

over into the collector region. These holes are attracted by -ve terminal of VCC
constituting collector current IC. Here, IE = IB + IC. Since IB is very small, collector
B B

32 current IC is nearly equal to emitter current IE.

5.2.4 Transistor Characteristics Transistors

(a) Common Base Characteristics

IE E IC
C
T

B +
− VCB
IB
Rh1 Rh2 −
+ VBE VCC
VEE

T : NPN transistor (E-mitter, B-Base, C-Collector )

VEE : Emitter Supply Voltage VCC : Collector Supply Voltage
Rh1 and Rh2 : Rheostats VEB and VCB : Voltmeter
VBE : Forward biasing Base-Emitter VCB : Reverse Biasing Collector-Base Voltage
IE : Emitter Current IB : Base Current
B

IC : Collector Current
: Meters Depicted to Measure Voltages and Currents

Figure 5.6 : Circuit Used to Measure Transistor Common Base Input and Output Characteristics

Input Characteristics
A graphical relation between the base-emitter voltage and the emitter current when
collector to base voltage is kept constant is called the input characteristics of the
transistor in the common base configuration.
To get input characteristics, apply a suitable constant voltage on collector and by
applying the various emitter voltages, note the corresponding values of emitter
current. Repeat the procedure for the different constant collector to base voltages.
Plot a graph between base-emitter voltage and emitter current. Figure 5.7(a)
depicts typical input characteristics of a germanium transistor. When the VCB is
open, the emitter-base junction behaves just like a P-N junction diode with a cut-in
voltage (when the VBE overcomes the potential barrier) of 0.2 volt. It is in fact the
curve (3) when the collector-base junction is reverse biased that the transistor
becomes active.

VCB = 0V
VCB (- ve)
VCB = Open
60

3 2 1
−
40
IE
(mAs) 30

20

10

0.1 0.2 0.3 VBE 0.6

(Volts)

Figure 5.7 (a) : Typical Input Characteristics of a Germanium NPN Transistor in CB Configuration

This characteristic may be used to find the input resistance of the transistor. Its value is
given by the reciprocal of its slope.

33
Electronics ⎡ ΔV ⎤
Rin = ⎢ BE ⎥
⎣ ΔI E ⎦ VBE = Constant

Output Characteristics
A graphical relation, which shows the variation of collector to base voltage and
collector current when emitter current is kept constant, is called output
characteristics of the transistor CB configuration.
To get the output characteristics, adjust a suitable constant value of emitter current
by changing VBE. Then by applying the various values of collector to base
voltages, note the corresponding values of collector currents. Repeat the procedure
for the various values of the emitter currents. Plot a graph between collector to
base voltage and collector current.
A typical graph of output characteristics of an NPN transistor in the common base
configuration is shown in Figure 5.7(b). In this the VCB is varied from − 0.25 to
10V. It is only in the VCB range of 0 – 10 volt, i.e. when collector-base junction is
reverse biased the transistor action exists or in other words the transistor is active.
In the VCB range of – 0.25 to 0 there is no transistor action and the transistor is said
to be in a state of saturation. We can say that saturation occurs when both the
transistor junctions are forward biased.
On the other hand when the emitter-base junction is reverse biased and the emitter
current is below zero, the collector current Ic would be in microamperes and is
called the leakage current ICO. The region where both the C-B junction, as well as,
the E-B junction are reverse biased is termed as cut-of region.
Saturation Transistor active
Region Region
IE = 50 mA
50
40 mA
40
30 mA
IC 30
(mA) 20 mA
20
10 mA
10
0 mA
0
IC = ICO

− 0.25 0 2 4 6 8 10
VCB (Volts)
Cut-off Region

Figure 5.7 (b) : Typical Output Characteristics of a Germanium NPN Transistor in Common Base Configuration

In the active region of the transistor, it is observed from the characteristics that the
collector current Ic is almost equal to the emitter current, as the base current is very
small; roughly around 5% of the IE. The ratio IC/IE is the current gain of the
transistor in the common base configuration and is denoted by the symbol ∝
i.e. ∝ = IC/IE = Current gain is always less than unity.
This graph may be used to find the output resistance of the transistor in CB
configuration. Its value is given by the reciprocal of its slope.
⎛ ΔV ⎞
i.e. Rout = ⎜ CB ⎟
⎝ ΔIC ⎠ I E = Const

Current Transfer Characteristics

34
 It shows how IC varies with change in IE when VCB is held constant. For drawing Transistors
these characteristics, first VCB is set to a convenient value and then IE is increased
in steps and corresponding values of IC is noted. A typical transfer characteristic is
shown in Figure 2.7 (c). In other words this depicts the variations in ∝ with VCB as
the running parameter.
IC

VCB = Const.

IE

Figure 5.7 (c)

(b) Common Emitter Characteristics

IC
+

C +
IB B VCE VCC
T
+ Rh2 −
E
+
VBB − Rh1 IE
− −

T : NPN transistor (E-Emitter, B-Base, C-Collector)

IE : Emitter Current, Ic : Collector Current
IB : Base Current
B

VBB : Base Supply Voltage Rh1 and Rh2 : Rheostats

VCC : Collector Supply Voltage
: Meters depicted to measure Voltage and currents

Figure 5.8 : Circuit Used to Measure Transistor Common-Emitter Input Output Characteristics

Input Characteristics
A graphical relation between the base-emitter voltage and the base current when
collector to emitter voltage is kept constant is called the input characteristics of the
transistor in CE configuration.
To get input characteristics, apply a suitable constant voltage on collector and by
applying the various values of base-emitter voltage, note the corresponding values
of base current. Repeat the procedure for the different constant collector voltage.
Plot a graph between base-emitter voltage and base current. The nature of the
graph is as shown in Figure 5.9 (a).
When the VCE is kept at zero volt the characteristic resembles that of a PN junction
diode in its forward bias mode. This characteristic is shown in terms of a
germanium transistor. The only significant difference in the case of a silicon
transistor would be that the base current IB starts rising from zero towards the
B

positive value in the VBE range of 0.5 – 0.6 volt instead of the depicted
0.1 – 0.2 volt. 35
Electronics
0V 1V

4
IB 3 CE
(mAs) 2
1

0 0.1 0.2 0.3

VBE (Volt)

Figure 5.9 (a) : Typical Input Characteristics of a Germanium NPN Transistor in CE Configuration

This characteristic may be used to find the input resistance of the transistor in CE
configuration. Its value is given by the reciprocal of its slope.
⎛ ΔV ⎞
Rin = ⎜ BE ⎟
⎝ ΔI B ⎠VCE = Const.

Output Characteristics
A graphical relation, which shows the variation of collector voltage and collector
current when base current is kept constant, is called output characteristics of the
transistor in CE configuration.

IB =
60 500

50 400

40 300
IC
(mAs) 30 200
20
100
10
0

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
VCE (Volts)

Figure 5.9 (b): Typical look of Output Characteristics of an NPN Transistor in a Common-
emitter Configuration.

To get the output characteristics, adjust a suitable constant value of base current by
adjusting VBE as shown in Figure 5.8 through Rh1. Then by applying various
values of collector voltage, note the corresponding values of collector currents.
Repeat the procedure for the various constant base current. Plot a graph between
collector voltage and collector current. A typical look of the output characteristic
of an NPN transistor in common emitter configuration is depicted in Figure 5.9(b).
The variation of VCE is on the horizontal axis and the collector current IC on the
vertical axis. The plot is shown for various values of base current. Note that the
base current is shown in microamperes and is much smaller than the collector
current. There is not much change in IC when VCE is changed. But for a change in
IB of 100μA the change in IC is around 10 mA, which seems to give a d.c. current
B

gain of 100. The current gain of the transistor in this configuration is denoted by
the greek symbol β.
Ic
Therefore B = .
IB
36
 This graph may be used to find the output resistance of the transistor in CE Transistors
configuration. Its value is given by the reciprocal of its slope.
⎛ ΔV ⎞
Rout = ⎜ CE ⎟ .
⎝ ΔIC ⎠ I B = Const
Current Transfer Characteristics
It shows how IC varies with change in IB when VCE is held constant. For drawing
B

these characteristics, first VCE is set to a convenient value and then IB is increased
B

in steps and corresponding values of IC is noted. A typical transfer characteristic is

shown in Figure 5.9 (c). The slope ΔIC/ΔIB in this case is the a.c. current gain Bac .
B B

VCE Const.
IC (mAs)

IB (microampers)

Figure 5.9 (c) : Current Transfer Characteristic in CE Configuration

Relation between Current Gains α and β

We have studied that α is the current gain of the transistor in common base
I
configuration i.e α = C . This is always less than unity. On the other hand, β is the
IE
current gain of the transistor in the common emitter configuration,
I
i.e. β = C . We shall now establish a relationship between these two current
IB
gains as this would help us in solving problems and in the design of transistor
amplifier circuits. We shall do so in case of d.c. currents but the relation would be
true for a.c. currents as well. We know that
IE = IB + IC
B

By dividing the above equation by IC, we get

IE IB
= +1
IC IC
IE 1 I 1
Now, since = ,and B = , we have
IC α IC β
1 1 1+ β
= +1 =
α β β
Cross multiplication gives
β
α= …(i)
1+β
ΔI C ΔI
For a.c. current gains α = , and β = C
ΔI ΔI B
The above relationship can be established by taking ΔIB, ΔIE and ΔIC in place of IB,
B B

IE and IC. You should do well to establish it for yourself.

We can also manipulate Eq.(i) to obtain the value of β in terms of α, and we shall
see that
α
β=
1− α 37
Electronics 5.2.5 Transistor Biasing
The basic function of transistor is to do amplification. In order to achieve proper
amplification
(a) input junction of the transistor should remain properly forward biased and
output junction should remain properly reverse biased.
(b) operating point should be independent of temperature, β and VBE of the
transistor.
Voltage divider bias method, shown in Figure 5.10, is most-widely used to provide
biasing and stabilization to the transistor.
+ VCC

R1 RC

C
B T

E
R2 RE

T : An NPN Transistor (E-Emitter, B:Base, C: Collector)

R1, R2, RE and RC : Carbon Resistances

Figure 5.10

In this method, two resistors R1 and R2 are connected across the supply voltage VCC to
provide biasing. The emitter resistance RE provides stabilization.
Circuit Analysis
Let I1 be the dc current, generated by dc voltage VCC , through R1. Since base
current IB is very small, it can be assumed that current through R2 is also almost I1.
B

Hence
VCC
I1 =
R1 + R2
And Voltage across
⎛ V ⎞
R2 = V2 = ⎜ CC ⎟ R2
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the base circuit,
V2 = VBE + IERE
V2 − VBE
i.e. I E =
RE
Since IE ≈ IC
V2 − VBE
IC =
RE
Thus IC does not depend upon β. Though it depends upon VBE but V2 >>VBE, so IC
is practically independent of VBE. Thus IC in this circuit is almost independent of
transistor parameters. Thus voltage divider bias is universal method for providing
transistor biasing.
38
5.2.6 Amplifier Transistors

The process of increasing the strength of a weak electrical signal is known as

amplification.
(a) Common Emitter Amplifier

IC
C RC
ICRC
IB
B T VCE
+
VCC
Vin IE
E −

+ −

VBB

VBB : Base supply voltage VC90

C : Collector supply voltage
RC : Collector load resistance T : NPN transistor (E-Emitter, B-Base, C-Collector)

Figure 5.11: Circuit Diagram of Common Emitter Amplifier

VIN

Time

VOUT

Time

Figure 5.12 : The Amplified Output Signal VOUT is Phase Inverted (1800 out of Phase) with respect to Vin

Circuit Details
The emitter is common to both the input and output circuits. Base-emitter junction
is forward biased by using VBB and output junction is reverse biased using VCC. RC
is the load resistance in collector circuit.
Circuit Operation
During +ve half cycle of input a.c. signal Vin, the voltage across Base-Emitter
junction increases. It will increase the base current. Due to this, there will be a
large increase (IC + βIB) in collector current. The increase in collector current will
B

increase potential drop across RC. Since VCE = VCC − ICRC, increase in potential
across RC decreases VCE, i.e. collector voltage. The decrease in collector voltage
means that collector will become less +ve i.e. −ve output signal will be obtained.
Thus corresponding to +ve half cycle of Vin, we get amplified −ve output half
cycle.
Similarly, corresponding to −ve half cycle of Vin , an amplified +ve output half
cycle will be obtained.
Thus, input and output voltage signals are out of phase with each other as shown in
Figure 5.12.
D.C. Current Gain 39
Electronics D.C. current gain in common emitter amplifier is denoted by βd.c. and is defined as
the ratio of collector current to base current.
⎛I ⎞
β d.c. = ⎜ C⎟
⎝ I B ⎠VCE = CONST

A.C. Current Gain

A.C. current gain in common emitter amplifier is denoted by βa.c. and is defined as
the ratio of change in collector current to change in base current.
⎛ ΔI ⎞
β a.c. = ⎜ C⎟
⎝ ΔI B ⎠VCE = CONST

A.C. Voltage Gain

It is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage (ΔVC) to the change in
input voltage (ΔVBE)
ΔVC
AV =
ΔVBE
A.C. Power Gain
It is defined as the ratio of change in output power to change in input
power.
A Practical CE Amplifier
+VCC

R1 RC C2

C
C1
B T
Load

E
VS
R2 RE CE

T : NPN transistor (E-Emitter, B-Base, C-Collector)

RC = Load Resistance
RE = Emitter Resistance
R1, R2 = Voltage divider resistors
C1 = Input Coupling Capacitor
CE = Emitter bypass Capacitor
VS : Signal Source
VCC : Collector Supply Voltage
C2 = Output Coupling Capacitor

Figure 5.13 : Circuit Diagram of Practical CE Amplifier

Functions of Different Components

T - NPN transistor connected in CE configuration. E, B and C represent emitter,
base and collector terminals respectively.
R1, R2, RE, RC and VCC - R1, R2, RE, RC and VCC constitute voltage divider type of
biasing arrangement. The voltage across R2 makes input base-emitter junction
forward biased and the voltage across R1 makes output junction reverse biased.

40
 Suitable values of resistances RE and RC are used to stabilize the operating point of Transistors
the given transistor.
C1 and C2 are called coupling capacitors. These are used to couple the amplifier
with the signal source and load respectively. Capacitor C1 blocks any d.c. in the
source to be fed to the transistor base and thereby affect its biasing. It also protects
the source from being fed any d.c. voltage that exists and the base due to the
voltage division of VCC by R1 and R2 . The coupling capacitor C2 blocks the d.c.
voltage at the collector to be applied to the load.
CE is called the emitter bypass capacitor. It does not affect the d.c. biasing of the
capacitor. However, its impedance to the amplified a.c. collector current is very
small, i.e. it bypasses the a.c. In the absence of this capacitor there would be a
voltage drop across the resistor RE which would consequently decrease the
collector current and the voltage across the load resistor RC, which is not desirable,
as it would reduce the gain of the transistor amplifier.
Example 5.1
A transistor in common emitter mode has collector supply voltage of 14V and the
voltage drop across the 1.5kΩ load resistance is 0.75V. Determine the collector to
emitter voltage and the base current if α is 0.96.
Solution
Given VCC = 14V
RC = 1.5 kΩ
ICRC = 0.75 V
α = 0.96
(i) Collector to emitter voltage = VCC – ICRC = 13.25 V
(ii) We know that
α
β=
1-α
0.96
or β= = 24
1 - 0.96
I C RC = 0.75V

0.75 V
Therefore, IC = = 0.5mA = 500μAs
1.5 × 103 Ω

IC
β=
IB

IC 500
∴ IB = = = 20.8μA
β 24

SAQ 1
The common base current gain of a transistor is 0.918.
(i) If the emitter current is 9mA, what is the value of base current?
(ii) If the base current is 24 μA, what is the value of emitter current?

41
Electronics SAQ 2
For the common emitter amplifier circuit shown below, emitter current is 0.6 mA.
If the base-emitter voltage is 0.2 V, determine supply voltage.

+ VCC

47kΩ 4.2 C2
kΩ
C
B
T
C1
E
4.7 1 kΩ CE
kΩ

Figure 5.14

(b) Common Base Amplifier

IE T IC
E C
+
B RC ICRC
VIN IB VCB
+
VCC
−
− + −

VEE
VEE : Emitter supply voltage VCC : Collector supply voltage
RC : Collector load resistor T : NPN transistor (E-Emitter, B-Base, C-Collector)

Figure 5.15 (a) : Circuit Diagram of Common Base Amplifier

VIN
Time

VOUT

Time

Figure 5.15 (b) : VIN is the A.C. Input Signal and VOUT Amplified Output. The VOUT is Seen to be in
Phase with VIN

Circuit Detail
The base is common to both input and output circuits. The emitter base junction is
forward biased by using VEE and output junction is reverse biased using VCC. RC is
the load resistance in collector circuit.
Circuit Operation
During +ve half cycle of a.c. input signal VIN, the voltage across emitter-base
junction decreases. It will decrease emitter current and consequently collector
current will also decrease. The decrease in collector current will decrease potential
42
 drop across RC. Since VCB = VCC − ICRC, the collector voltage will increase. Thus Transistors
due to a positive swing of VIN a positive output half cycle will be obtained. Thus
corresponding to +ve half cycle of a.c. input, amplified positive output half cycle
will be obtained. Similarly, corresponding to −ve half cycle of a.c. input, amplified
−ve output half cycle will be obtained. We see, therefore, that input and amplified
output voltage signals are in phase as shown in Figure 5.15(b).
D.C. Current Gain
D.C. current gain in common base amplifier is denoted by αd.c. and is defined as
the ratio of collector current to emitter current.
⎛I ⎞
α d.c. = ⎜ C⎟
⎝ I E ⎠VCB = CONST.

A.C. Current Gain

A.C. current gain in common base amplifier is denoted by αa.c. and is defined as
the ratio of change in collector current to change in emitter current.
⎛ ΔI ⎞
α a.c. = ⎜ C⎟
⎝ ΔI E ⎠VCB = CONST.
A.C. Voltage Gain
It is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage (ΔVC) to the change in input
voltage (ΔVBE)
ΔVC
AV =
ΔVBE
A.C. Power Gain
It is defined as the ratio of change in output power to change in input power.
Practical CB Amplifier
C1 C2
E T C

RE
C3 B RC
VS

R1 R2
Load
VCC

VS : Input Signal Source C1, C2 : Input and Output Coupling Capacitors

VCC : D.C. Supply Voltage R1, R2, RC and RE : Carbon Resistors
C3 : Bypass Capacitor T : NPN Transistor (E-Emitter, B-Base, C-Collector)

Figure 5.16 : Circuit Diagram of Practical CB Amplifier

Functions of Different Components

T – NPN transistor connected in CB configuration. E, B and C represent emitter,
base and collector terminals respectively.
R1, R2, RE, RC and VCC
R1, R2 along with RE, RC and VCC constitutes voltage divider biasing arrangement.
The d.c. voltage across R1 makes input emitter-base junction forward bias and
voltage across R2 keeps output junction reverse biased.
43
Electronics Suitable values of resistances RE and RC are used to stabilize the operating point of
the transistor.
C1 and C2 are called coupling capacitors, and are used to couple the amplifier with
the signal source and load respectively. Apart from the function “coupling”, C1
blocks any d.c. from signal source but offers very small impedance for a.c. signal
and C2 blocks d.c. to load but offers little impedance for the amplified signal.
C3 is called bypass capacitor and is connected across R1. In the absence of CE,
quite a bit of input signal voltage drops across R1, which decreases the voltage gain
of the amplifier. If C3 is connected across R1, net impedance of the combination is
reduced to a very small value, so that there is hardly any voltage drops across the
combination and, therefore, the gain is not reduced.

5.2.7 Oscillator
Concept of Feedback
The process of injecting a fraction of output voltage (or current) of an amplifier
back to the input is known as feedback.

Vi
Amplifier with Vo′
Voltage gain Av
Vi′

mVo′
Feedback Vo′
Network

Figure 5.17

Types of Feedback
Positive feedback
Negative feedback
Positive Feedback
When the feedback voltage is in phase with the input voltage, the feedback is
called positive feedback.
The voltage gain of a positive feedback amplifier is given by
Av
Avf =
1 − mAv

where Avf = voltage gain of the amplifier with +ve feedback,

Av = voltage gain of the amplifier without +ve feedback and
m = a +ve fraction.
Negative Feedback
When the feedback voltage is out of phase with the input voltage, the feedback is
called negative feedback.
44
 The voltage gain of a negative feedback amplifier is given by Transistors

Av
Avf =
1 + mAv

where Avf = Voltage gain of the amplifier with −ve feedback,

Av = Voltage gain of the amplifier without −ve feedback and
m = A +ve fraction.
Barkhausen Citerion
In order to produce continuous undamped oscillation at the output of an amplifier,
the +ve feedback should be such that mAv = 1. Therefore, first of all, it would be
desirable to understand what are damped and undamped oscillations.
Damped and Undamped Oscillations
Electrical oscillations are of two types
(i) Damped oscillations
(ii) Undamped oscillations
Damped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time are
damped oscillations.

Voltage
or
Current Time

Figure 5.18 (a)

Undamped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with time are
undamped oscillations.

Voltage
or
Current Time

Figure 5.18 (b)

LC Tank Circuit
A circuit, which consists of inductance and capacitance connected in parallel, is
called LC tank circuit.
Consider a charged capacitor of capacitance C. Let an inductor of inductance L be
connected in parallel with capacitor as shown in Figure 5.19.
S

L C
45
Electronics

Figure 5.19

When switch S is closed, the capacitor will discharge through inductance

producing induced emf in it. The change in current increases as capacitance
discharges more and more. The change in current and hence induced emf becomes
maximum when the capacitor is just to discharge completely. Once capacitor is
fully discharged and induced emf in the inductance is maximum, the capacitor
recharges in the opposite direction. The process repeats. Thus sequence of
charging and discharging capacitor produces electrical oscillations. The frequency
of oscillations is given by
1
f =
2π LC
Since loss of electrical energy takes place continuously, the oscillations produced
by LC tank circuit are damped oscillations.
Undamped oscillations can be produced by using LC tank circuit along with an
amplifier and a positive feedback circuit.
Transistor as an Oscillator
+ VCC

R1 RFC C’
C

B C1
T
VOUT
C3 L
E
R2 C2
RE
CE

Figure 5.20 : Circuit Diagram of Transistor as an Oscillator Generally Known as the Colpitt’s
Oscillator

Circuit Detail
The NPN transistor connected in CE configuration works as an amplifier. Resistors
R1 and R2 form voltage divider across VCC , providing necessary biasing to input
and output transistor junctions. R3 is for emitter stabilization and RFC provides the
necessary dc load resistance amplification. It also prevents ac signal from entering
dc supply VCC. Capacitor CE is a bypass capacitor whereas C3 conveys feedback
from collector to base circuit. C' is the collector coupling capacitor.
The tank circuit consists of two ganged capacitors C1 and C2 and a single fixed
coil, L.
Circuit Operation
When the circuit is turned on, the capacitors C1 and C2 are charged. The capacitors
discharge through L, setting up oscillations of frequency given by
1
f = ,
2π LC
where C is the series combination of capacitors C1 and C2 and is given by

46
 C1C2 Transistors
C= .
C1 + C2
The output voltage of the amplifier appears across C1 and feedback voltage is
developed across the C2. The voltage across C2 is 180o out of phase with the
voltage developed across C1 and the transistor itself produces a phase shift of 180o,
thereby giving a total phase shift of 360o . This produces positive feedback.
Therefore, undamped oscillations are generated.
Piezo-Electric Crystal and its Application in Oscillator Circuit
When alternating voltage is applied to certain crystalline materials such as quartz,
tourmaline etc., they vibrate at the same frequency as that of the applied voltage.
Conversely, when they are compressed or placed under mechanical strain to
vibrate, they produce an alternating voltage. This is called piezoelectric effect. The
crystals, which exhibit piezoelectric effect, are called piezoelectric crystals.
To use piezoelectric crystal in a circuit, it is placed between two metal plates. If an
a.c. voltage is applied across the plates, the crystal will start vibrating at the
frequency of applied voltage. However, if the frequency of the applied voltage is
made equal to the natural frequency of the crystal, resonance takes place and
crystal vibrates with maximum amplitude.

Piezo-electric Crystal
A.C.
Signal

Figure 5.21

A piezoelectric crystal is used in oscillator circuit to stabilize the frequency of

oscillation.
Equivalent Circuit of Piezoelectric Crystal
The equivalent circuit of piezoelectric crystal can be drawn as follows:
When the crystal is not vibrating, it is equivalent to capacitance Cm because it has
two metal plates separated by a dielectric. This capacitance is known as mounting
capacitance.

Cm

Figure 5.22 (a)

When the crystal vibrates, it is equivalent to R – L – C series circuit shunted by the

mounting capacitance Cm as shown in Figure 5.22(b).

L
Cm I R

L : Electrical Equivalent of Crystal Mass

C : Electrical Equivalent of Elasticity
R : Electrical Equivalent of Mechanical Friction 47
Electronics Figure 5.22 (b)

The frequency at which the L,C,R branch of the crystal, as shown in

Fiugre 5.22 (b), behaves as series resonant circuit is called series resonant
frequency of the crystal. It is given by,

1
fs =
2π LC

The frequency at which the crystal behaves as parallel resonant circuit is called
parallel resonant frequency fp and is given by

1 C × Cm
fp = , where CT =
2π LCT C + Cm

Since C would be slightly more than CT which is the series combination of C and
Cm, fs would always he slightly lower than fp. When these crystals are used in
transistor oscillators, the fs and fp determine the lower and upper frequency of
oscillation of the circuit.

Transistor Crystal Oscillator

In this oscillator circuit, crystal is used in parallel resonance condition. So

frequency of oscillation is extremely stable.

+VCC

R1 RFC C’
C

C1
C B
T
VOUT

E
Crystal
R2 RE CE C2

Figure 5.23

Example 5.2
A piezo-electric crystal has the following parameters:
L = 0.15 H, C = 225pF, Cm = 770pF and R = 7.5kΩ. Find the series and parallel
resonant frequencies.
Solution
Given L = 0.15 H
C = 225 pF
Cm = 770 pF
1
Series resonant frequency fs =
48 2π LC
 1 Transistors
=
2π 0.15 × 225 × 10 -12

= 0.0273 MHz

1
Parallel resonant frequency fp =
2π LCT
Cm C
Here, CT = = 174.12 pF
Cm + C
1
∴ fp = = 0.0311MHz
2π 0.15 × 174.12 × 10-12
SAQ 3
The ac equivalent of a piezo-electric crystal has following values;
L = 0.1H, C = 0.03 pF, Cm = 10 pF and R = 1.7 kΩ. If this crystal is used in an
oscillator, calculate the range of frequency of oscillation.

5.3 PHOTOELECTRONIC DEVICES

5.3.1 Light Dependent Resistor
It is an electronic component whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light
intensity. It can also be called as photoresistor or photoconductor.
A light dependent resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on
the device is of high enough intensity, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into conduction band. The resulting free electron
conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
The circuit symbol of LDR is as show in Figure 5.24.

Figure 5.24

A multimeter can be used to find the resistance of LDR. The typical result of a standard
LDR is as follows.
Darkness – (Maximum resistance) - about 1MΩ
Very bright light – (Minimum resistance) - about 100Ω
LDRs are used in many sensor circuit, viz, circuit light meter, burglar alarms, street light
circuits, etc.
5.3.2 Light Emitting Diode
LEDs are special diodes that emit light when connected in forward bias. In a P-N
junction, charge carrier recombination takes place when electrons from N-side cross the
junction and recombine with the holes on the P-side. Scince electrons are in the higher
49
Electronics conduction band on the N-side whereas holes are in the lower valence band on the P-side.
During recombination, some of this difference is given up in the form of heat and light.
For silicon and germanium, larger amount of this energy is given up in the form of heat
so that the amount emitted as light is not significant. But for gallium arsenide, gallium
phosphide etc., a greater amount of energy is released in the form of light. If the
semiconductor material is translucent, light is emitted and the junction is called as Light
emitting diode.The colour of the emitted light depends on the type of material used.
The circuit symbol of LED is as shown in Figure 5.25.

+ −

Figure 5.25

LEDs are used in many electronic circuits as pilot lights, solid state video displays,
numeric displays, etc.
5.3.3 Phototransistor
Phototransistors are light-sensitive transistors. Most commonly phototransistors are
silicon made NPN transistors and they are usually connected in common emitter
configuration with the base open. The incident photons result in a base current that is
then amplified by the gain of the transistor.
The circuit symbol of a phototransistor is as shown in Figure 5.26.
C

Figure 5.26

The phototransistors are mainly used in optical communication equipments, encoders,

detection and switching circuits, etc.
5.3.4 7-Segment Display
A seven-segment display consists of seven rectangular LEDs which can form the digits 0
to 9. The seven LED segments are labeled ‘a’ to ‘g’ as shown in Figure 5.27(a). Each of
these segments is controlled through one of the display LEDs.
Seven segment displays come in two types, common-cathode and common-anode type.
In the common-cathode type, all the cathodes of the diodes are connected together as
shown in Figure 5.27(b). This makes it possible to light any segment by forward biasing
that particular LED. For example, to light number 3, segments a, b, g, c and d must be
forward biased. Since the cathodes are connected to ground, only 5V is to be applied to
the anode of these segments to light them.
The common-anode seven-segment display has all its anodes connected together to 5V
and ground is used to light the individual segments.

50
 Transistors

f b

e c

Figure 5.27 (a) Figure 5.27 (b)

5.4 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt about transistor, its types and different modes of connection.
We have also discussed transistor action and transistor characteristics in CE and CB
configuration. Transistor applications such as amplifiers, oscillators, etc. are covered.
Light dependent resistors, LED’s phototransistor and seven segment displays have also
been introduced.

5.5 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) 0.738 mA
(b) 292.8 µA
SAQ 2
8.79 V
SAQ 3
2.90459 MHz to 2.9089 MHz

51