FTF10 Ent F0167

June, 2010
Traces as Transmission Lines

FTF-ENT-F0167
Ralph Morrison
Consultant
TM
Freescale, the Freescale logo, AltiVec, C-5, CodeTEST, CodeWarrior, ColdFire, C-Ware, mobileGT, PowerQUICC, StarCore, and Symphony are trademarks of Freescale Semiconductor, Inc.,
Reg. U.S. Pat. & Tm. Off. BeeKit, BeeStack, CoreNet, the Energy Efficient Solutions logo, Flexis, MXC, Platform in a Package, Processor Expert, QorIQ, QUICC Engine, SMARTMOS, TurboLink
and VortiQa are trademarks of Freescale Semiconductor, Inc. All other product or service names are the property of their respective owners. © 2010 Freescale Semiconductor, Inc.
Session Introduction
► This course will show how traces act as transmission lines to move
signals and energy on a circuit board.
►A “field” perspective is needed in order to design boards that will work

well in high speed logic environment.
► Presenter: Ralph Morrison

• Consultant
• Expertise
► This session is scheduled for 4 hours, including breaks.
TM
and VortiQa are trademarks of Freescale Semiconductor, Inc. All other product or service names are the property of their respective owners. © 2010 Freescale Semiconductor, Inc. 2
Agenda
► Review basic field theory

► Look at how transmission lines work
► Describe decoupling problems
► Discuss vias, ground planes and cross coupling
► Discuss board layouts
TM
Session Objectives
► After completing this session you will be able to:

• Design with a (magnetic/electric) field perspective on how circuit boards
function.
TM
Part 1
Basic Electrostatics and Magnetics
TM
Electricity is?
► Electrostatic Discharge (ESD), lighting, utility power, fiber optics, radar

► Digital circuits, analog circuits, neural activity
► Memory circuits, transmission lines
► Component design
► Light, lasers, x-rays
► Circuit theory
► Field theory - This explains all electrical activity
TM
Digital Spectrum
► Digital signals cover the frequency spectrum from DC to well over a GHz.
► We have good tools for sine waves but very few tools for square waves.
TM
Getting Started
► Allelectrical behavior involves electric and magnetic fields.

► This is where we must start to get a full understanding of circuit board
layout.
TM
Electrostatics
TM
The Force or E Field Around a Spherical Conductor Charged to a
Potential V and a Charge Q
0.5v
1v
F = qQ2 2v
εr
3v
4v
q is a small 5v
unit test charge Q r
V
ε is the dielectric
constant
V∞ = 0
TM
The Definition of Voltage
► The work required to move a unit charge in an E field between two points.
►A voltage can exist between two conductors or between two points in

space.
► There is no absolute zero of voltage.
TM
The E Field and Units
But V = - q Q / ε r where q =1 :
E = Q / ε r2
Thus E = V/r or volts per meter
E is a vector field. At each point in space E has a magnitude

and direction. The magnitude has units of volts/meter. The E
field defines the force on a unit charge at a point in space.
TM
Electric Field Representations
► The field exists everywhere in space.

► The line density is a measure of strength.
► Lines leave positive charges and terminate on negative charges.
► Charges are on conductive surfaces only.
► Forces are tangent to lines of force.
► Point charges do not exist.
TM
The E Field between a Sphere and a Ground Plane
E
+Q1
+V1
-Q1 V=0
TM
Charge Distribution on a Ground Plane
V
Q
V=0
+Q
-Q
TM
E Fields and Surface Charges
►If there is a voltage difference, there is an E field and surface

charges.
►If V changes then charges must move.
►E field pattern determines current pattern.
►Currents can flow on conductors that are floating electrically.
TM
Complex Charge Distributions
Note that sphere #2 has

E
both negative and positive
charges on its surface
V2
V1
Q1 Sphere #2 has
Q2
a net charge of Q2
TM
The E Field Around Oppositely Charged Conductors
TM
An Equipotential Surface Around a Charged Sphere
5v
r1 = 10 cm
r2 = 20 cm
V2 10v -Q +Q
V1
r1 Q
V
r2 Conductive
surface
No net
charge
TM
The Shielding Principle
Q1
Self capacitance = C11 =
V1
Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 0
Q3
Mutual capacitance = C13 =
V1 Both Q2 and Q3 are negatively
charged if Q1 is positively charged
Q3
Q1
V3 = 0
V1
Q2
V2 = 0 Q3 is an induced charge
V = 0
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A Shield Enclosure with a Hole
If V1 = V sin ∞ t
then:
dV1
I = C13
dt
= C13V ∞ cos ∞ t
Q3
Q1 V3
V1
I
Path for Q3
Induced Current Flow V=0
TM
Electric Field Representations
► Three vector fields are needed in electrostatics:

• The E or force field
• The D or displacement field
• The P or polarization field
► The P field is used when there are trapped charges.

• If the voltage is known the E field is known.
• If the charge is known the D field is known.
D = ε E where ε is the dielectric constant.
TM
The Two Dielectrics Problem
0V 6V 10V
ε=2 ε=3
D The D field is
continuous
E E
120 V/m 80 V/m The E field is lower
In the higher dielectric
material
5 cm 5 cm
TM
The D Field
► The D field is proportional to charge density

► In circuit theory, current flows through capacitors. It is equated to a
changing D field.
► This is one of Maxwell’s equations.
► The concept is true everywhere.
► There is current flow in space when E changes. Displacement current.
TM
Capacitance and Dielectrics
► The sphere we studied has capacitance

► Capacitance is defined as the ratio of Q/V
► D and Q are proportional
► If a dielectric is inserted between conducting plates, the E field is
reduced by a factor equal to the dielectric constant.
► If voltage is increased to old value, Q is increased by this same factor.
► This means that capacitance is proportional to the dielectric constant.
TM
Capacitance and Dielectrics
Parallel Plate Capacitors
A
C = ε0 εR
d
► The dimensions are in meters, 0 is the permittivity of free space or ε
8.85 X 10-12 farads per meter and R is the relative dielectric ε
constant.
TM
Magnetics
TM
The H Field Around a Conductor Carrying Current
H I
H
TM
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Fields
►The H field is proportional to current
B = µ0µR H
• The B field is the field of induction

• µ0 is the permeability of free space
• µR is the relative permeability that can vary from 1 to 100,000
TM
Magnetic Fields
►H is a force field.
►H is proportional to current.
►Force is felt on a test current.
►Force is felt on a test magnet or compass needle.
►H is a point concept. H is a vector.
►At each point in space H has a magnitude and a

direction.
TM
The Magnetic Field Associated with Loops of Wire
I
H
TM
Inductance
►Definition: Magnetic flux per unit current.
►A geometric concept.
►Can be measured using Faraday’s law.
V = A dΦ / dt V = L dI / dt
TM
The Inductance of Straight Round Wires
Inductance in Microhenries
Length of Wire in Inches
TM
The Continuous B Field
B B B
B B B
H= H= H=
µ µ0 µ
The B field is continuous in the gap
TM
The B/V Relationship for Square Waves
6 sec
+0.1
-0.1
V
+15,000
-15,000
TM
Static Energy Stored in Components
► Capacitors → Electric field: UC= ½ CV2
► Inductors → Magnetic field: UL=½ LI2
Where U is the potential energy, or work done.
TM
Fields do the Work
► Signals are carried by fields.
► Power is carried by fields.
► What are the conductors for?
• They direct where the power and signals go!
TM
Fields do the Work
All Electrical Activity Requires the Presence

of an Electric and Magnetic Field
TM
Poynting’s Vector
► Energy flows in a direction perpendicular to both E and H.
► P is Poynting’s vector and indicates the power per unit

H area at a point in space.
► P points in the direction power is going.
TM
Changing Fields
Changing B field produces an E field.

Faraday’s Law. An E field is voltage.
Between the plates of a capacitor the E field

Is V/d, where V is voltage and d is the plate spacing.
current
The D field is equal to εE and equal to the charge density on the plates.
Variation in D is equivalent to a variation in Q which is current.
Thus a changing E field produces an H field. The equivalent current that

flows in space is called displacement current.
TM
Nature
►Nature always runs down hill
►Nature takes the easiest way
►Field energy always configures itself to store the least energy.
►At power frequencies, fields follow the patterns of conductors rather
than leave the conductors.
►At 400 Hz, field energy is not well-managed by conductors. Power
cannot be easily transported over large distances at 400 Hz.
►At 1 kHz and above, coax must be used to transport power over any
distance.
TM
Field Energy
Static Field Energy in Space
A A
-Q -Q
+Q +Q
E s H s
J=½ QV J=½ ΦI
But V = Es and Q = EA/ε But Φ = HA/µ and Hs = I
J = ½ EA x EA/2 J = ½ HA /µ x Hs
J = ½ E2 x volume/ε J = ½ H2 x volume x µ
Where J is energy
TM
Part 2
Spectrum, Skin Effect, Transmission Lines
TM
Time and Frequency
Representations
TM
Square-Wave Harmonics
sin x Sum of three

Y Y harmonics
1/3 sin3x
t t
sin x + 1/3 sin x

Y Y Sum of all
harmonics
1/5 sin5x
t t
TM
Fourier Series – Square Wave
TM
Fourier Series
Square Wave with Finite Rise Time
TM
Skin Depth
TM
Skin Effect
Attenuation
A= e-Ɣh = e-αh · e-jωt where e-jωt is a sine wave term, e-αh is

attenuation and h is the depth inside the metal.
In dB: AdB= 20 log e-αh = -αh 20 log10 e = -8.68 αh
α= πfμσ where µ = permeability, f = frequency, σ = conductivity
1 then AdB = 8.68 dB

When h =
√π µ σ f
This depth is called skin depth.
TM
Problem
Absorption Loss in Copper
► What is the absorption loss in 0.1 mm of copper at 1 MHz?
A = e-αt α = πfμσ
For copper µ = µ0 = 4 π 10 -7 henries/meter
For copper ρ = 1.724 µohm-cm = 1/σ
volt x sec
Henry = f = 106 /sec
ampere
α = 4π 2 × 5.80 ×106 / m 2
α = 15.3 ×103 / m = 15.13/mm
A = e -15.13 × 0.1 = 0.2202
A dB = - 13.14 dB
TM
Skin Depth in Copper
6.62
t= cm
√f
At 60 Hz, t = 0.855 cm
At 1 MHz, t = .0066 cm
TM
Radiation
TM
Radiation from a Dipole
90% of field energy is inside this sphere

(viewed statically)
ω
Dipole
Low I
frequency
Radiated component
⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞ At low frequencies most of the field energy can be

2
H = k5 ⎜ ⎟ + k6⎜ ⎟ returned to the circuit without delay. At high frequencies

⎝ 2 πr ⎠ ⎝ 2 πr ⎠
the delay in terms of phase shift is much greater. The
High
component of field energy that is out of phase is
frequency
radiated.
TM
Near-Field / Far-Field Interface
⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞
3 2
E = k1 ⎜ ⎟ + k2⎜ ⎟ + k3⎜
Dipole
⎟
⎝ 2 πr ⎠ ⎝ 2 πr ⎠ ⎝ 2 πr ⎠
⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞
2
H = k5⎜ ⎟ + k 6⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 πr ⎠ ⎝ 2 πr ⎠
The near dipole field is high impedance
E E
H H
Distance where E
= 377 Ω
λ =2πr H
Interface distance is 4.7 meters at 10 MHz
TM
Near-Field / Far-Field Interface
(Low impedance or magnetic source)
⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞
2 2
E = k1 ⎜ ⎟ + k2⎜ ⎟
Loop Radiator ⎝ 2 πr ⎠ ⎝ 2 πr ⎠
⎛ λ ⎞
⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞
I 3 2
H = k3⎜ ⎟ + k4⎜ ⎟ + k5⎜ ⎟

⎝ 2 πr ⎠ ⎝ 2 πr ⎠ ⎝ 2πr ⎠
E E
H H
Interface is where E
= 377 Ω
λ =2πr H
TM
Near- and Far-Fields
► Definition λ/2 pi
► Radiating component
► Ratio of energy stored in a nearby field that can be returned to the

circuit
TM
The Far-Field
► In the far-field, E and H fall off linearly with distance.
► In the far-field, the nature of the source is immaterial.
TM
Circuit Boards
TM
The Transfer of Signal Along a Pair of Wires
Switch
+
V
-
TM
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line Representation

L L L L
C C C
L = inductance per unit length

C = capacitance per unit length
TM
Transmission Lines
V Trace
H
E E
V=0
Ground plane
The field pattern around a transmission line.
TM
Transmission Lines
V Trace
V=0
-V
-V
The field pattern around a pair of traces.
TM
Typical Stray Transmission Lines
► Conduit to earth
► Conductor over a ground plane
► Shield-to-shield
► Equipment ground to grounded conductor
► Neutral to earth
► Grounded to ungrounded conductor
► Neutral to equipment ground
► Ribbon cable to cabinet
► Conductors in a cable
► Traces over a ground plane (PC board)
TM
Transmission Line Facts
►The properties of a transmission line are not significantly affected by

bends or turns even in the GHz range.
►The Manhattan length is all that matters.
TM
Poynting’s Vector
► Energy flows in a direction perpendicular to both E and H.
H ► P is Poynting’s vector and indicates the power

per unit area at a point in space.
► P points in the direction power is going.
TM
Poynting’s Vector
The direction of energy flow for a transmission line. E
I P
V
E
P
I
P
-V H
TM
Wave Transmission
Wave on a Transmission Line
×
V
Vel = c/e
Time
V 1
TM
Wave Reflection
Reflection on an Open Line
×
A B
2v
V
TM
Wave Reflection
Second Reflection at Source
× A B
V
2V
2V
V
TM
Reflections Of An Open Transmission Line
Voltage at B Current at B
Sum Sum
time time
TM
Initial Current
► The initial current is always equal to V/Z
► The input driver to a transmission line can not react to the load until a wave
reflects and returns to the source.
► Energy will flow from the voltage source until a return wave cancels the
current flow and brings the voltage on the entire line back to the level of the
initial voltage.
TM
Wave Termination
Wave on a Terminated Transmission Line
Switch Z0
R = Z0
V 1 2 3
Vel = C/ε
Parallel Termination
Time
V
1
TM
Terminated Transmission Line
I
+
V Z
-
If the transmission line is terminated in Z then when

the voltage wave reaches the end, the current I
continues to flow. After this point in time energy is
dissipated in Z rather than being stored in the line.
TM
Reflections on a Shorted Transmission Line
A
B
+
V -
I P
1.Wave starts moving right V
I P
2. Reflection at short cancels voltage. V
I P
3. Reflection at short corrects voltage. V
4. Reflection at short cancels voltage. I P

V
TM
Reflections on a Shorted Transmission Line
Voltage at A Current at A
time time
TM
Part 3
Transmission Lines, Continued
TM
Wave Reflection
Reflection Coefficient
Z2 – Z1
Reflection: ρ=
Z2 + Z1
•When Z2 = Z1 then ρ = 0 or no reflection
•When Z2 > Z1 then ρ > 0 or a plus reflection
•When Z2 < Z1 then ρ < 0 or a negative reflection
TM
Wave Transmission
Transmission Coefficient
2z 2
Transmission τ=
z 2 + z1
When z2 = z1 then τ = 1 or 100% transmission
When z2 = 0 then τ= 0 or no transmission
When z2 >> z then τ1 → 2 or voltage doubles
TM
Wave Transmission
Transmission Line Transitions
Case 1: z1 = z2
z1 z2
V ×
TM
Wave Transmission
Transmissions and Reflections
Case 2: R2 = z1
z1
V × R2
Time
TM
Wave Transmission
Case 3: z2 >> z1
z1 z2
V ×
Time
TM
Wave Transmission
Case 4: R2 >> z1
z1
V × R2
Time
TM
Wave Transmission
Case 5: z2 < z1
z1 z2
V ×
Time
TM
Wave Transmission
Case 6: R2 < z1
z1
V × R2
Time
TM
Wave Transmission
Signals at the Open End of a
Transmission Line
×
20 ps
1.0 ∞
Entry signal 1.0 v with 10 ps rise
2.0
1.0
TM
Wave Transmission
Series (Source) Termination
R2 = z0 z0
V × ∞
V/2
V V
TM
Wave Transmission
The Discharge of an Open Line
R > z0
∞
V=10 z0 L
× R Time
10.0
9.0 0
9.0
8.00
8.00 2
7.29
7.29
6.56
6.56 4
5.90
10.0
VR
Time -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
GHzXL17
TM
Taking Energy from a Transmission Line
► To take energy from an open transmission line , waves must make round
trips over the entire line.
► After every round trip the voltage drops at the load.
► The envelope of the voltage steps is exponential .
► The time constant depends on characteristic impedance Z, and line

length.
TM
Obtaining Energy from an Ideal Voltage Source through a Short Transmission Line
Assume Z = R and V = 10v
V
z
× R
10.0
Time
10.0 5.0 0
10.0 5.0 2
7.5 4
10.0
7.5 6
10.0
8.75 8
10.0
VR Voltage at R
0
Time 0 2 4 6 8 10 GHzXL19
TM
The 1/16 Inch Delay
►In the example just given if e is 4, light travels 1/16 inch in 10 ps. A
round trip takes 20 ps. If it takes 5 round trips for the voltage to reach 90%
of final value, this is 100 ps. This is the rise time required for a 1 GHz
clock.
►Decoupling capacitors have this lead-length.
►Leads from pins to chip have this length.
►There is no such thing as an ideal voltage source.
TM
Obtaining Energy from an Ideal Voltage Source

Through a Short Transmission Line
v
×
Z = 50Ω
10 v R = 5Ω
1st wave is -9.09 v Time
v
Voltage at R
TM
Obtaining Power
Initial power depends on voltage source and the characteristic

impedance of the line.
An increase or decrease in power transfer level requires waves to travel

back and forth on the transmission line.
TM
Ground and Power Plane
H field follows around the ring

E field goes between the conducting planes
A third annular ring of field in a tapered transmission line
TM
Characteristic Impedance of an Annulus on a Ground/Power
Plane
► The characteristic impedance is proportional to h/r. If h = r then Z is about

60 ohms.
► Most connections are traces with Z = 50 ohms.
► To make a 1-ohm connection it would take a large coaxial connector. 1-

ohm coax is not practical.
TM
Connections to the Ground/Power Plane
► Characteristic impedance of a connection is typically 50 ohms
TM
Taking Energy from Ground / Power Planes
Load 5 Ω at
Voltage Load 5 Ω at 50 Ω point
1.0 25 Ω point
No lead-in
10 ps lead-in
0.15 cm
0.5
25 ps lead-in
0.375 cm
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time in picoseconds
TM
Rule for Using Termination Resistors
►If a line is shorter than one third the distance a wave travels in one rise
time then no termination is needed.
►At 1 GHz the rise time is 100 ps. A wave in a dielectric FR-4 travels 1.5
cm in this time. If the line is longer than 0.5 cm then a termination is
required.
TM
Rule for Using Termination Resistors
Rise time of Line with Stub
Voltage
at C
Rise time of v = 10 ps
Time in picoseconds (ps)
TM
Trace Geometries
Microstrip Geometry
Dielectric
Trace
t
w
Conducting plane
TM
Trace Geometries
Microstrip Width vs. Dielectric
Height for Constant Z
Trace thickness t = 1.5 mils
Dielectric constant = 4
Dielectric height h
in mils
Trace width w in mils
TM
Trace Geometries
Trace thickness t = 2 mils
Dielectric height h
in mils
TM
Trace Geometries
Dielectric height h
in mils
TM
Trace Geometries
Width vs. Thickness
Constant for 50 Ω Lines
50 Ω line ε= 4
Trace width w is in mils
W =7
Dielectric height h W =5
in mils
W =3
Trace thickness t in mils
TM
Trace Geometries
Centered Stripline
Conducting plane
Dielectric
t w
h
h
Trace Conducting plane
TM
Trace Geometries
Fixed Z vs. Width & Dielectric Height

Dielectric height h
in mils
TM
Trace Geometries
Embedded Microstrip Geometry
Trace Dielectric
t
w
h1
h
Conducting plane
TM
Trace Geometries
Asymmetric Stripline Geometry
Trace
Conducting plane
t
w
h
h1
Dielectric Conducting plane
TM
PCB Geometries
A Four Layer Board Layup
Copper foil
Prepreg layer
Dielectric Copper clad laminate core
Prepreg layer
Copper foil
TM
PCB Geometries
Two Four-Layer Board Configurations
Ground
Logic/power
(A) Logic/power
Ground
Logic/poured power
Ground
(B) Ground
Logic/poured power
TM
PCB Geometries
Acceptable Six Layer Layouts
(A) (B)
Short logic Logic and
and power power
Logic and
Ground
ground
Power Logic/power
Ground Logic/ground
Logic and Power

power
Logic and
Short logic
ground
and ground
TM
PCB Geometries
Six Layer Designs to Avoid
(A) (B)
Logic Logic
Logic Power
Power Logic
Ground Logic
Logic Ground
Logic Logic
TM
Field Paths
Current Path for a Signal when
A Via Crosses Layers
C
S
Field pattern is very complex
TM
Edge Radiation
► Vias force the signal fields to travel in the space between the ground and
power planes.
► When some of this energy reaches the edge it reflects and doubles.
► 10 mV of signal and a 10 mil spacing causes a field of 2 V/ inch or 80 V/m.
► Don’t use vias near the edge of a board.
TM
Field Paths
Current Path around a Break in

A Ground Plane
Ground Plane
Return path
for current
Trace in ground
break
Trace above
ground plane
carrying signal
current.
Return
path
for current
Break in
ground plane
TM
Terminations
Termination of a Balanced Line
100 Ω balanced line
50
Logic
50
50 Ω trace
TM
Coupling
Cross Coupling
Simplified Mechanisms
L L
Victim Line
H C E
Culprit Line
V
TM
Coupling
Step Function on Culprit Line
L2 Victim
V × L1
R Culprit
τR
TM
Coupling
Inductive Cross Coupling
Victim z0
∞ ∞
Culprit v × z0
z0
Increasing amplitude
Culprit
Constant Constant
Amplitude Amplitude
Culprit
TM
Coupling
Capacitive Cross Coupling
Victim L2
∞ ∞
Culprit V × L1
z0
Constant Rising Amplitude

Amplitude
Culprit
Constant Constant
Amplitude Amplitude
Culprit
TM
Coupling
Total Cross Coupling
Victim L2
∞ ∞
Culprit V × L1 z0
Victim
Culprit
Reverse Wave Coupling not to Scale
Victim
Forward Wave
Culprit
TM
Coupling
Coupling to a Transmission Line
With a Zero Impedance Source
z0
Short
Victim
∞
Culprit V × z0 z0
Victim
Reflection
reverses
polarity
Culprit
Victim
Reflection
doubles
Culprit amplitude
TM
Ground Bounce
Traces Involved when a Logic Switch Closes
Logic
To switches
power Connected trace
source
Connected trace
× Driven trace
Power plane/ Via
ground plane
Decoupling capacitor
Note: All traces are over a ground plane.
TM
Ground Bounce
► When a scope probe is used, it measures all the field at the point of
contact. There is no way to identify voltage loss due to IR drop or
radiation. It is also not easy to tell what part of the signal is the result of
reflection or cross coupling.
► What is important is the field between the two conductors not the field
associated with just ground which you usually can’t measure.
TM
Session Closing
► Thank you, and I hope you achieve a better understanding of how energy
and signals move on a circuit board.
►I hope you are better prepared to design circuit boards that will function
well and pass environmental tests.
TM
TM

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June, 2010

Traces as Transmission Lines

►A “field” perspective is needed in order to design boards that will work

► Presenter: Ralph Morrison

► This session is scheduled for 4 hours, including breaks.

► Review basic field theory

► After completing this session you will be able to:

► Electrostatic Discharge (ESD), lighting, utility power, fiber optics, radar

► Allelectrical behavior involves electric and magnetic fields.

►A voltage can exist between two conductors or between two points in

► There is no absolute zero of voltage.

Thus E = V/r or volts per meter

E is a vector field. At each point in space E has a magnitude

► The field exists everywhere in space.

►If there is a voltage difference, there is an E field and surface

►Currents can flow on conductors that are floating electrically.

Note that sphere #2 has

Induced Current Flow V=0

► Three vector fields are needed in electrostatics:

► The P field is used when there are trapped charges.

D = ε E where ε is the dielectric constant.

► The D field is proportional to charge density

► The sphere we studied has capacitance

Parallel Plate Capacitors

►The H field is proportional to current

• The B field is the field of induction

►Force is felt on a test current.

►Force is felt on a test magnet or compass needle.

►H is a point concept. H is a vector.

►At each point in space H has a magnitude and a

►Definition: Magnetic flux per unit current.

►Can be measured using Faraday’s law.

V = A dΦ / dt V = L dI / dt

Length of Wire in Inches

The B field is continuous in the gap

► Capacitors → Electric field: UC= ½ CV2

► Inductors → Magnetic field: UL=½ LI2

Where U is the potential energy, or work done.

► Signals are carried by fields.

► Power is carried by fields.

► What are the conductors for?

• They direct where the power and signals go!

All Electrical Activity Requires the Presence

► Energy flows in a direction perpendicular to both E and H.

► P is Poynting’s vector and indicates the power per unit

Changing B field produces an E field.

Between the plates of a capacitor the E field

Thus a changing E field produces an H field. The equivalent current that

Static Field Energy in Space

sin x Sum of three

sin x + 1/3 sin x

A= e-Ɣh = e-αh · e-jωt where e-jωt is a sine wave term, e-αh is

In dB: AdB= 20 log e-αh = -αh 20 log10 e = -8.68 αh

α= πfμσ where µ = permeability, f = frequency, σ = conductivity

1 then AdB = 8.68 dB

This depth is called skin depth.

90% of field energy is inside this sphere

⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞ At low frequencies most of the field energy can be

H = k5 ⎜ ⎟ + k6⎜ ⎟ returned to the circuit without delay. At high frequencies

(Low impedance or magnetic source)

H = k3⎜ ⎟ + k4⎜ ⎟ + k5⎜ ⎟

► Ratio of energy stored in a nearby field that can be returned to the