Some basic definitions

Four basic types of line patterns are used to visualize flows:

1 A streamline is a line
1.
everywhere tangent to the
velocity vector at a given instant.

2. A pathline is the actual path

traversed by a given fluid
particle.

3 A streakline is the locus of particles which have earlier

3.
passed through a prescribed point.

4 A timeline
4. ti li is i a sett off fluid
fl id particles
ti l that
th t form
f a line
li att a
given instant.
1
 Some basic definitions…

The streamline is convenient to calculate mathematically,

while the other three are easier to generate experimentally.

A streamline and a timeline are instantaneous lines, while the

pathline and the streakline are generated by the passage of
time.

A pathline can be found by a time exposure of a single marked

particle moving through the flow.

In steady
stead flow
flo the situation
sit ation simplifies greatly:
greatl :

Streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines are identical in

steady flow.
2
 Streamlines, streamtube
In fluid mechanics the most common mathematical tool for
visualization purposes is the streamline pattern. Figure 1.15
shows (a) a typical set of streamlines and (b) a streamtube
formed by
b a closed collection of streamlines.
streamlines

By definition, the fluid within a streamtube is confined there

because it cannot cross the streamlines; thus the streamtube
walls need not be solid but may be fluid surfaces.

3
 Streamline

Figure l.16 shows an arbitrary velocity vector. If the elemental

arc length dr of a streamline is to be parallel to V, their
respective components must be in proportion:

If the velocities (u, v, w) are

known functions of position and
time,
i Eq. (1.41)
(1 41) can be b
integrated to find the streamline
ppassingg through g the initial ppoint
(xo, yo, zo, to).

The method is straightforward

for steady flows.
4
5
Fig. E1.10 Streamlines for
the above velocity distribution,
for K>0
6
 Fig. E1.10 Streamlines for
the above velocity distribution,
for K>0
The streamline pattern is entirely independent of constant K. It
could represent the impingement of two opposing streams, or the
upper half could simulate the flow of a single downward stream
against a flat wall. Taken in isolation, the upper right quadrant is
similar to the flow in a 90o comer.

Finally note the peculiarity that the two streamlines (C = 0) have

opposite
pp directions and intersect. This is ppossible only
y at a ppoint
where u = v = w = 0, which occurs at the origin in this case. Such
a point of zero velocity is called a stagnation point. 7
 Pathline, streakline

The pathline, or displacement of a particle, is defined by

integration of the velocity components:

Given (u,
(u v,
v w) as known functions of position and time,time the
integration is begun at a specified initial position (xo, yo, zo, to).

Streaklines
S kli are very difficult
diffi l to compute analytically
l i ll but
b can be b
easily produced experimentally by the continuous release of
marked pparticles ((dye,
y smoke, or bubbles)) from a ggiven ppoint.

8
 Pathline, streakline

The flow in Fig. 1.17b is unsteady and periodic due to the

flapping of the plate against the oncoming stream. We see that
the streakline does not coincide with
ith either the streamline or
the pathline passing through the same release point. But in Fig.
1.17a the smoke filaments form streaklines which are identical
to the streamlines and pathlines. This coincidence of lines is
always true of steady flow.

9
 Incompressible flow
In an incompressible flow the density remains constant or the change
in density is very negligible. In an incompressible flow of a
Newtonian Fluid with constant viscosity, the momentum equations
(derived from Newton’s second law of motion) are:

These are the called Navier-Stokes equations, named after C. I. M.

H. Navier (l785-1836) and Sir George G. Stokes (1819-1903), who
are credited with their derivation. These are second-order nonlinear
partial differential equations.
10
 Incompressible flow….
In vector notations, the Navier-Stokes equations may be written as:

Which may be interpreted as:

Inertia o ce pe
e t a force per unit
u t vol.
vo . = ggravity o ce pe
av ty force per unit
u t vol.
vo . + p
pressure
essu e
force per unit vol. + viscous force per unit volume

There are four unknowns: p, u, v, and w. So, for solution, it should be

combined with the incompressible continuity relation to form four
equations in these four unknowns.

The continuity equation for incompressible flow in steady state is:

Or,
11
 Incompressible Inviscid flow….
Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is the branch of fluid
mechanics that uses numerical methods to solve the Navier-Stokes
equations and continuity equation with appropriate boundary
conditions and without any analytical simplification.

However, analytical solution for many viscous flow problems are

However
also possible through some simplifying assumptions.

If viscosity
i it is
i assumedd to
t be
b zero (inviscid
(i i id flow i ti ) th
fl approximation), the
second order terms in the Navier-Stokes equations are lost and we
get the Euler’s Equation, as:

Integration of this equation along a streamline results in Bernoulli’s

equation.
12
 Stream Function

If the temperature is uncoupled from the system of equations of

motion, we must solve the continuity and momentum equations
simultaneously
i lt l for
f pressure andd velocity.
l it

The stream function ψ is a clever device which allows us to

wipe out the continuity equation and solve the momentum
equation directly for the single variable ψ.

The stream function idea works only if the continuity equation

can be reduced to two terms. In general, we have four terms:

13
 Stream Function…

The most common application

Th li i is i steady ibl flow
d incompressible
i fl
in the xy plane.

This equation is satisfied identically if a function is

defined such that equation (4.83) becomes,

Comparison of (4.83) and (4.84) shows that this new function ψ

must be defined such that

14
 Geometric Interpretation of Stream Function

Stream function ψ is just a mathematical trick of replacing two

variables (u and v) by a single higher-order function ψ. It has a
b
beautiful
if l geometrici interpretation.
i i Li
Lines off constant ψ are
streamlines of the flow. The definition of a streamline in two-
dimensional flow gives

Using the definition of stream function in the above eq., we

h
have f a streamline
for t li

Thus the change in ψ is zero along a streamline, or

ψ = const along a streamline
15
 Geometric Interpretation of Stream Function…
The change in the value of ψ is related to the volume rate of flow.

Consider,
C id two closely
l l spacedd streamlines,
li as shown
h i Fig.
in Fi 6.8a.
6 8 The
Th
lower streamline is designated ψ and the upper one ψ + dψ.

Let dq represent the volume rate of flow (per unit width

perpendicular to the x-y plane) passing between the two streamlines.
16
 Geometric Interpretation of Stream Function…

Since by definition the velocity is tangent to the streamline, flow

never crosses streamlines.
li From
F conservation
i off mass we know
k that
h
the inflow, dq, crossing the arbitrary surface AC of Fig. 6.8a must
equal the net outflow through surfaces AB and BC. Thus,

17
 Geometric Interpretation of Stream Function…
In terms of stream function the above equation becomes,

(6 38)
(6.38)

The right hand side of Eq. 6.38 is equal to so that

(6.39)
Thus the volume rate of flow, q, between
two streamlines such as of
Fig 6.8b can be determined by
integrating Eq. 6.39 to yield,

(6.40)

If ψ2 > ψ1, the flow is from left to right.

If ψ2 < ψ1 , the flow is from right to left.
18
 Stream Function in Cylindrical Coordinate
In cylindrical coordinates, the continuity equation for incompressible
plane two dimensional flow reduces to,

(6.41)

And the velocityy components,

p , , can be related to the stream
function, through the equations

((6.42))
Substitution of these expressions for the velocity components into
Eq. 6.41 shows that the continuity equation is identically satisfied.

The stream function concept can be extended to axisymmetric flows,

such as flow in pipes or flow around bodies of revolution, and to two-
dimensional compressible flows.
flows

However, the concept is not applicable to general 3D flows. 19

 Stream Function

If the flow field satisfies the equation of continuity, we can conclude that a stream
function does exist.

20
 Stream Function

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

for constant values of ψ.

21
 Stream Function

The result is shown in

Fig. E4.7a to be six 60o
wedges of circulating
motion, each with
identical flow patterns
exceptt for
f th arrows.
the
Once the streamlines are
labeled, the flow
di i
directions f ll
follow f
from
the sign convention.

Since there is slip along all streamlines, no streamline can truly

represent a solid surface in a viscous flow. However, the flow could
represent
p the impingement
p g of three incomingg streams at 60,, 180,,
and 300o. This would be a rather unrealistic yet exact solution to the
Navier-Stokes equation.
22
 Stream Function
By allowing
B ll i the th flow
fl to t slip
li as a frictionless
f i ti l approximation,
i ti we
could let any given line be a body shape. Some examples are
shown inFig.84.7b.

Incoming stream impinging

against a 120o corner

23
24
Stream Function

25
Stream Function

26
 Vorticity and Irrotationality

The assumption of zero fluid angular velocity, or

irrotationality, is a very useful simplification.

The differential relations for deformation of a fluid element

can be derived by examining Fig. 4.10.

Two fluid lines AB and, BC,

initially perpendicular at time
t, move and deform so that at
t + dt they have slightly
diff
different l
lengths
h A′B′ andd
B′C′ and are slightly off the
pperpendicular
p byy angles
g dα
and dβ.
27
 Vorticity and Irrotationality
Such
S h d f
deformation
i occurs
kinematically because A, B, and C
have slightly
g y different velocities
when the velocity field V has spatial
gradients.
We define the angular velocity ωz about the z axis as the
average rate of counter-clockwise turning of the two lines

(4.106)
But from the above Fig., dα and dβ are each directly related to
velocity
elocit derivatives
deri ati es in the limit of small dt.
dt

(4.107)
28
 Vorticity and Irrotationality

Combining Eqs. (4.106) and (4.107)

gives the desired result:

(4.108)
In exactly similar manner we determine
the other two rates:

(4.109)

The vector is thus one-half the curl of the

velocity vector

29
 Vorticity and Irrotationality

To avoid
T id the
th ½ it is
i preferred
f d to
t use a vector
t twice
t i as large,
l
called the vorticity.

A Flow with negligible or zero vorticity are called,

irrotational.

In such a case each of the components of the vector curl V

m st be equal
must eq al to zero,
ero which
hich gives
gi es

So, the velocity components can be expressed in terms of a

scalar function φ = φ(x,y,z,t) which satisfies the above eqs.
30
 Velocity Potential

Irrotationality gives rise to a scalar function φ similar and

complementary to the function ψ. From a theorem in vector
analysis,
l i a vector t with
ith zero curll mustt be
b the
th gradient
di t off a
scalar function

where φ = φ(x,y,z,t) is called the velocity potential function.

Knowledge of φ thus immediately gives the velocity
components

Li
Lines t t φ are called
off constant ll d the
th potential lines off the
th flow.
fl

Note that φ, unlike the stream function ψ, is fully 3D and not

limited to two coordinates. It reduces a velocity problem with
three unknowns u, v and w to a single unknown potential φ.
31
 Orthogonality of Streamlines and Potential Lines

If a flow is both irrotational and described by only two

coordinates, ψ and φ both exist and the streamlines and
potential
t ti l lines
li are everywhere
h mutually
t ll perpendicular
di l exceptt att
a stagnation point.

For example, for incompressible flow in the xy plane, we

would have

A line of constant φ would be such that the change in φ is zero

32
 Orthogonality of Streamlines and Potential Lines

Similarly,
Si il l forf a line t t ψ would
li off constant ld be
b suchh that
th t the
th
change in ψ is zero

Solving, we have

Equation
Eq ation (4.128)
(4 128) is the mathematical condition that lines of
constant φ and ψ be mutually orthogonal. Streamlines are
everywhere parallel to the local flow, while the potential lines
are not. It may not be true at a stagnation point, where both u
and v are zero and their ratio in Eq. (4.128) is indeterminate.
33