FUNCTIONAL FOODS 2827
FUNCTIONAL FOODS
F Rincón-León, University of Córdoba, Córdoba,
Spain
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Concept and Definition
0001 It has been known for a long time that a clear rela-
tionship exists between the food we eat and our
health. The current concept of functional foods has
resulted from the gradual recognition that healthy
diets result from eating nutritious foods and from
the identification of the mechanisms by which foods
modulate metabolism and health. When we eat food,
our first and most basic aim is to obtain nutrients for
our body and to satisfy our metabolic needs. How-
ever, some groups of foods, in addition to their nutri-
tional properties, present other additional properties
for health. These types of foods are called functional
foods and may be defined as any food that has a
positive impact on an individual’s health, physical
performance, or state of mind, in addition to its nu-
tritious value. Other additional considerations have
been proposed to define a functional food, including
three additional conditions in particular:
0002 1. it is a food (not a capsule, tablet, or powder)
derived from natural ingredients;
0003 2. it can and should be consumed as part of the daily
diet;
0004 3. it has a particular function when eaten, serving to
regulate a particular body process, such as:
0005 . enhancement of biological defense mechanisms
0006 . prevention of specific diseases
0007 . recovery from specific diseases
0008 . control of physical and mental disorders
0009 . slowing of the aging process.
Research supporting the beneficial properties of
functional foods to combat cancers, coronary heart
disease (CHD), diabetes, high blood pressure, inflam-
mation, microbial, viral and parasitic infections,
psychotic diseases, spasmodic disorders, ulcers, etc.
is based on chemical mechanisms using in vitro and
cell-culture systems, various disease states in animals,
and epidemiology of humans.
0010 Also, it is important to bear in mind that since a
food can be classified as functional only after its
potentially beneficial effect has been proven by well-
designed and properly executed intervention studies
in humans, continuous research is essential in order
to obtain more information about the functional
properties of food through its effect on biomarkers.
For example, it has been reported that plasma
triacylglycerol concentrations represent a functional
indicator of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)
because n-3 PUFA exerts a consistent hypotriacylgly-
cerolemic effect, which is dose-dependent and persist-
ent, or that oligofructose and inulin alter several
biomarkers, including gastrointestinal transit time,
experimentally induced neoplasia, and colonic micro-
flora, suggesting that these nondigestible carbohy-
drates are naturally occurring dietary constituents
that may improve the quality of life and increase
resistance to disease in both humans and animals.
Classification
Functional foods may be classified according to the 0011
potential medical benefits and properties of their in-
gredients. On this basis, the following groups may be
deemed to be health enhancing: (1) dietary fiber;
(2) oligosaccharides; (3) sugar alcohols; (4) amino
acids, peptides, and proteins; (5) glycosides; (6) vita-
mins; (7) cholines; (8) lactic acid bacteria; (9) min-
erals; (10) polyunsatured fatty acids; and (11) others
(e.g., phytochemicals and antioxidants).
Dietary Fiber
Dietary fiber is commonly defined as plant polysac- 0012
charides and lignin, which are resistant to hydrolysis
by digestive enzymes in man. Plant cell-wall materials
containing cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic substances,
and lignin are the major components of dietary fiber.
In addition, gums and mucilages are also classified
as dietary fiber. Depending on its solubility in hot
water, dietary fiber may be classified as water-soluble
fiber and water-insoluble fiber.
WSF has been shown to reduce postprandial glu- 0013
cose excursions and is deemed to have hypoglycemic
properties. Research results also indicate that a
variety of different soluble fibers, including guar,
psyllium, pectin, and oat bran, have hypocholestero-
lemic properties.
WIF sources, such as wheat bran and cellulose, are 0014
generally considered to provide protection against the
development of colon cancer.
Oligosaccharides
The concept of a ‘prebiotic’ as a functional ingredient 0015
was recently defined as a nondigestible food ingredient
that beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulat-
ing the growth or activity of one or a limited number of
bacteria in the colon. Work with prebiotics has been
limited, and only studies involving inulin-type fructans
have generated sufficient data to enable a thorough
 2828 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
evaluation of their possible use as functional food in-
gredients. In order for a food ingredient of a food
substance to be classified as a prebiotic, it must:
0016 1. be neither hydrolyzed nor absorbed in the upper
part of the gastrointestinal tract;
0017 2. be a selective substrate for one or a limited number
of beneficial bacteria commensal to the colon,
which are stimulated to grow and/or are metabol-
ically stimulated;
0018 3. consequently be able to alter colonic microflora in
favor of a healthier composition; and
0019 4. induce luminal or systemic effects that are
benefical to the health of the host.
Oligosaccharides are generally defined as carbohy-
drates from two to 20 monomeric units long. Re-
cently, interest in oligosaccharides has increased not
only because of properties that include sweetening
ability and fat replacement, but also because of resist-
ance to digestion in the upper gastrointestinal tract
and fermentation in the large bowel. These oligo-
saccharides are the nondigestible oligosaccharides
(NDOs). As regards NDOs, there is a general consen-
sus that:
0020 1. there is strong evidence to indicate the prebiotic
effect of NDOs in humans; a prebiotic effect may
be defined as a food-induced increase in numbers
and/or activity predominantly of bifidobacteria
and lactic acid bacteria in the large intestine of
humans;
0021 2. there is strong evidence to indicate the impact of
NDOs on bowel habit;
0022 3. there is promising evidence to indicate that con-
sumption of inulin-type fructans may result in
increased Ca absorption in man;
0023 4. there are preliminary indications that inulin-type
fructans interact with the functioning of lipid
metabolism;
0024 5. there is preliminary evidence in experimental animals
of their preventive effect against colon cancer.
0025 For instance, fructooligosaccharides (FOSs) are
fructose polymers and may be classified into two
main groups depending on the linkage type of the
fructose units, such as inulin with b (2–1) linkages
and levans with b (2–6) linkages. They occur natur-
ally in foods such as onions, bananas, garlic, and
tomatoes. FOSs, like other fermentable dietary fibers,
serve as a substrate for colonic bacteria to produce
short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). FOSs help to main-
tain and restore the balance of healthy gut flora
by creating an environment that supports beneficial
bifidobacteria but does not support the growth of
some pathogenic bacteria. An example is inulin,
which is a linear polymer of lined fructose molecules
with a glucose moiety at the end, and in crop foods
consists of a mixture of various oligo- and polyfructo-
sides with different chain lengths; its functional prop-
erties depend partly on its length distribution. Inulin
is widely distributed among plants such as many
grasses, onions, asparagus, artichoke, chicory, dahlia,
and Jerusalem artichoke.
Sugar Alcohols and Other Alcohols
Sugar alcohols are ‘polyols.’ This term refers to chem- 0026
ical compounds containing three or more hydroxyl
groups. Polyols can be divided into acyclic polyols
(alditols or glycitols, which are true sugar alcohols),
and cyclic polyols. An example of the first group is
xylitol, and an example of the second is myo-inositol.
In general, different functional properties have been
attributed to these groups of substances, such as low
caloric intake by incomplete absorption, sweeteners
in diabetic diet and caries-reducing agents.
The most ubiquitous sugar alcohols are sorbitol and 0027
d-manitol, and their concentrations in some plants
and plant exudates may be very high. Fruits belonging
to the family Rosaceae, such as pears, apples, cherries,
plums, peaches, apricots, etc., contain appreciable
amounts of sorbitol. Xylitol is a naturally occurring
five-carbon sugar alcohol that can be found in many
fruits and berries, being most abundant in yellow
plums and greengages. Some research papers have
documented the noncariogenic and anticariogenic
effects in addition to sweetener properties, and recent
studies have indicated that xylitol may have prebiotic
properties and other effects on health.
Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
The bioactivities of peptides encrypted in major milk 0028
proteins are latent until released and activated by
enzymatic proteolysis, e.g., during gastrointestinal
digestion or food processing. The proteolytic system
of lactic acid bacteria may contribute to the release of
bioactive peptides, and the further degradation of
these peptides by endopeptidases and exopeptidases
of lactic acid bacteria may induce the release of
bioactive peptides in fermented milk products, these
activated peptides being potential modulators of
various regulatory processes in the body.
Several studies have shown that cows’ milk proteins 0029
may stimulate the growth of Bifidobacterium species.
For instance, it has been shown that a-lactalbumin
and lactoferrin are potent growth promoters for sev-
eral Bifidobacterium species, or that trypsin-digested
k-casein presents bifidogenic activity.
Glycosides
Broccoli and other cruciferous vegetables are a good 0030
source of one type of glycosides: glucosinolates.

These are hydrolyzed by myrosinase, an enzyme
found in plant cells, resulting in a variety of hydroly-
sis products, including isothiocyanates and indoles.
Indole-3 carbinol (I3C) is currently being studied
for its cancer-chemopreventive properties, particu-
larly of the mammary gland. In addition to the induc-
tion of phase I and II detoxification reactions, I3C
may reduce the risk of cancer by modulating estrogen
metabolism.
Vitamins
0031 Because there is a substantial loss of folic acid during
cooking, supplementation with folic acid, especially
during pregnancy and in the elderly, helps to prevent
anemia. So folic acid has been added to some foods,
such as enriched breads, pastas, rice and cereals.
0032 l-Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), which is synthesized
by most animals but not by man, is one of the
most important water-soluble antioxidants. Several
molecular and biochemical mechanisms of ascor-
bate-mediated immunostimulation have also been
proposed.
0033 Supplementation with vitamin E may help to pre-
vent CHD, due to at least two mechanisms: one
mechanism is by protecting blood lipoproteins
against oxidation; the other is by inhibiting blood
clotting, a process that is involved in the initiation
of a heart attack. So both vitamin C and vitamin E
are used to prevent CHD. It has been suggested that
mortality resulting from to CHD is inversely related
to a cumulative antioxidant index, defined in terms of
concentrations in plasma, as
½vitamin E  ½vitamin C  ½b  carotene
 ½selenium=½cholesterol,
because a-tocopherol (vitamin E), l-ascorbic acid
(vitamin C), and b-carotene (which have vitamin A
activity) are excellent antioxidants.
0034 Vitamin D (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) has re-
cently been identified as an immunoregulatory hor-
mone, serving as an immunostimulatory agent of
nonspecific immunity and exerting both stimulatory
and inhibitory effects on specific immune responses.
Cholines
0035 Lecithin (phosphatidylcholine) is a major component
of crude soybean oil. However, raw lecithins are com-
plex mixtures of lipids, namely, phosphatidylcholine,
phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylinositol
as main components. Lecithin plays an important
role in normal metabolism, for example, forming
part of membrane phospholipids; some metabolites
are messengers in cells; choline derived from lecithin
plays a role in brain cells in the resynthesis of new
FUNCTIONAL FOODS 2829
phosphatidylcholine molecules needed for cells that
envelop the axons of neurones; and choline appar-
ently has a protective role, allowing cells to die rather
than to turn into malignant cells (cancers) when they
undergo mutations.
Lactic Acid Bacteria
In contrast to prebiotics, which represent a new con- 0036
cept, probiotic activities have been the object of nu-
merous hypotheses and have been known since the
turn of the century, when it was postulated that lactic
acid bacteria provided health and longevity benefits.
It is estimated that over 400 species of bacteria, clas-
sified in two broad categories, inhabit the human
gastrointestinal tract. The categories are: those con-
sidered to be benefical (e.g., Bifidobacterium and
Lactobacillus) and those considered to be detrimental
(e.g., Enteobacteriaceae and Clostridium spp.). The
bacteria in the first category are used traditionally in
food fermentation and are often referred to as pro-
biotics. Probiotics are viable microbial dietary supple-
ments that beneficially affect the host through their
effects in the intestinal tract. They are widely used to
prepare fermented dairy products such as yogurt or
freeze-dried cultures, and may help to improve
human health.
Beneficial effects on human health by specific pro- 0037
biotic microorganisms such as prevention of gastro-
intestinal tract infections, immune stimulation, and
balancing of the intestinal microflora have been
established in numerous clinical trials.
The hypocholesterolemic effect of fermented milk 0038
products was discovered more than 30 years ago
during studies conducted in Masai tribesmen in
Africa. The Masai have low levels of serum choles-
terol and clinical CHD despite a high-meat diet, but
they consume daily 4–5 l of fermented whole milk.
More evidence supports the role of probiotics in
cancer-risk reduction, particularly colon cancer. This
observation may be due to the fact that lactic
acid cultures can alter the activity of fecal enzymes
(e.g., b-glucuronidase, azoreductase, nitroreductase)
that are thought to play a role in the development
of colon cancer. Some evidence also suggests that
probiotics play a role in reducing the risk of rota-
virus-induced diarrhea. The increase in the growth
of Bifidobacterium sp. is also accompanied by the
production of nitrogen derivatives, such as ammonia,
indole, phenol, and skatole, and by the elimination of
carcinogenic substances during fermentation.
Prebiotics and probiotics must be seen as comple- 0039
mentary in many aspects, because often a combin-
ation of both may prove to be an important clinical
method of treating intestinal disorders. A mixture of
probiotics and prebiotics may improve the survival
 2830 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
and implantation of live microbial dietary supple-
ments in the gastrointestinal tract. It has been
suggested that such an approach may produce the
following nutritional benefits:
0040 . improved survival of live bacteria in supplementary
or food products and consequently prolonged
shelf-life;
0041 . an increased number of ingested bacteria reaching
the colon in viable form;
0042 . stimulation in the colon of the growth and implant-
ation of both exogenous and endogenous bacteria;
and
0043 . activation of the metabolism of these bacteria (only
metabolically active bacteria can promote health).
A new symbiotic concept, or combination of both
pre- and probiotics, has been proposed to obtain the
healthy benefits of both pre- and probiotic and in
addition other new benefits, but this is an attractive
concept that needs to be tested in clinical conditions.
Minerals
0044 Minerals play an important role in maintaining
muscle and nerve function, regulating water balance
and metabolism, mineralization of the skeleton, and
transformation of energy. Selenium functions as an
antioxidant and is a component of another antioxi-
dant, glutathione peroxidase. It also helps to main-
tain adequate levels of coenzyme Q in heart muscle.
Similar to selenium, several other metalloenzymes are
directly involved in immunity and antioxidant
defenses, including copper/zinc superoxide dismutase
and iron-catalase. Zinc is essential for normal
growth, appetite, and immune function. Recommen-
dations for an increased daily dietary intake of cal-
cium have been made in many countries, so the dairy
industry has developed different milk products en-
riched in calcium, up to about 25% on a product
basis. It has recently been shown that food products
enriched with a milk calcium extract may increase the
rate of bone-mass accumulation in prepubertal girls
by 1.5% per year.
Polyunsatured Fatty Acids
0045 Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are clas-
sified into two families: o-6, or n-6, and o-3, or n-3.
Each has different functions in the regulation of
physiological processes in the human body. n-6
PUFA, but not arachidonic acid, is found primarily in
plants; n-3 family linolenic acid (18:3n-3) is similarly
converted into eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (20:5n-3)
and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (22:6n-3); linolenic
acid is found in plant sources, whereas EPA and DHA
occur in marine oils.
Research has shown that polyunsaturated fatty 0046
acids can play a key role in reducing the risk of
cardiovascular diseases by lowering serum triglycer-
ides, and reducing the development of thrombosis
and arteriosclerosis.
There is good scientific evidence to indicate that 0047
the composition of dietary fatty acid is involved in the
etiology of many diseases. Increasing the supply of
n-3 PUFA may reduce the risk of CHD. In terms of
disease status, epidemiological studies have demon-
strated that the incidence of CHD is inversely associ-
ated with consumption of n-3 PUFA. However the
cardioprotective effect of fish consumption has been
observed in some prospective investigations but not in
others. Negative results could be explained by the fact
that although n-3 fatty acids have been shown to
lower triglycerides by 25–30%, they do not reduce
low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. In fact, a
recent review of 72 placebo-controlled human trials
showed than n-3 fatty acids increased LDL choles-
terol. PUFA are derived primarily from fish oils.
Therefore, increasing fish intake is the most obvious
way of increasing n-3 PUFA intake. However, a large
percentage (up to 65%) of the population do not eat
fish. Thus, there is a need for alternative sources of
n-3 PUFA, such as functional foods, whose unique
fatty acid composition could fortify staple foods,
thereby promoting optimal levels of n-3 PUFA intake.
Furthermore, an anticarcinogenic fatty acid known 0048
as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) was first isolated
from grilled beef in 1987. CLA is a mixture of pos-
itional and geometric isomers of linoleic (18:2 n-6) in
which the double bonds are conjugated instead of
existing in the typical methylene interrupted configur-
ation. Nine different isomers of CLA have been
reported as occurring naturally in food. Over the
past two decades, CLA has been shown to be effective
in suppressing forestomach tumors in mice, aberrant
colonic crypt foci in rats, and mammary carcinogen-
esis in rats. More recently, CLA has been investigated
for its ability to change body composition, suggesting
its role as a weight-reduction agent.
Other (e.g., Phytochemicals and Antioxidants)
Recent epidemiological studies have indicated that a 0049
high intake of fruit and vegetables is associated with
a reduced risk of a number of chronic diseases. This is
attributed to the fact that these foods may provide an
optimal mix of phytochemicals, such as natural anti-
oxidants, fibers and other bioactive compounds.
Experts from the US Food Administration have 0050
defined phytochemicals as substances found in edible
fruits and vegetables that may be ingested by humans
daily in gram quantities and that exhibit a potential
for modulating human metabolism in a manner

favorable for cancer prevention. Most recently, other
beneficial properties, such as cardiovascular-protect-
ive properties, have been considered.
0051 Phytochemicals could provide health benefits, such
as: (1) substrates for biochemical reactions; (2) cofac-
tors of enzymatic reactions; (3) inhibitors of enzym-
atic reactions; (4) absorbents/sequestrants that bind to
and eliminate undesirable constituents in the intestine;
(5) ligands that agonize or antagonize cell surface
or intracellular receptors; (6) scavengers of reactive
or toxic chemicals; (7) compounds that enhance the
absorption and or stability of essential nutrients; (8)
selective growth factors for beneficial gastrointestinal
bacteria; (9) fermentation substrates for beneficial
oral, gastric or intestinal bacteria; and (10) selective
inhibitors of deleterious intestinal bacteria. Nutraceu-
ticals have been defined as bioactive phytochemical
compounds that have disease-preventing, health-
promoting and/or medicinal properties.
0052 Free radicals are unstable molecules that have an
unpaired electron, which makes them highly ener-
gized and reactive, and which can damage DNA and
induce cancer. Food ingredients capable of quenching
or stabilizing free radicals are referred to as antioxi-
dant ingredients. There are many antioxidants in
foods, but the primary antioxidants that play this
very important role in the human body are vitamin
C, vitamin E, and carotenoids such as b-carotene,
lycopene, lutein, or zeaxanthin. In addition to pre-
venting cancer, some antioxidants such as vitamin E
may help to prevent heart disease by preventing
oxygen in the blood from combining with LDL
cholesterol (oxidized LDL cholesterol is one of the
contributors to plaque in the coronary arteries).
0053 Several crops, including grains, oilseeds and horti-
cultural crops, are rich sources of phytochemicals.
Cereals such as wheat, barley, and oats, oilseeds such
as canola, flaxseed, and mustard, and horticultural
crops such as grapes are good sources of phytochem-
icals. Anthocyanins are flavonoids (pigments) present
in fruits such as blueberries and also have antioxidant
properties. Isoflavones are a group of phytochemicals
that can reduce the risk of heart disease and several
cancers, including breast, lung, and prostate cancer.
Polyphenols, which are said to be present in large
quantities in tea, coffee, red grapes, kidney beans,
prunes and red wine, display anticarcinogenic, antioxi-
dant, antibacterial, and antiviral action. Most clinical
studies have been carried out on tea; catechins are the
predominant and most significant of all tea polyphe-
nols, and the four major green tea catechins are epigal-
locatechin-3-gallate, epigallocatechin, epicatechin-3-
gallate, and epicatechin. Recent studies suggest that
benefits from tea consumption are restricted to high
intakes in high-risk populations. This hypothesis
FUNCTIONAL FOODS 2831
supports the recent finding that the consumption of
five or more cups of green tea per day was associated
with a reduced recurrence of stages I and II of breast
cancer in Japanese women. Saponins, also known as
triterpenoids, are classified as polyphenols, and are
abundant in soyabeans more than in any other legume,
including various beans and chickpeas. Saponins have a
modest hypocholesterolemic effect. Citrus fruits con-
tain particularly high contents of one class of phyto-
chemical known as limonoids, and over the last decade,
evidence has been gathered to support the cancer-pre-
ventive effect of limonene. Based on these observations,
and because it has little or no toxicity in humans,
limonene has been suggested as a good candidate for
human clinical chemoprevention trial evaluation. Phy-
tosterols (plant sterols), structurally related to choles-
terol, reduce blood cholesterol and lower LDL
cholesterol levels, possibly by either inhibiting choles-
terol absorption by displacing cholesterol from intes-
tinal micelles or altering the activity of enzymes
involved in cholesterol metabolism and excretion.
The most abundant plant sterol is b-sitosterol (sitos-
terol), whereas sitostanol, the saturated derivative of
sitosterol, occurs at negligible levels in plant lipids.
See also: Amino Acids: Properties and Occurrence;
Ascorbic Acid: Properties and Determination;
Bifidobacteria in Foods; Cancer: Diet in Cancer
Prevention; Carbohydrates: Digestion, Absorption, and
Metabolism; Cholecalciferol: Properties and
Determination; Choline: Properties and Determination;
Coronary Heart Disease: Prevention; Dietary Fiber:
Properties and Sources; Fatty Acids: Trans-fatty Acids:
Health Effects; Lactic Acid Bacteria; Probiotics;
Tocopherols: Properties and Determination
Further Reading
Brassart D and Schiffrin E (2000) Pre- and probiotics. In:
Schmidl MK and Labuza TP (eds) Essentials of Func-
tional Foods, pp. 205–216. Guithersburg, MD: Aspen.
Duthie GG and Brown KM (1994) Reducing the risk of
cardiovascular disease. In: Goldberg I (ed.) Functional
Foods. Designer Foods, Pharmafoods, Nutraceuticals,
pp. 19–38. New York: Chapman & Hall.
Hardy G (2000) Nutraceuticals and functional foods –
Introduction and meaning. Nutrition 16: 688–689.
Hasler CM (1998) Functional foods: their role in disease
prevention and health promotion. Food Technology
52: 63–70.
Kwak NS and Jukes DJ (2001a) Functional foods – part 1 –
The development of a regulatory concept. Food Control
12: 99–107.
Kwak NS and Jukes DJ (2001b) Functional foods – part 2 –
The impact on current regulatory terminology. Food
Control 12: 109–117.
Pszczola DE (1998) ABCs of nutraceutical ingredients.
Food Technology 52: 30–37.
 2832 FUNGICIDES

Salminen S, Ouwehand A, Benno Y and Lee YK (1999)
Probiotics: how should they be defined. Trends in Food
Science & Technology 10: 107–110.
Sawicki J and Slusarki B (1997) Lipids. In: Sikorski ZE (ed.)
Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Compon-
ents, pp. 99–118. Lancaster, PA: Technomic.
Sloan AE (1999) The new market: food for the not-
so-healthy. Food Technology 53: 54–60.
Zubillaga M, Weill R, Postaire E et al. (2001) Effect of
probiotics and functional foods and their use in different
diseases. Nutrition Research 21: 569–579.

Fungi See Mushrooms and Truffles: Classification and Morphology; Use of Wild Mushrooms; Spoilage:
Chemical and Enzymatic Spoilage; Bacterial Spoilage; Fungi in Food – An Overview; Molds in Spoilage; Yeasts in
Spoilage

FUNGICIDES
N A Smart, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK beginning of the 20th century were simple inorganic
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
compounds. Organic chemicals began to be de-
veloped for use as general agricultural fungicides
during the 1950s and many organic compounds,
Introduction which often have a specific biological action, have
been marketed since then. The structural types of
0001 A fungicide is any substance, preparation, or organ-
chemicals used as fungicides have changed as newer
ism intended for destroying or controlling any fungal
molecules have been found to give more effective
species during production, storage, or distribution of
control than the earlier ones, and better technologies
an agricultural commodity or food, in ornamental
have been developed for manufacture, making them
plants, or in situations endangering the health of
more cost-effective. However, a significant propor-
animals or humans. Numerous organic chemicals, as
tion of inorganic (probably over a third of the total)
well as some inorganic ones, are formulated for use as
and older organic compounds (probably about a
fungicides in agriculture and food storage. Fungicides
quarter of the total) are used worldwide.
help to increase efficiency of production, by prevent-
Fungicides used in agriculture and food storage 0003
ing or reducing damage to the growing crop or stored
may be systemic or nonsystemic, eradicant, curative,
commodity, and to improve the quality of the prod-
or protectant, or a combination of these effects. Era-
uct, by preventing rotting and a damaged appearance.
dicant fungicides are only active against the later,
These chemicals are closely scrutinized for any toxic
visible stages of the fungal life cycle. Curative fungi-
hazard before they are marketed. Plant breeders can
cides are active against the early but postpenetrative
produce cultivars of plants, fruits, and vegetables that
effects of fungal action. Protectant fungicides prevent
are resistant to attack by specific diseases so that a
infection and are active against spore germination,
fungicide may not be required. The damage done by
germination development, and growth.
fungi (pathogens) depends on the host plant–patho-
Although about one-third of organic fungicides can 0004
gen–fungicide interaction. Different mechanisms of
exist in more than one stereochemical form, i.e., can
fungitoxicity can operate in different hosts and envir-
be chiral, only about 1–2% of the products marketed
onments so that standard measures may not work in
are sold as single isomers. Most of such formulations
every situation. More information on mechanisms
are mixtures of isomers.
that influence host–pathogen interactions, predictive
This entry outlines the subject at the end of 1999 0005
tools for use in the field, and wider options of
and some more recent material has also been
treatment are desirable to obviate development of
included. International common names are used.
resistance to fungicides.
Fungicides are grouped mainly in terms of their bio-
chemical mechanism of fungicidal action (in as far as
Types of Compound this is known):
0002 Fungicides used for preharvest control of fungal 1. General cell toxicants 0006

and bacterial infections of commercial crops at the 2. Inhibition of biosynthesis of microtubules 0007