Practical Manual On Remote Sensing, GIS and Land Use Planning

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Practical manual on Remote Sensing , GIS and Land Use Planning
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Remote Sensing, GIS and Land Use Planning
Remote Sensing, GIS

and
Land Use Planning
Ram Niwas, M.S. Grewal and M.L. Khichar
Department of Agricultural Meteorology

CCS Haryana Agricultural University
Hisar-125004, India
http://hau.ernet.in/coa/agromet.htm
1
CHAPTER 1
Principles of Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring information
about the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by
sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying
that information.
In most of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction between incident
radiation and the object of interest (Figure 1). The components of remote sensing are:
Figure 1 Components of Remote Sensing

A. Energy Source or Illumination :
The first requirement for remote sensor is to have an energy source which illuminates or
provides electromagnetic energy to the object of interest.
B. Radiation and the Atmosphere:
As the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in contact with and interact
with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place a second time as the
energy travels from the target to the sensor.
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C. Interaction with the Target

Once the energy reaches to the object through the atmosphere, it interacts with the
target depending on the properties of both the target and the radiation.
D. Recording of Energy by the Sensor:
After the energy has been scattered by or emitted from the target, we require a remote
sensor to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
E. Transmission, Reception, and Processing:
Energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a
receiving and processing station where the data are processed into an image (hardcopy /soft
copy or digital).
F. Interpretation and Analysis:
Processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract
information about the target which was illuminated.
G. Application :
The final component of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply the
information we are able to extract more information from the imagery about the target in
order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular
problem.
1. Electromagnetic Radiation
The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source to illuminate the
object (unless the absorbed energy is being emitted by the target).
Figure 2 Electromagnetic radiation

This energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation (Figure 2). All electromagnetic
radiations have fundamental properties and behave in predictable ways according to the
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basics of wave theory. Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electrical field (E) which
varies in magnitude in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the radiation is
traveling (C) and a magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles to the electrical field. Both
these fields travel at the speed of light.
The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the
distance between successive wave crests. Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek
letter lambda (λ). Wavelength is measured in meters (m) or some factor of meters such
as nanometers (nm, 10-9 m), micrometers (µm, 10-6 m) or centimeters (cm, 10-2
m). Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of
time. It is normally measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to one cycle per second, and
various multiples of hertz. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency and the
longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency.
1.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths (including
gamma and x-rays) to the longer wavelengths (including microwaves and broadcast
radio waves, Figure 3 & 4). There are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
which are useful for remote sensing. For most purposes, the ultraviolet (UV) portion of
the spectrum is practical for remote sensing. This is a small visible portion relative to the
rest of the spectrum. There is a lot of radiation around us which is invisible to our eyes, but
can be detected by other remote sensors and used to our advantage.
Figure 3 Energy Spectrum

The visible light ranges from 0.4 to 0.7 µm. The longest visible wavelength is red
and the shortest is violet. Some of common colors have the wavelength in following ranges
(Table 1):
4
Table 1 Wavelength of visible colours

Sr. No. Colours λ (nm)
1 Violet 400-446
2 Blue 446-500
3 Green 500-578
4 Yellow 578-592
5 Orange 592-620
6 Red 620-700
Figure 4 Electromagnetic Radiation spectrum

1.2 Interactions with the Atmosphere
Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth's surface it has to travel
through some distance of the Earth's atmosphere. Particles and gases in the atmosphere can
affect the incoming light and radiation. These effects are caused by the mechanisms of
scattering and absorption.
A. Scattering
It occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact with
and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. There are three
types of scattering:
a) Rayleigh scattering : It occurs when particles are very small compared to
the wavelength of the radiation. These could be particles such as small specks of dust or
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nitrogen and oxygen molecules. Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to
be scattered much more than longer wavelengths. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant
scattering mechanism in the upper atmosphere. The fact that the sky appears "blue" during
the day is because of this phenomenon. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the
shorter wavelengths (i.e. blue) of the visible spectrum are scattered more than the other
(longer) visible wavelengths. At sunrise and sunset the light has to travel farther through
the atmosphere than at midday and the scattering of the shorter wavelengths is more
complete; this leaves a greater proportion of the longer wavelengths to penetrate the
atmosphere. Rayleigh scattering is expressed by the equation:
𝟐
𝟒𝛑𝟐𝐍𝐕 𝟐 𝛈𝟐 − 𝛈𝐨𝟐
𝛔𝛌 =
( 𝛌𝟒 (𝛈𝟐 + 𝛈𝐨𝟐 )𝟐
Where,
σλ = Scattering coefficient for particular wavelength
η = Refractive index of air for λ
η o = Refractive index of molecules for λ
N = Number of molecules /cm3
V = Volume of scattering molecules
b) Mie scattering : It occurs when the particles are just about the same size as
the wavelength of the radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes
of Mie scattering which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh
scattering. Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger
particles are more abundant and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast. Mie scattering
is expressed by the equation:
𝐚𝟐
𝛔𝛌 = 𝛑 𝐚𝟏
𝐍 𝐚 𝐊(𝐚, 𝛈)𝐚𝟐 𝒅𝒂
𝟐𝛑𝐫
𝐊 = ƒ𝐧 𝛌
Where,
σ λ = Scattering coefficient for particular wavelength
λ = wavelength
K = Scattering area coefficient
V = Volume of scattering molecules
N = Number of particles as a function of (a)
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A = Radius of particle
η = Refractive index of molecules for λ
c) Non-selective scattering : I t occurs when the particles are much larger than
the wave length of the radiation. Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this type
of scattering. Nonselective scattering gets its name from the fact that all wavelengths are
scattered about equally. This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white to
our eyes because blue, green, and red light are all scattered in approximately equal quantities
(blue + green + red light = white light).
B . Absorption
It is the other main mechanism at work when electromagnetic radiation interacts with
the atmosphere. In contrast to scattering, this phenomenon causes molecules in the
atmosphere to absorb energy at various wavelengths. Ozone, carbon dioxide, and water
vapour are the three main atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation. Ozone serves
to absorb the harmful (to most living things) ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Without
this protective layer in the atmosphere our skin would burn when exposed to sunlight.
The reason carbon dioxide is referred to as a greenhouse gas because it tends to
absorb radiation strongly in the far infrared portion of the spectrum - that area associated
with thermal heating - which serves to trap this heat inside the atmosphere. Water vapour in
the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming long wave infrared and shortwave
microwave radiation (between 22 µm and 1m). Because these gases absorb
electromagnetic energy in very specific regions of the spectrum, they influence where (in
the spectrum) we can "look" for remote sensing purposes.
The bands of the spectrum which are not absorbed by the atmosphere and thus, are
useful to remote sensors are called atmospheric windows e.g.
8 Atmospheric window 14
↑__________________________↑
λ(µm)
1.3 Radiation – Interaction with Surface
Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can reach and
interact with the Earth's surface. There are three forms of interaction that can take place
when energy strikes, or is incident (I) upon the surface. These are: absorption (A),
transmission (T), and reflection (R). The total incident energy will interact with the surface
in one or more of these three ways. The proportions of each will depend on the wavelength
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of the energy and the material and condition of the feature.

Absorption occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed by the surface while
transmission occurs when radiation passes through a surface. Reflection occurs when
radiation "bounces" off the surface and is redirected. In remote sensing, we are most
interested in measuring the radiation reflected from objects. Sum of all the three interactions
is expressed as:
T + R + A = 1 or 100
We refer to two types of reflection, which represent the two extreme ends of
the way in which energy is reflected from a target:
1. Specular reflection
When a surface is smooth we get specular or mirror-like reflection where all (or almost
all) of the energy is directed away from the surface in a single direction.
2. Diffuse reflection
Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the energy is reflected almost
uniformly in all directions.
The different objects on earth behave with radiation as:
i) Vegetation (Green): A chemical compound in leaves called chlorophyll strongly
absorbs radiation in the red and blue wavelengths but reflects green wavelengths.
Leaves appear "greenest" to us in the summer, when chlorophyll content is at its
maximum. In autumn, there is less chlorophyll in the leaves, so there is less
absorption and proportionately more reflection of the red wavelengths, making the leaves
appear red or yellow (yellow is a combination of red and green wavelengths).The
reflection in NIR bands is higher than visible bands as it is controlled by mysophyl cells.
It increases with growth of biomass (Figure 5).
ii) Water: Longer wavelength visible and near infrared radiation is absorbed more by
water than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green
due to stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths and darker if viewed at red or
near infrared wavelengths.
iii) Soil: Longer wavelength visible and near infrared radiation is absorbed less by soil
than shorter visible wavelengths. The reflectivity increases from 0.4 to 2.0 µm.
iv) By measuring the energy that is reflected (or emitted) by targets on the Earth's surface
over a variety of different wavelengths, we can build up a spectral response for that
object. By comparing the response patterns of different features we may be able to
8
distinguish between them, where we might not be able to, if we only compared them
at one wavelength.
For example, water and vegetation may reflect somewhat similarly in the visible
wavelengths but are almost always separable in the infrared.
Figure 5 Reflection by vegetation, water and soil (Spectral signatures)

3. Radiation laws
The following laws govern the radiation behavior:
1. Stefan Boltzmann law:
It is calculated using the equation:
R = εσT4
Where, R = Radiation emitted
‘ε’ = Emissivity of a surface
‘σ’= Stefan Boltzmann constant (5.67x10-8Jm-2 s-1oK4)
T = Temperature of surface (oK)
2. Plank’s law (Rλ):
Radiation emitted per unit wavelength is calculated by the equation:
2πhC 2
𝑅𝜆 = hC
λ5 (e λkT − 1)
Where, Rλ = Radiation emitted per unit wavelength
‘λ’ = Wave length of radiation emitted
‘h’= Plank’s constant (6.26x10-34J s)
k = Boltzmann constant (1.38x10-23J oK-1)
C = Velocity of light (3x108m s-1)
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3. Wien’s displacement law:

Wave length of maximum radiation emission is explained the by equation:
𝐷
λ max =
𝑇
Where, λ max = Wave length of maximum
D = Wien’s Constant (2897µmoK)
T = Temperature of surface (oK)
4. Kirchoff’s Law:
Emissivity of a body for a wave length is equal to the absorptivity for same wave
length.
ελ = 𝑎 𝜆
Where,
ελ = Emissivity for λ
aλ = Absorptivity ( It is ratio of absorbed radiation to the
incident radiation) for λ
Emissivity is defined as the ratio of emitted energy by a body to the emitted
energy by a black body:
ε = 𝑒1 𝜆/𝑒𝑏 𝜆
Emissivity black body is 1 and white body is 0, whereas the emissivity of

gray body is between 0 and 1
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CHAPTER 2
Sensor and Platform
2.1 Sensors
Remote sensing system which measure energy that is naturally and artificially available
is called as sensor. It is of two types based on source of energy:
a) Passive sensor : It can only be used to detect energy when the naturally
occurring energy is available. For all reflected energy, this can only take place during the
time when the sun is illuminating the Earth. There is no reflected energy available from the
sun at night. Energy that is naturally emitted (such as thermal infrared) can be detected day or
night, as long as the amount of energy is large enough to be recorded. e. g. Camera without
flash, thermal and microwave sensors.
b) Active sensor : It provides its own energy source for illumination. The sensor
emits radiation which is directed toward the target to be investigated. The radiation reflected
from that target is detected and measured by the sensor. Advantages for active sensors
include the ability to obtain measurements anytime, regardless of the time of day or
season. Active sensors can be used for examining wavelengths that are not sufficiently
provided by the sun, such as microwaves, or to better control the way a target is
illuminated. However, active systems require the generation of a fairly large amount of
energy to adequately illuminate targets. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is an example of
active sensor e. g. RADAR and Camera with flash.
2.2 Multispectral Scanning
Many electronic remote sensors acquire data using scanning systems, which
employ a sensor with a narrow instantaneous field of view (i.e. IFOV) that sweeps over the
terrain to build up and produce a two-dimensional image of the surface. Scanning systems
can be used on both aircraft and satellite platforms and have essentially the same
operating principles. A scanning system used to collect data over a variety of different
wavelength ranges is called a multispectral scanner (MSS), and is the most commonly
used scanning system. There are two main modes or methods of scanning employed to
acquire multispectral image data - across-track scanning, and along-track scanning.
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2.3 Across-track (whisk broom) scanner

It scans the Earth in a series of lines. The lines are oriented perpendicular to the
direction of motion of the sensor platform (i.e. across the swath). Each line is scanned from
one side of the sensor to the other, using a rotating mirror ‘A’ (Figure 1). As the platform
moves forward over the Earth, successive scans build up a two-dimensional image
of the Earth´s surface. The incoming reflected or emitted radiation is separated into
several spectral components that are detected independently. The UV, visible, near-infrared,
and thermal radiation are dispersed into their constituent wavelengths. A bank of internal
detectors ‘B’, each sensitive to a specific range of wavelengths, detects and measures the
energy for each spectral band and then, as an electrical signal, they are converted to digital
data and recorded for subsequent computer processing.
Figure 1 Across Track scanner

The IFOV ‘C’ of the sensor and the altitude of the platform determine the ground
resolution cell viewed ‘D’, and thus the spatial resolution. The angular field of view ‘E’ is the
sweep of the mirror, measured in degrees, used to record a scan line, and determines the
width of the imaged swath ‘ F’. Airborne scanners typically sweep large angles (between
90º and 120º), while satellites, because of their higher altitude need only to sweep fairly
small angles (10-20º) to cover a broad region. Because the distance from the sensor to the
target increases towards the edges of the swath, the ground resolution cells also become
larger and introduce geometric distortions to the images. Also, the length of time the
IFOV "sees" a ground resolution cell as the rotating mirror scans (called the dwell time),
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is generally quite short and influences the design of the spatial, spectral, and radiometric
resolution of the sensor.
2.4 Along-track (push broom) scanner
It scans lines and builds up a two-dimensional image, perpendicular to the flight
direction (Figure 2). However, instead of a scanning mirror, they use a linear array of
detectors ‘ A’ located at the focal plane of the image ‘B’ formed by lens systems ‘C’, which
are "pushed" along in the flight track direction (i.e. along track). These systems are also
referred to as push broom scanners, as the motion of the detector array is analogous to
the bristles of a broom being pushed along a floor. Each individual detector measures the
energy for a single ground resolution cell ‘D’ and thus the size and IFOV of the detectors
determines the spatial resolution of the system. A separate linear array is required to
measure each spectral band or channel. For each scan line, the energy detected by each
detector of each linear array is sampled electronically and digitally recorded.
Figure 2 Along Track scanner

Along-track scanners with linear arrays have several advantages over across-track
mirror scanners. The array of detectors combined with the push broom motion allows each
detector to "see" and measure the energy from each ground resolution cell for a longer
period of time (dwell time). This allows more energy to be detected and improves the
radiometric resolution. The increased dwell time also facilitates smaller IFOVs and narrower
bandwidths for each detector. Thus, finer spatial and spectral resolution can be achieved
13
without impacting radiometric resolution. Because detectors are usually solid-state

microelectronic devices, they are generally smaller, lighter, require less power, and are
more reliable and last longer because they have no moving parts. On the other hand,
across-calibrating thousands of detectors to achieve uniform sensitivity across the array are
necessary and complicated.
2.5 Platform
For a sensor to collect and record energy reflected or emitted from a target or surface,
it must reside on a stable platform away from the target or surface being observed. It may
b e situated on the ground, on an aircraft or balloon (or some other platform within the
Earth's atmosphere), or on a spacecraft or satellite outside of the Earth's atmosphere
(Figure 3 a - f). Platforms for remote sensors are of different types:
1. Ground based – Tower and kite
2. Air based - Balloon, aircraft and rocket
3. Space based – Spacecraft and Balloon, aircraft and rocket
4. Balloon, aircraft and rocket
i) Manned satellite – Space station
i) Unmanned satellite – IRS , INSAT etc.
Ground-based sensors are often used to record detailed information about the
surface which is compared with information collected from aircraft or satellite sensors.
Aerial platforms are primarily stable wing aircraft, although helicopters are
occasionally used. Aircraft are often used to collect very detailed images and facilitate the
collection of data over virtually any portion of the Earth's surface at any time. e. g. Flood,
draught, epidemics mapping etc.
In space, remote sensing is sometimes conducted from the space shuttle or, more
commonly, from satellites. Satellites are objects which revolve around planet - in this
case, the Earth. For example, the moon is a natural satellite.
Man-made satellites include those platforms launched for remote sensing,
communication, and telemetry (location and navigation) purposes. Because of their orbits,
satellites permit repetitive coverage of the Earth's surface on a continuing basis. Cost is
often a significant factor in choosing among the various platform options.
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Balloon Kite
Pigeon Rocket/Aircraft
Wing aircraft (Low altitude) Satellite (High altitude)
15
2.6 Satellite Characteristics

Although ground-based and aircraft platforms may be used, satellites provide a great
deal of the remote sensing imagery commonly used today. Satellites have several unique
characteristics which make them particularly useful for remote sensing of the Earth's surface.
a) Satellite Orbit : The path followed by a satellite is referred to as its orbit.
Satellite orbits are matched to the capability and objective of the sensor (s) they carry.
Orbit selection can vary in terms of altitude (their height above the Earth's surface) and
their orientation and rotation relative to the Earth (See in next chapter).
b) Swath : When satellite revolves around the Earth, the sensor "sees" a certain
portion of the Earth's surface. The area imaged on the surface, is referred to as the
swath (Fig. 3). Imaging swaths for space borne sensors generally vary between tens
and hundreds of kilometers wide. As the satellite orbits the Earth from pole to pole, its east-
west position wouldn't change if the Earth didn't rotate. However, as seen from the Earth, it
seems that the satellite is shifting westward because the Earth is rotating (from west to east)
beneath it. This apparent movement allows the satellite swath to cover a new area with
each consecutive pass. The satellite's orbit and the rotation of the Earth work together to
allow complete coverage of the Earth's surface, after it has completed one complete cycle of
orbits. Starting with any randomly selected pass in a satellite's orbit, an orbit cycle will be
completed when the satellite retraces its path, passing over the same point on the Earth's
surface directly below the satellite (called the nadir point) for a second time. The exact
length of time of the orbital cycle will vary with each satellite. The interval of time required
for the satellite to complete its orbit cycle is not the same as the "revisit period".
Figure 3 Swath of satellite

Using steerable sensors, a satellite-borne instrument can view an area (off-nadir)
before and after the orbit passes over a target, thus making the 'revisit' time less than the
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orbit cycle time. The revisit period is an important consideration for a number of
monitoring applications, especially when frequent imaging is required (for example, to
monitor the spread of an oil spill, or the extent of flooding). In near-polar orbits, areas at
high latitudes will be imaged more frequently than the equatorial zone due to the increasing
overlap in adjacent swaths as the orbit paths come closer together near the poles.
2.7 Resolution
The ability of a sensor to record the details of an object/target is defined as resolution.
It is of four types:
i) Spatial Resolution : It is the size of the smallest possible feature that can be detected
on ground. Spatial resolution of passive sensors depends primarily on their Instantaneous
Field of View (, Figure 4).
Instantaneous Field of View is the angular cone of visibility of the sensor ‘A’ and
determines the area on the Earth's surface which is "seen" from a given altitude at one
particular moment in time ‘B’. The size of the area viewed is determined by multiplying the
IFOV by the distance from the ground to the sensor ‘C’. This area on the ground is called the
resolution cell and determines a sensor's maximum spatial resolution. e. g.
LISS - 72 x 72 m
LISS II - 36 x 36 m
LISS III - 23.5 x 23.5 m
LISS IV - 5.8 x 5.8 m
Figure 4 Instantaneous Field of View

i i ) Spectral resolution :Spectral resolution is the ability of a sensor to define fine
wavelength intervals. The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelength ranges
for a particular channel or band. Remote sensing systems record energy over one
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wavelength range at various spectral resolutions is referred as monochromatic /panchromatic

sensors. Remote sensing systems record energy over several separate wavelength ranges at
various spectral resolutions referred as multi-spectral sensors. Broad classes, such as water
and vegetation, can usually be separated using very broad wavelength ranges - the
visible and near infrared.
Advanced multi-spectral sensors called hyper spectral sensors, detect hundreds of
very narrow spectral bands throughout the visible, near-infrared, and mid-infrared portions of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Their very high spectral resolution facilitates fine
discrimination between different targets based on their spectral response in each of the
narrow bands. e. g. Spectral (approx. 100 nm λ band) and Hyper spectral (<10 nm λ band)
sensors.
iii)Radiometric resolution : While the arrangement of pixels describes the spatial
structure of an image, the radiometric characteristics describe the actual information
content in an image. It is the ability of sensors to record finest difference in the exposure
(magnitude of the electromagnetic energy reflected/emitted of the object/target). Imagery
data are represented by positive digital numbers which vary from 0 to (one less than) a
selected power of 2. This range corresponds to the number of bits used for coding
numbers in binary format. Each bit records an exponent of power 2 (e.g. 1 bit=2 1=2). The
maximum number of brightness levels available depends on the number of bits used in
representing the energy recorded. Thus, if a sensor used 8 bits to record the data, there
would be 28=256 digital values available, ranging from 0 to 255 and 210= 1024 digital
values available, ranging from 0 to 1023. However, if only 4 bits were used, then only
24=16 values ranging from 0 to 15 would be available. Thus, the would be much less. Image
data are generally displayed in a range of grey tones, with black representing a digital
number of 0 and white representing the maximum value (for example, 255 in 8-bit data).
By comparing a 8-bit image with an 10-bit image, we can see that there is a large difference
in the level of detail depending on their radiometric resolutions (Figure 5).
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Figure 5 Image with 8 (28=256, left) and 10 bits (210= 1024. right)
iv) Temporal resolution: It is the satellite sensor ability to revisit the same place with
same viewing angle .The revisit period of a satellite sensor is, usually it is of several days
(Figure 6). The absolute temporal resolution of a remote sensing system to image the exact
same area at the same viewing angle a second time is equal to this period. However,
because of some degree of overlap in the imaging swaths of adjacent orbits for most
satellites and the increase in this overlap with increasing latitude, some areas of the Earth
tend to be re-imaged more frequently. Also, some satellite systems are able to point
their sensors to image the same area between different satellite passes separated by
periods from one to five days. Thus, the actual temporal resolution of a sensor depends on a
variety of factors, including the satellite/sensor capabilities, the swath overlap, and latitude.
Figure 6 Temporal resolution

Spectral characteristics of features may change over time and these changes
can be detected by collecting and comparing multi-temporal imagery. By imaging on a
continuing basis at different times we are able to monitor the changes that take place on
19
the Earth's surface, whether they are naturally occurring (such as changes in natural
vegetation cover or flooding) or induced by humans (such as urban development or
deforestation). The time factor in imaging is important when:
Persistent clouds offer limited clear views of the Earth's surface (often in the tropics)
a) Short-lived phenomena (floods, oil slicks, etc.) need to be imaged
b) Multi-temporal comparisons are required (e.g. the spread of a forest disease from one
year to the next)
c) The changing appearance of a feature over time can be used to distinguish it from
near- similar features (wheat / barley)
2.8 Pixel
The remote sensing images are composed of a matrix of picture elements, or pixels
recorded/scanned by different scanning systems:
It is a smallest unit of an image. Image pixels are normally square and represent a
certain area on an image (Figure 7). It is important to distinguish between pixel size and
spatial resolution - they are not interchangeable. If a sensor has a spatial resolution of 20
meters and an image from that sensor is displayed at full resolution, each pixel represents
an area of 20m x 20m on the ground. In this case the pixel size and resolution are the same.
However, it is possible to display an image with a pixel size different than the resolution.
Images where only large features are visible are said to have coarse or low resolution. In
fine or high resolution images, small objects can be detected.
Figure 7 Image of Large pixel size (Right) small pixel size (Left)
2.9 Scale
The ratio of distance on an image or map, to actual ground distance is referred to as
scale. If you had a map with a scale of 1:100,000, an object of 1cm length on the map
20
would actually be an object 100,000cm (1km) long on the ground.

i. Small Scale
Maps or images with small "map-to-ground ratios" are referred to as small scale (e.g.
1:100,000).
ii. Large Scale
Maps or images with large "map-to-ground ratios” (e.g. 1:5,000) are called
large scale.
21
CHAPTER 3
Satellites
Satellites launched are of two types based on their orbit around earth and altitude:
Geostationary satellite
Satellites at very high altitudes, which view the same portion of the Earth's surface at
all times have geostationary orbits (Figure 1). These geostationary satellites, at altitudes of
approximately 36,000 kilometers, revolve at speeds which match the rotation of the Earth so
they seem stationary, relative to the Earth's surface. This allows the satellites to observe and
collect information continuously over specific areas. Weather and communications satellites
commonly have these types of orbits. Due to their high altitude, some geostationary weather
satellites can monitor weather and cloud patterns covering an entire hemisphere of the
Earth.
Figure 1 Geostationary satellite

1. Sun-synchronous satellite
Many remote sensing platforms are designed to follow an orbit (basically north-
south) which, in conjunction with the Earth's rotation (west-east), allows them to cover most
of the Earth's surface over a certain period of time (Figure 2). These are near- polar orbits,
so named for the inclination of the orbit relative to a line running between the North and
South poles. Many of these satellite orbits are also sun-synchronous such that they cover
each area of the world at a constant local time of day called local sun time. At any
given latitude, the position of the sun in the sky as the satellite passes overhead will be the
same within the same season. This ensures consistent illumination conditions when acquiring
22
images in a specific season over successive years, or over a particular area over a series of
days. This is an important factor for monitoring changes between images or for mosaicking
adjacent images together, as they do not have to be corrected for different illumination
conditions.
Figure 2 Sun-synchronous satellites

1. LANDSAT
The first satellite designed specifically to monitor the Earth's surface, Landsat-1, was
launched by NASA in 1972. Initially referred to as ERTS-1, (Earth Resources Technology
Satellite), Landsat was designed as an experiment to test the feasibility of collecting
multi-spectral Earth observation data from an unmanned satellite platform.
Landsat's success is due to several factors, including: a combination of sensors with
spectral bands tailored to Earth observation; functional spatial resolution; and good areal
coverage (swath width and revisit period). The long lifespan of the program has provided a
voluminous archive of Earth resource data facilitating long term monitoring and historical
records and research. All Landsat satellites are placed in near-polar, sun-synchronous
orbits. The first three satellites (Landsat 1-3) are at altitudes around 900 km and have
revisit periods of 18 days while the later satellites are at around 700 km and have revisit
periods of 16 days. All Landsat satellites have equator crossing times in the morning to
optimize illumination conditions.
The most popular instrument in the early days of Landsat was the Multi Spectral
Scanner (MSS) and later the Thematic Mapper (TM) [Table 1] . Each of these sensors
23
collected data over a swath width of 185 km, with a full scene being defined as 185 km x
185 km.
Table 1 Thematic Mapper bands
Band Wavelength Spectral Resolution Principal Applications
No. Interval Response (m)
(µm)
1 0.45 - 0.52 Blue- 30 Coastal Water Mapping, Soil Vegetation
Green differentiation, deciduous/coniferous
differentiation
2 0.52 - 0.60 Green 30 Green reflectance by healthy vegetation
3 0.63 - 0.69 Red 30 Chlorophyll absorption for plant specifies
differentiation
4 0.76 - 0.90 Near IR 30 Biomass surveys, water body delineation
5 1.55 - 1.75 Mid-IR 30 Vegetation moisture measurement, snow
cloud differentiation
6 10.40 - 12.50 Thermal 120 Plant heat stress measurement, other
IR thermal mapping
7 2.08 - 2.35 Mid-IR 30 Hydrothermal mapping
2. SPOT
SPOT (Système Pour l'Observation de la Terre) is a series of Earth observation
imaging satellites designed and launched by CNES (Centre National d'Études Spatiales)
of France, with support from Sweden and Belgium. SPOT-1 was launched in 1986, with
successors following every three or four years. All satellites are in sun-synchronous, near-
polar orbits at altitudes around 830 km above the Earth, which results in orbit repetition
every 26 days. They have equator crossing times around 10:30 AM local solar time. SPOT
was designed to be a commercial provider of Earth observation data, and was the first
satellite to use along-track, or push broom scanning technology. The SPOT satellites each
have twin high resolution visible (HRV) imaging systems, which can be operated
independently and simultaneously. Each HRV is capable of sensing either in a high
spatial resolution single-channel panchromatic (PLA) mode, or a coarser spatial resolution
three-channel multispectral (MLA) mode.
SPOT has a number of benefits over other space borne optical sensors. Its fine
spatial resolution and pointable sensors are the primary reasons for its popularity. The three-
band multispectral data are well suited to displaying as false-colour images and the
panchromatic band can also be used to "sharpen" the spatial detail in the multispectral data.
24
SPOT allows applications requiring fine spatial detail (such as urban mapping) to be
addressed while retaining the cost and timeliness advantage of satellite data. The potential
applications of SPOT data are numerous. Applications requiring frequent
monitoring (agriculture, forestry) are well served by the SPOT sensors. The acquisition of
stereoscopic imagery from SPOT has played an important role in mapping applications
and in the derivation of topographic information (Digital Elevation Models - DEMs) from
satellite data.
3. IRS
Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite system was commissioned with the launch of IRS-
1A, in 1988. With ten satellites in operation, IRS is the largest civilian remote sensing
satellite constellation in the world providing imageries in a variety of spatial resolutions,
spectral bands and swaths. The data is used for several applications covering agriculture,
water resources, urban development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, drought
and flood forecasting, ocean resources and disaster management. The Indian Remote
Sensing (IRS) satellite series, combines features from both the Landsat MSS/TM sensors
and the SPOT HRV sensor. Some popular IRS sensors are listed in the Table 2.
Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of Earth Observation satellites, built,
launched and maintained by Indian Space Research Organisation. The IRS series provides
many remote sensing services to India. Successful demonstration flights of Bhaskhar and
Bhaskara-2 satellites launched in 1979 and 1981, respectively, India began to develop the
indigenous Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite program to support the national economy in
the areas of agriculture, water resources, forestry and ecology, geology, water sheds, marine
fisheries and coastal management.
India established the National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) for
which the Department of Space (DOS) is the nodal agency, providing operational remote
sensing data services. Data from the IRS satellites is received and disseminated by several
countries all over the world. With the advent of high-resolution satellites new applications in
the areas of urban sprawl, infrastructure planning and other large scale applications for
mapping have been initiated.
The IRS system is the largest constellation of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in
operation today in the world, with 12 operational satellites (Figure 3). All these are placed in
polar sun-synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal
resolutions. Indian Remote Sensing Programme completed its 25 years of successful
25
operations on March 17th, 2013 (Table 3).

The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A,B,C,D). The later versions are named
based on their area of application including OceanSat, CartoSat, ResourceSat. Some of the
satellites have alternate designations based on the launch number and vehicle (P series for
PSLV).
Table 2 Indian Remote Sensing satellite sensors
Sensor Resolution Swath Sensor Spectral Bands (µm)
(m) Width Channels
(km)
Linear Imaging Self- 72 148 LISS-I-1 0.45-0.52 (blue)
Scanning System I (LISS- LISS-I-2 0.52-0.59 (green)
I) LISS-I-3 0.62-0.68 (red)
LISS-I-4 0.77-0.86 (near IR)
Linear Imaging Self- 36 74 LISS-II-1 0.45-0.52 (blue)
Scanning System II LISS-II-2 0.52-0.59 (green)
(LISS-II) LISS-II-3 0.62-0.68 (red)
LISS-II-4 0.77-0.86 (near IR)
Linear Imaging Self- 23 142 LISS- III-1 0.45-0.52 (blue)
Scanning System III LISS- III-2 0.52-0.59 (green)
(LISS-III) LISS- III-3 0.62-0.68 (red)
LISS- III-4 0.77-0.86 (near IR)
50 148 LISS-III-5 1.55-1.70 (mid-IR)
6 70 PAN 0.5-0.75
High Resolution Linear 5.8 24 - 70 LISS-IV-2 0.52-0.59 (green)
Imaging Self-Scanning LISS-IV-3 0.62-0.68 (red)
System IV (LISS-IV) LISS-IV-4 0.77-0.86 (near IR)
Wide Field Sensor (WiFS) 188 774 WiFS-1 0.62-0.68 (red)
WiFS-2 0.77-0.86 (near IR)
Advanced Wide Field 56-70 370- AWiFS-1 0.52-0.59 (green)
Sensor (AWiFS) 740 AWiFS-2 0.62-0.68 (red)
AWiFS-3 0.77-0.86(near IR)
AWiFS-4 1.55-1.70 (mid-IR)
Source: http://uregina.ca/piwowarj/Satellites/IRS.html
CARTOSAT-1 2.5 30 Two PAN 0.5-0.85
cameras
CARTOSAT-2 <1m 9.6 PAN camera 0.5-0.85
Source: NRSC/Antrix Corporation Information Brochure
26
Figure 3 Sun-synchronous satellite

4. INSAT
Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system was commissioned with the launch of INSAT-
1B in August 1983 (INSAT-1A, the first satellite was launched in April 1982 but could not
fulfill the mission). First satellite of the indigenously built INSAT series INSAT 2A was
launched in 1992. Last satellite in INSAT series, INSAT-4CR was launched in 2007 and after
this the nomenclature was changed to GSAT. In this series satellite GSAT 4 was launched in
2010.
INSAT is a series of multipurpose geo-stationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy
the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, and search and rescue operations.
Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in the Asia
Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of
Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan.
The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level
INSAT Coordination Committee.
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Table 3 Indian Remote Sensing satellites launched
Sr. Satellite Date of Launch Launch Vehicle Status

No.
1 IRS 1A 17 March 1988 Vostok, USSR Mission Completed
2 IRS 1B 29 August 1991 Vostok, USSR Mission Completed
3 IRS P1 (also IE) 20 September 1993 PSLV-D1 Crashed, due to launch

failure of PSLV
4 IRS-P2 15 October 1994 PSLV-D2 Mission Completed
5 IRS-1C 28 December 1995 Molniya, Russia Mission Completed
6 IRS-P3 21 March 1996 PSLV-D3 Mission Completed
7 IRS 1D 29 September 1997 PSLV-C1 Mission Completed
8 IRS-P4 (Oceansat-1) 27 May 1999 PSLV-C2 Mission Completed
9 Technology 22 October 2001 PSLV-C3 Mission Completed

Experiment Satellite
(TES)
10 IRS P6 17 October 2003 PSLV-C5 In Service

(Resourcesat-1)
11 IRS P5 (Cartosat 1) 5 May 2005 PSLV-C6 In Service
12 Cartosat 2 (IRS P7) 10 January 2007 PSLV-C7 In Service
13 Cartosat 2A 28 April 2008 PSLV-C9 In Service
14 IMS 1 28 April 2008 PSLV-C9 In Service
15 Oceansat-2 23 September 2009 PSLV-C14 In Service
16 Cartosat-2B 12 July 2010 PSLV-C15 In Service
17 Resourcesat-2 20 April 2011 PSLV-C16 In Service
18 Megha-Tropiques 12 October 2011 PSLV-C18 In Service
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19 RISAT-1 26 April 2012 PSLV-C19 In Service
20 SARAL 25 Feb 2013 PSLV-C20 In Service
INSAT satellites provide transponders in various bands (C, S, Extended C and Ku) to
serve the television and communication needs of India. Some of the satellites also have the
Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR), CCD cameras for metrological imaging.
KALPANA-1 is an exclusive meteorological satellite. The satellites are monitored and
controlled by Master Control Facilities that exist in Hassan and Bhopal. The satellites also
incorporate transponder(s) for receiving distress alert signals for search and rescue missions in
the South Asian and Indian Ocean Region, as ISRO is a member of the Cospas-Sarsat
programme.
INSAT system helped in a revolution in India’s television and radio broadcasting,
telecommunications and meteorological sectors (Figure 4). It enabled the rapid expansion of
TV and modern telecommunication facilities to even the remote areas and off-shore islands.
Of the 24 satellites launched in the course of the INSAT program, 10 are still in operation.
See the details of INSAT Satellites in Chapter 10.
The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) at Hyderabad is the nodal agency for
reception, archival, processing and dissemination of remote sensing data in the country.
NRSC acquires and processes data from all Indian remote sensing satellites like Cartosat-1,
Cartosat-2, Resourcesat-1, IRS-1D, Oceansat-1 and Technology Experiment Satellite as well
as foreign satellites like Terra, NOAA and ERS
Figure 4 INSAT- 1A
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Lidar
Lidar is an acronym for Light Detection and Ranging, an active imaging
technology very similar to RADAR. Pulses of laser light are emitted from the sensor and
energy reflected from a target is detected. The time required for the energy to reach the
target and return to the sensor determines the distance between the two. Lidar is used
effectively for measuring heights of features, such as forest canopy height relative to the
ground surface, and water depth relative to the water surface (laser profilometer). Lidar is
also used in atmospheric studies to examine the particle content of various layers of the
Earth´s atmosphere and acquire air density readings and monitor air currents.
Figure (a)
Figure (b)
Figure 5 ( a & b) LiDAR sensor on board aero plane
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5. RADAR
RADAR stands for Radio Detection and Ranging. RADAR systems are active sensors
which provide their own source of electromagnetic energy. Active radar sensors, whether
airborne or space borne, emit microwave radiation in a series of pulses from an
antenna, looking obliquely at the surface perpendicular to the direction of motion.
When the energy reaches the target, some of the energy is reflected back towards the
sensor. This backscattered microwave radiation is detected, measured, and timed. The time
required for the energy to travel to the target and return back to the sensor determines the
distance or range to the target. By recording the range and magnitude of the energy reflected
from all targets as the system passes by, a two-dimensional image of the surface can be
produced. Because RADAR provides its own energy source, images can be acquired day or
night. Also, microwave energy is able to penetrate through clouds and most rain, making it an
all-weather sensor.
Figure 6 Doppler radar
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CHAPTER 4
Data and Analysis
Data obtained during airborne remote sensing missions can be retrieved once the
aircraft lands. It can then be processed and delivered to the end user. However, data acquired
from satellite platforms need to be electronically transmitted to Earth, since the satellite
continues to stay in orbit during its operational lifetime. The technologies designed to
accomplish this can also be used by an aerial platform if the data are urgently needed on the
surface.
There are three main options for transmitting data acquired by satellites to the
surface. The data can be directly transmitted to Earth if a Ground Receiving Station (GRS)
is in the line of sight of the satellite ‘A’.
If this is not the case, the data can be recorded on board the satellite ‘B’ for
transmission to a GRS at a later time. Data can also be relayed to the GRS through the
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) ‘C’, which consists of a series of
communications satellites in geosynchronous orbit. The data are transmitted from one
satellite to another until they reach the appropriate GRS.
The data are received at the GRS in a raw digital format. They may then, if
required, be processed to correct systematic, geometric and atmospheric distortions to the
imagery, and be translated into a standardized format. Low resolution quick-look imagery
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is used to preview archived imagery prior to purchase. The spatial and radiometric quality
of these types of data products is degraded, but they are useful for ensuring that the overall
quality, coverage and cloud cover of the data is appropriate.
4.2 Processing
1. Corrections applied in Remote Sensing data
Processing of digital remote sensing images consists of a sequence of following steps.
a) System Correction (by receiving station)
i. Geometric: Sensor design (panoramic effects, scan mirror velocity), satellite
altitude (roll, pitch & yaw), Earth rotation
ii. Radiometric: detector calibration / equalization
b) Image enhancement
i) Contrast enhancement
ii) Filtering
iii) Color composition
c) Geometric correction (by user)
i) Geocoding
ii) Correction of distortion caused by relief
d) Geo-radiometric corrections
i) Atmospheric corrections
ii) Illumination effects
e) Multiband operations
i. Ratios (NDVI etc)
ii. Principal Component Analysis
f) Image interpretation
i. Ground truth, interpretation key, training area selection
ii. Visual interpretation
iii. Digital classification, pattern recognition etc.
The generic terms used in this context are:
1. Geometric correction
It is the generic term for various processes of correcting the geometric distortions in
an image and make it conform to some established, e.g. a map projection or an existing
image.
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2. Internal distortions
They are caused by the design of the sensor, such as lens distortion,
misalignment of detectors, variation of sampling rate etc.
3. External distortions:
They are caused by external parameters other than sensor, including variation of altitude
and position of platform, earth curvature, topographic relief etc.
4. Geo-referencing is the process of assigning map co-ordinates to image data. The
orientation and pixel size of image does not change in geo-referencing.
5. Ortho-rectification
It is a form of rectification which that also corrects for terrain displacement. It can be
used only if a Digital elevation model is available.
6. Image-to-image registration
It is the process of making an image to conform to another image. It involves geo-
referencing when the other image is geo-referenced.
7. Re-sampling
It is the process of interpolating data values for the pixels on the new grid from the
value of the source pixels.
8. Geo-coded data
They are images that have been rectified to a particular map projection and pixel size,
and usually radiometric corrections have been applied.
4.3 Image Classification
Classification is the process of sorting pixels into a finite number of individual
classes, or categories of data, based on their data file values. If a pixel satisfies a certain set
of criteria, then the pixel is assigned to the class that corresponds to those criteria. For the
first part of the classification process, the computer system must be trained to
recognize patterns in the data. Training is the process of defining the criteria by which
these patterns are recognized. The result of training is a set of signatures, which are criteria
for a set of proposed classes. There are two ways of classify pixels into different categories:
i) Supervised
ii) Unsupervised
4.4 The Classification Process
i) Pattern Recognition
In a computer system, while performing spectral pattern recognition, statistics are
34
derived from the spectral characteristics of all pixels in an image. Then, the pixels are
sorted based on mathematical criteria. The classification process breaks down into two
parts: training and classifying (using a decision rule).
ii. Training
First, the computer system must be trained to recognize patterns in the data. Training is
the process of defining the criteria by which these patterns are recognized (Hord, 1982).
Training can be performed with either a supervised or an unsupervised method, as explained
below.
a) Supervised Training
Supervised training is closely controlled by the analyst. In this process, you select
pixels that represent patterns or land cover features that you recognize, or that you can
identify with help from other sources, such as aerial photos, ground truth data, or maps.
Knowledge of the data, and of the classes desired, is required before classification. By
identifying patterns, you can instruct the computer system to identify pixels with similar
characteristics.
b) Unsupervised Training
Unsupervised training is more computer-automated. It enables you to specify some
parameters that the computer uses to uncover statistical patterns that are inherent in the
data. These patterns are simply clusters of pixels with similar spectral characteristics.
iii. Signatures
The result of training is a set of signatures that defines a training sample or
cluster. Each signature corresponds to a class, and is used with a decision rule to assign the
pixels in the image file to a class. Signatures can be parametric (based on statistics
parameter) or non-parametric (based on feature space i.e. polygon or rectangles).
iv. Decision Rule
After the signatures are defined, the pixels of the image are sorted into classes based
on the signatures by use of a classification decision rule. The decision rule is a
mathematical algorithm that, using data contained in the signature, performs the actual
sorting of pixels into distinct class values.
a) Parametric Decision Rule
A parametric decision rule is trained by the parametric signatures. These signatures
are defined by the mean vector and covariance matrix for the data file values of the
pixels in the signatures. When a parametric decision rule is used, every pixel is assigned to
35
a class since the parametric decision space is continuous.

b) Nonparametric Decision Rule
If a pixel is located within the boundary of a nonparametric signature, then this
decision rule assigns the pixel to the signature’s class. Basically, a nonparametric decision
rule determines whether or not the pixel is located inside of nonparametric signature
boundary.
v. Output File
When classifying an image file, the output file is an image file with a thematic
raster layer. This file automatically contains class values, class names, color table, statistics,
and histogram.
3 Geometric Distortion in Imagery
Any remote sensing image, regardless of whether it is acquired by a
multispectral scanner on board a satellite, a photographic system in an aircraft, or any
other platform/sensor combination, will have various geometric distortions. This
problem is inherent in remote sensing, as we attempt to accurately represent the three-
dimensional surface of the Earth as a two-dimensional image. All remote sensing images
are subject to some form of geometric distortions, depending on the manner in which the
data are acquired. These errors may be due to a variety of factors, including one or more of
the following, to name only a few:
1. The perspective of the sensor optics
2. The motion of the scanning system
3. The motion and (in)stability of the platform
4. The platform altitude, attitude, and velocity
5. The terrain relief
6. The curvature and rotation of the Earth.
Along-track scanner, provide an instantaneous "snapshot" view of the Earth from directly
overhead. The primary geometric distortion is due to relief displacement. Objects directly
below the centre of the sensor (i.e. at the nadir) will have only their tops visible, while all
other objects will appear to lean away from the centre of the image such that their tops and
sides are visible. If the objects are tall or are far away from the centre of the photo, the
distortion and positional error will be larger.
36
Images from across-track scanning systems exhibit two main types of . They
too exhibit relief displacement ‘A’, similar to aerial photographs, but in only one direction
parallel to the direction of scan. There is no displacement directly below the sensor,
at nadir. As the sensor scans across the swath, the top and side of objects are imaged and
appear to lean away from the nadir point in each scan line. Again, the displacement
increases, moving towards the edges of the swath. Another distortion ‘B’ occurs due to the
rotation of the scanning optics. As the sensor scans across each line, the distance from the
sensor to the ground increases further away from the centre of the swath. Although the
scanning mirror rotates at a constant speed, the IFOV of the sensor moves faster (relative
to the ground) and scans a larger area as it moves closer to the edges. This effect results
in the compression of image features at points away from the nadir and is called tangential
scale distortion.
All images are susceptible to geometric distortions caused by variations in platform
stability including changes in their speed, altitude, and attitude (angular orientation with
respect to the ground) during data acquisition. These effects are most pronounced when
37
using aircraft platforms and are alleviated to a large degree with the use of satellite
platforms, as their orbits are relatively stable, particularly in relation to their distance from
the Earth. However, the eastward rotation of the Earth, during a satellite orbit causes the
sweep of scanning systems to cover an area slightly to the west of each previous scan. The
resultant imagery is thus skewed across the image. This is known as skew distortion and is
common in imagery obtained from satellite multispectral scanners.
38
CHAPTER 5
Maps and Coordinate System
A map can be defined as a graphic representation of the real world. This graphic
representation is always an abstraction or generation of reality because it is impossible to
capture all of the complexity found around us. Topographic maps are designed to abstract the
three–dimensional real world on a two-dimensional plane of paper. This abstraction removes
much of the detail found in the area depicted. For example, vegetated areas on a topographic
map are often colored a shade of green to represent the general presence of plants. Yet, in the
real world we know that these areas are populated by a variety of different sized pants
belonging to a number of different species.
Maps are used to display both cultural and physical features of the environment.
Standard topographic maps show a variety of information including roads, land-use
classification, elevation, rivers, water bodies, political boundaries and the identification of
houses and other types of buildings. Some maps are created with very specific goals in mind
like weather map for showing low and high pressure etc. The intended purpose of this type of
map is considerably more specialized than a topographic map. Early maps were quite
subjective in their presentation of spatial information. Maps become more objective and
accurate with the use of mathematics and science in cartography. Today the art of map
making is quite a sophisticated science employing methods from cartography, engineering,
computer science, mathematics and psychology.
1. Map
Cartographers, the individuals who construct maps, classify maps into two broad
categories: reference map and thematic map.
1. Reference map
It normally shows natural and human-made objects from the geographical environment
with an emphasis on location. Examples of general reference maps include maps found in
atlases and topographic maps.
39
2. Thematic map
It is used to display the geographical distribution of one phenomenon or the spatial
associations that occur between different phenomena.
2. Map Scale
Maps are rarely drawn at the same scale as the real world. Most maps are made at a
scale that is much smaller than the area of the actual surface being depicted. The amount of
reduction that has taken place is normally identified somewhere on the map. This
measurement is commonly referred to as the map scale. Conceptually, we can think of map
scale as the ratio of the distance between two points on the map compared to the actual
ground distance represented. This concept can also be expressed mathematically as:
On most maps, the map scale is represented by a simple fraction or ratio. This type of
description of a map’s scale is called representative fraction. For example, a map where one
unit (centimeter, meter, inch, kilometer etc.) on the illustration represents 1,000,000 of these
same units on the actual surface of the Earth would have a representative fraction of
Map Scale = Map Distance/Earth Distance

Figure 1 The graphic scale was drawn for map with a scale of 1:250,000
1/1,000,000 (fraction) or 1:1,000,000 (ratio). Of these mathematical representations of scale,
the ratio form is most commonly found on maps. Most maps also use graphic scale to portray
the distance relationships between the map and the real world. In a graphic scale, an
illustration is used to depict distances on the map in common units of measurement. Graphic
scales are quite useful because they can be used to measure distances on a map quickly. Scale
can also be represented on a map by a verbal statement. For example, 1:1,000,000 could be
verbally described as 1 cm on the map equals 10 km on the Earth’s surface or 1 inch
represents approximately 16 mile. The graphic scale was drawn for map with a scale of
1:250,000 in the illustration, distances in miles and kilometers are graphically shown ln
Figure 1. Maps are often described, in a relative sense, as being either small scale or large
scale. Figure 2 helps to explain this concept. In this figure, there are three maps representing
an area of the world at scales of 1:100,000; 1:50,000 and 1:25,000. Of this group, the map
40
drawn at 1:100,000 has the smallest scale relative to the two other maps. The map with the
largest scale is Map C, which is drawn at a scale of 1:25,000.
Figure 2 Relationship between map scale and the size of the ground area shown at
three different map scales.
The map on the far left has the smallest scale, while the map on the far right has the largest
scale. Note what happens to the amount of area represented on the maps when the scale is
changed. A doubling of the scale (1:100,000 to 1:50,000 and 1:50,000 to 1:25,000) causes the
area shown on the map to be reduced by 25% or one quarter.
Map Location Systems
Most maps allow us to specify the location of points on the Earth’s surface using a
coordinate system. For a two-dimensional map, this coordinate system can use simple
geometric relationships between the perpendicular axes on a grid system to define spatial
location (Figure 3).Two types of spatial coordinate systems are currently in general use:
a) Geographical coordinate system
The geographical coordinate system measures the location from only two values,
despite the fact that the locations are described for a three-dimensional surface. These values
used to define location are both measured relative to the polar axis of the Earth. The two
measures used in the geographic coordinate system are called latitude and longitude. Both of
these measures are expressed as an angle measured in degrees (o), minutes (’), and seconds
(").
Latitude measures the north-south position of locations on the Earth’s surface relative
to a point found at the centre of the Earth (Figure 4). The central point is also located on the
Earth’s rotational or polar axis. The equator is the starting point for the measuring latitude.
The equator has a value of 00. A line of latitude or parallel of 300 North has an angle that is 300
north of the plane represented by the equator (Figure 5). The maximum value that latitude can
41
attain is either 900 North or south. These lines of latitude run parallel to the rotational axis of
the Earth.
Figure 3 A grid coordinate system defines the location of points from the distance travelled along two
perpendicular axis from some stated origin. In the example above, the two axis are labeled X and Y. The origin is
located in the lower left hand corner. Unit distance traveled along each axis from the origin shown. In this
coordinate system, the value associated with the X-axis is given first, following by the value assigned from the Y-
axis. The location represented by the star has the coordinates 7 (X-axis), 4 (Y-axis).
Longitude measures the west-east position of location on the Earth’s surface relative
to a circular arc called the prime meridian (Figure 4). The position of the prime meridian was
determined by international agreement to be a line of longitude that is aligned with the
location of the former astronomical observatory at Greenwich, England. Because the Earth’s
circumference is similar to circle, it was decided to measure longitude in degrees. The number
of degrees found in a circle is 360. The prime meridian has a value of zero degrees. A line of
longitude or meridian of 450 West has a angle that is 450 west of the plane represented by the
prime meridian (Figure 5). The maximum value that a meridian of longitude can have is 1800,
which is the distance halfway around a circle. This meridian is called the International Date
Line. Designations of west and east are used to distinguish where a location is found relative
to the prime meridian. For example, all of the locations in North America have a longitude
that is designated west.
42
Figure 4: Lines of latitude or parallels are drawn parallel to the equator (shown in red) as
circles that span the Earth’s surface.
[These parallels are measure in degrees. There are 90 angular degrees of latitude from the equator to each of the
poles. The equator has an assigned value of 00. Measurements of latitude are also defined as being either north or
south of equator to distinguish the hemisphere of their location. Lines of longitude or meridians are circular arcs
that meet at the poles. There are 180 degrees of longitude either side of a starting meridian which is known the
prime meridian (shown in blue). The prime meridian has a designated value of 0 0. Measurements of longitude are
also defined as being either west or east of the prime meridian].
Figure 5 Measurement of latitude and longitude on the Earth.

[Latitude is measured relative to a point found on the centre of the polar axis. Measurements of the latitude range
from 0 to 900. Longitudes are identified as either north or south of the equator. Longitude is measured relative to
the equator plane and the prime meridian. Measurements of latitude range from 0 to 180 0. Longitudes are
identified as either west or east of the prime meridian].
43
b) Rectangular Coordinate System

Rectangular coordinate systems are used to define geographical location on two-
dimensional surfaces like maps. Most topographic maps use a specific type of rectangular
coordinate system called the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid system. The UTM
uses the meter (m) as its basic unit of measurement. UTM also employs the Transverse
Mercator projection system to model the Earth’s spherical surface onto a two-dimensional
plane. The UTM system divides the world’s surface into 60 six- degree longitude wide zones
that run north to south (Figure 6).
Figure 6 The UTM system also uses a grid system to break the Earth up into 1200
quadrilaterals.
[To keep the illustration manageable, most of these zones have been excluded. Designation of each quadrilateral
is accomplished with a number-letter system. Along the horizontal bottom, the six-degree longitude wide zones are
numbered, staring at 180 degree West longitude, from 1 to 60. The twenty vertical rows are assigned letters C to X
with 1 and 0 excluded. The letter, C, begins at 80 0 South latitude. Note that the rows are 80 of latitude wide, except
for the last row X which is 120 wide. According to the reference system, the bright green quadrilateral has the grid
reference 29V (note that in this system west-east coordinate is given first, followed by the south-north coordinate).
This grid zone is found between 56 and 640 North latitude and 6 and 120 West longitude].
These zones start at the International Date Line and are successively numbered in an
eastward direction. Each zone stretches from 840North to 800 South. In the centre of each of
these zones is a central meridian. Location is measured in these zones from a false origin that
is determined relative to the intersection of the equator and the central meridian for each zone.
For location in the Northern Hemisphere, the false origin is 500,000 meter west of the central
meridian the location found at 500 South and 90 West would have a UTM coordinate of Zone
29, 500000 m E, 441369 m N (remember that northing in the Southern Hemisphere is
measured from 10,000,000 m south of the equator (Figure 6).
The UTM system has been modified to make measurements less confusing. In this
modification, the six- degree wide zones are divided into smaller pieces or quadrilaterals that
44
are eight degrees of latitude tall. Each of these rows is labeled, starting at 80 0 South, with the
letters C to X consecutively and with I and O being omitted (Figure 6). The last row X differs
from the other rows and extends from 72 to 840 North latitude (twelve degrees tall). Each of
the quadrilaterals or grid zones is identified by their number/letter designation. In total, 1200
quadrilaterals are defined in the UTM system.
The quadrilateral system allows us to further define location using the UTM system.
For the location 500 North and 90 West, the UTM coordinate can now be expressed as Grid
Zone 29U, 500000 m E, 5538630 m north. Each UTM quadrilateral is further subdivided into
a number of 100,000 by 100,000 m zones. These subdivisions are coded by a system of letter
combinations where the same two- letter combination is not repeated within 180 of latitude
and longitude. Within each of the 100,000 by 100,000 m squares one can specify location to
one-meter accuracy using a 5-digit eastings and northings reference system.
The UTM system is displayed on all United States Geological Survey (USGS) and
National Topographic Series of Canada (NTS) maps. On USGS 7.5 - minute quadrangle maps
(1:24,000 scale), 15- minute quadrangle maps (1:50,000, 1:62,000, and standard edition
1:63,360 scales), and Canadian 1:50,000 maps the UTM grid lines are drawn at intervals of
1000 meters, and are shown either with blue ticks at the edge of the map or by full blue grid
lines. On USGS maps at 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 scale and Canadian 1:250,000 scale maps a
full UTM grid is shown at intervals of 10,000 meters.
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CHAPTER 6
GIS and GPS
1. Concepts of GIS
A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing,
querying, analyzing, and displaying geographic data. Like any other information technology,
GIS can be divided into the following four components:
1. Computer system
2. GIS software
3. Brain ware
4. Infrastructure
1. Computer System
The computer system includes the computer and the operating system to run GIS.
Typically the choices are PCs that use the Windows operating system (e.g., Windows 2000,
Windows XP) or workstations that use the UNIX operating system. Additional equipment
may include monitors for display, digitizers and scanners for spatial data input, and printers
and plotters for hard copy data display.
2. GIS Software
The GIS software includes the program and the user interface for driving the hardware.
Common user interfaces in GIS are menus, graphical icons, and commands.
3. Brain ware
Equally important as the computer hardware and software, the brain ware refers to the
purpose and objectives, and provides the reason and justification, for using GIS.
4. Infrastructure
The infrastructure refers to the necessary physical, organizational, administrative, and
cultural environments for GIS operations. The infrastructure includes requisite skills, data
standards, data clearinghouses, and general organizational patterns.
With a GIS application you can open digital maps on your computer, create new spatial
information to add to a map, create printed maps customized to your needs and perform
spatial analysis.
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Let's look at a little example of how GIS can be useful. Imagine you are a health worker
and you make a note of the date and place of residence of every patient you treat:
Longitude Latitude Disease Date
26.870436 31.909519 Mumps 13/12/2008
26.868682 31.909259 Mumps 24/12/2008
26.867707 31.910494 Mumps 22/01/2009
26.854908 31.920759 Measles 11/01/2009
26.855817 31.921929 Measles 26/01/2009
26.852764 31.921929 Measles 10/02/2009
26.854778 31.925112 Measles 22/02/2009
26.869072 31.911988 Mumps 02/02/2009
26.863354 31.916406 Chicken Pox 26/02/2009
E If you look at the table above you will quickly see that there were a lot of measles
cases in January and February. Our health worker recorded the location of each patient's
house by noting its latitude and longitude in the table. Using this data in a GIS Application,
we can quickly understand a lot more about the patterns of illness.
Since the 1970’s, GIS has been important in natural resource management, such as
land use planning, timber management, wildlife habitat analysis, riparian zone monitoring,
and natural hazard assessment. In more recent years, GIS has been used in emergency
planning, market analysis, facilities management, transportation planning, and military
applications. Integration of GIS with other technologies such as Global Positioning System
(GPS) and the Internet has introduced new applications. Its ability to handle and process
geographically referenced data distinguishes GIS from other information systems.
Geographically referenced data describe both the location and characteristics of spatial
features on the Earth’s surface. Roads and land use types are spatial features as are
precipitation and elevation. In describing a road, for example, we need to refer to its location
(i.e., where it is) and its characteristics (road classification, traffic volume, etc). GIS therefore
involves two geographic data components:
5. GIS Data
Data is another word for information. The information we use in a GIS normally has
a geographical aspect to it. For example a health care worker created a table to record diseases
that looked like this:
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26.870436 -31.909519 Mumps 13/12/2008

The longitude and latitude columns hold geographical data. The disease and date
columns hold non-geographical data. A common feature of GIS is that they allow you to
associate information (non-geographical data) with places (geographical data). In fact, the
GIS Application can store many pieces of information which are associated with each place –
something that paper maps are not very good at. For example, our health care worker could
store the person's age and gender on her table. When the GIS Application draws the layer, you
can tell it to draw the layer based on gender, or based on disease type, and so on. So, with a
GIS Application we have a way to easily change the appearance of the maps we created based
on the non-geographical data associated with places.
GIS Systems work with many different types of data:
A. Vector data
It is stored as a series of X, Y coordinate pairs inside the computer's memory. Vector
data is used to represent points (e.g. towns), lines (e.g. rivers) and areas/ polygons (e.g.
municipal boundaries).
It provides a way to represent real world features within the GIS environment. A
feature is anything you can see on the landscape. Imagine you are standing on the top of a hill.
Looking down you can see houses, roads, trees, rivers, and so on. Each one of these things
would be a feature when we represent them in a GIS Application. Vector features have
attributes, which consist of text or numerical information that describe the features.
A vector feature has its shape represented using geometry. The geometry is made up
of one or more interconnected vertices. A vertex describes a position in space using an x, y
and optionally z axis. Geometries which have vertices with a z axis are often referred to as
2.5D since they describe height or depth at each vertex, but not both. When a feature's
geometry consists of only a single vertex, it is referred to as a point feature.
Where the geometry consists of two or more vertices and the first and last vertex are
not equal, a poly line feature is formed. Where four or more vertices are present, and the last
vertex is equal to the first, an enclosed polygon feature is formed.
a) Point features
A point feature has an X, Y and optionally, Z value. The X and Y values will depend
on the Coordinate Reference System (CRS) being used. We are going to go into more detail
about Coordinate Reference Systems in a later tutorial. For now let's simply say that a CRS is
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a way to accurately describe where a particular place is on the earth's surface. One of the most
common reference systems is Longitude and Latitude.
Lines of Longitude run from the North Pole to the South Pole. Lines of Latitude run
from the East to West. You can describe precisely where you are at any place on the earth by
giving someone your Longitude (X) and Latitude (Y). If you make a similar measurement for
a tree or a telephone pole and marked it on a map, you will have created a point feature.
Since we know the earth is not flat, it is often useful to add a Z value to a point feature. This
describes how high above sea level you are.
b) Polygon features
Polygon features are enclosed areas like dams, islands, country boundaries and so
on. Like polyline features, polygons are created from a series of vertices that are connected
with a continuous line. However because a polygon always describes an enclosed area, the
first and last vertices should always be at the same place. Polygons often have shared
geometry – boundaries that are in common with a neighboring polygon. Many GIS
applications have the capability to ensure that the boundaries of neighboring polygons exactly
coincide. We will explore this in the topology topic later in this tutorial. As with points and
poly lines, polygons have attributes. The attributes describe each polygon. For example a
dam may have attributes for depth and water quality.
c) Vector data in layers
Now that we have described what vector data is, let's look at how vector data is
managed and used in a GIS environment. Most GIS applications group vector features into
layers. Features in a layer have the the same geometry type (e.g. they will all be points) and
the same kinds of attributes (e.g. information about what species a tree is for a trees layer).
For example if you have recorded the positions of all the footpaths in your school, they will
usually be stored together on the computer hard disk and shown in the GIS as a single layer.
This is convenient because it allows you to hide or show all of the features for that layer in
your GIS application with a single mouse click.
d) Editing vector data
The GIS application will allow you to create and modify the geometry data in a layer
– a process called digitizing – which we will look at more closely in a later tutorial. If a layer
contains polygons (e.g. farm dams), the GIS application will only allow you to create new
polygons in that layer. Similarly if you want to change the shape of a feature, the application
will only allow you to do it if the changed shape is correct. For example it won't allow you to
49
edit a line in such a way that it has only one vertex – remember in our discussion of lines
above that all lines must have at least two vertices.
Creating and editing vector data is an important function of a GIS since it is one of
the main ways in which you can create personal data for things you are interested in. Say for
example you are monitoring pollution in a river. You could use the GIS to digitize all outfalls
for storm water drains (as point features). You could also digitize the river itself (as a poly
line feature). Finally you could take readings of pH levels along the course of the river and
digitize the places where you made these readings (as a point layer).
As well as creating your own data, there is a lot of free vector data that you can obtain and
use. For example, you can obtain vector data that appears on the 1:50 000 map sheets from
the Chief Directorate: Surveys and Mapping.
e) Scale and vector data
Map scale is an important issue to consider when working with vector data in a GIS.
When data is captured, it is usually digitized from existing maps, or by taking information
from surveyor records and global positioning system devices. Maps have different scales, so
if you import vector data from a map into a GIS environment (for example by digitizing paper
maps), the digital vector data will have the same scale issues as the original map.
Many issues can arise from making a poor choice of map scale. For example using
the vector data to plan a wetland conservation area could result in important parts of the
wetland being left out of the reserve. On the other hand if you are trying to create a regional
map, using data captured at 1:1000 000 might be just fine and will save you a lot of time and
effort capturing the data.
f) Attributes in detail
Attributes for a vector feature are stored in a table. A table is like a spreadsheet. Each
column in the table is called a field. Each row in the table is a record. Table below Shows a
simple example of how an attribute table
looks in a GIS. The records in the attribute table in a GIS each correspond to
one feature. Usually the information in the attribute table is stored in some
kind of database. The GIS application links the attribute records with the
feature geometry so that you can find records in the table by selecting features on the map,
and find features on the map by selecting features in the table. An attribute table has fields
(columns) and records (in rows).
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Attribute Table
Record 1 1998 Red Yes
Record 2 2000 Black No
Record 3 2001 Silver Yes
Each field in the attribute table contains a specific type of data: text, numeric or date.
Deciding what attributes to use for a feature requires some thought and planning. In our house
for example, we chose roof colour, presence of a balcony and month of construction as
attributes of interest. We could just as easily have chosen other aspects of a house such as:
1. Number of levels
2. Number of rooms
3. Number of occupants
4. Type of dwelling (RDP House, block of flats, shack, brick house etc)
5. Year the house was built
6. Area of floor space in the house and so on....
g) Symbology:
When you add vector layers to the map view in a GIS application, they will be drawn
with random colours and basic symbols. One of the great advantages of using a GIS is that
you can create personalized maps very easily. The GIS program will let you choose colours to
suite the feature type (e.g. you can tell it to draw a water body’s vector layer in blue). The GIS
will also let you adjust the symbol used. So if you have a trees point layer, you can show each
tree position with a small picture of a tree, rather than the basic circle marker that the GIS
uses when you first load the layer. Symbology is a powerful feature, making maps come to
life and the data in your GIS easier to understand.
I. Single Symbol
If a feature is symbolized without using any attribute table data, it can only be drawn
in a simple way. For example with point features you can set the colour and marker (circle,
square, star etc.) but that is all. You cannot tell the GIS to draw the features based on one of
its properties in the attribute table. In order to do that, you need to use either a graduated,
continuous or unique value symbol.
A GIS application will normally allow you to set the symbology of a layer using a dialog
box. In this dialog box you can choose colours and symbol styles. Depending on the geometry
type of a layer, different options may be shown. For example with point layers you can
choose a marker style. With line and polygon layers there is no marker style option, but
51
instead you can select a line style and colour such as dashed orange for gravel roads, solid
orange for minor roads, and so on. With polygon layers you also have the option of setting a
fill style and colour.
II. Graduated Symbol
Sometimes vector features represent things with a changing numerical value. Contour
lines are a good example of this. Each contour usually has an attribute value called 'height'
that contains information about what height that contour represents. For example we can
draw low lying areas with one colour, mid-altitude areas with another and high-altitude areas
with a third.
III. Continuous Colour Symbol
In the previous section on Graduated Colour symbols we saw that we can draw
features in discrete groups or classes. Sometimes it is useful to draw features in a colour
range from one colour to another. The GIS Application will use a numerical attribute value
from a feature (e.g. contour heights or pollution levels in a stream) to decide which colour to
use. Continuous colour symbology uses a start colour (e.g. light orange shown here) and an
end colour (e.g. dark brown shown here) and creates a series of shades between those colours.
After defining the minimum and maximum colours in the colour range, the colour
features are drawn in will depend on where the attribute lies in the range between minimum
and maximum. For example if you have contour features with values starting at 1000m and
ending at 1400m, the value range is 1000 to 1400. If the colour set for the minimum value is
set to orange and the colour for the maximum value is black, contours with a value of close to
1400 m will be drawn close to black. On the other hand contours with a value near to 1000m
will be drawn close to orange.
IV. Unique Value Symbol
Sometimes the attributes of features are not numeric, but instead strings are used.
'String' is a computer term meaning a group of letters, numbers and other writing symbols.
Strings attributes are often used to classify things by name. We can tell the GIS Application to
give each unique string or number its own colour and symbol. Road features may have
different classes (e.g. 'street', 'secondary road', 'main road' etc.), each drawn in the map view
of the GIS with different colours or symbols.
Deciding which attributes and symbology to use requires some planning. Before you
start collecting any GeoSpatial data, you should ensure you know what attributes are needed
and how it will be symbolized. It is very difficult to go back and re-collect data if you plan
52
poorly the first time around. Remember also that the goal of collecting attribute data is to
allow you to analyse and interpret spatial information.
Symbology is a visual language that allows people to see and understand your
attribute data based on the colours and symbols you use.
h. GIS digital data storage
Word processors, spreadsheets and graphics packages are all programs that letyou
create and edit digital data. Each type of application saves its data into a particular file format.
For example, a graphics program will let you save your drawing as a '.jpg' JPEG image, word
processors let you save your document as an '.odt' Open Document or '.doc' Word Document,
and so on.
Just like these other applications, GIS Applications can store their data in files on the
computer hard disk.
There are a number of different file formats for GIS data, but the most common one is
probably the 'shape file'. The name is a little odd in that although we call it a shape file
(singular), it actually consists of at least three different files that work together to store your
digital vector
data, as shown below:
.shp The geometry of vector features are stored in this file
.dbf The attributes of vector features are stored in this file
.shx This file is an index that helps the GIS Application to find features more quickly.
Many GIS Applications are also able to store digital data inside a database. In general storing
GIS data in a database is a good solution because the database can store large amounts of data
efficiently and can provide data to the GIS Application quickly. Using a database also allows
many people to work with the same vector data layers at the same time.
For the attributes we would want a field for each thing that describes the sample site.
So we may end up with an attribute table that looks something like as below:
1 7 6 N Low Patience 12/01/2009
2 6.8 5 Y Medium Thabo 12/01/2009
3 6.9 6 Y High Victor 12/01/2009
i. Creating an empty shape file
Once you have planned what features you want to capture into the GIS, and the
geometry type and attributes that each feature should have, you can move on to the next step
of creating an empty shapefile. The process usually starts with choosing the 'new vector layer'
53
option in your GIS Application and then selecting geometry type either point, poly line or
polygon.
Computer programs usually call information that is made up of words or sentences
'strings', so if you need to store something like a street name or the name of a river, you
should use string for the field type.
The shape file format allows you to store the numeric field information as eithera
whole number (integer) or a decimal number (floating point), so you need to think
beforehand whether the numeric data you are going to capture will have decimal places or
not.
The final step for creating a shape file is to give it a name and a place on the
computer hard disk where it should be created. Once again it is a good idea to give the shape
file a short and meaningful name. Good examples are 'rivers', 'water samples' and so on.
ii. Adding data to your shape file
So far we have only created an empty shape file. Now we need to enable editing in
the shape file using the 'enable editing' menu option or tool bar icon in the GIS Application.
Shape files are not enabled for editing by default to prevent accidentally changing or deleting
the data they contain. Next we need to start adding data. There are two steps we need to
complete for each record we add to the shape file:
1. Capturing geometry
2. Entering attributes
The process of capturing geometry is different for points, poly lines and polygons. To
capture a point, you first use the map pan and zoom tools to get to the correct geographical
area that you are going to be recording data for. Next you will need to enable the point
capture tool. Having done that, the next place you click with the left mouse button in the map
view, is where you want your new point geometry to appear. After you click on the map, a
window will appear and you can enter all of the attribute data for that point
To capture a poly line the process is similar to that of a point, in that you need to first
use the pan and zoom tools to move the map in the map view to the correct geographical area.
You should be zoomed in enough so that your new vector poly line feature will have an
appropriate scale.
You can click the poly line capture icon in the tool bar and then start drawing your
line by clicking on the map. After you make your first click, you will notice that the line
stretches like an elastic band to follow the mouse cursor around as you move it. Each time
54
you click with the left mouse button, a new vertex will be added to the map. When you have
finished defining your line, use the right mouse button to tell the GIS Application that you
have completed your edits. As with the procedure for capturing a point feature, you will then
be asked to enter in the attribute data for your new poly line feature.
The process for capturing a polygon is almost the same as capturing a Poly line
except that you need to use the polygon capture tool in the tool bar. Also, you will notice that
when you draw your geometry on the screen, the GIS Application always creates an enclosed
area. To add a new feature after you have created your first one, you can simply click again
on the map with the point, poly line or polygon capture tool active and start to draw your next
feature.
When you have no more features to add, always be sure to click the 'allow editing' icon to
toggle it off. The GIS Application will then save your newly created layer to the hard disk.
iii. Geo-referencing
Geo-referencing is the process of defining exactly where on the earth's surface an
image or raster dataset was created. This positional information is stored with the digital
version of the aerial photo. When the GIS application opens the photo, it uses the positional
information to ensure that the photo appears in the correct place on the map. Normally this
positional information consists of a coordinate for the top left pixel in the image, the size of
each pixel in the X direction, the size of each pixel in the Y direction, and the amount (if any)
by which the image is rotated. With these few pieces of information, the GIS application can
ensure that raster data are displayed in the correct place. The geo-referencing information for
a raster is often provided in a small text file accompanying the raster.
B. Raster data
They are stored as a grid of values. There are many satellites circling the earth and the
photographs they take are a kind of raster data that can be viewed in a GIS. One important
difference between raster and vector data is that if you zoom in too much on a raster image, it
will start to appear 'blocky'. In fact these blocks are the individual cells of the data grid that
makes up the raster image.
a. Sources of raster data
Raster data can be obtained in a number of ways. Two of the most common ways are
aerial photography and satellite imagery. In aerial photography, an aeroplane flies over an
area with a camera mounted underneath it. The photographs are then imported into a
computer and geo-referenced. Satellite imagery is created when satellites orbiting the earth
55
point special digital cameras towards the earth and then take an image of the area on earth
theyare passing over. Once the image has been taken it is sent back to earth using radio
signals to special receiving stations.
b. Raster to vector conversion
In our discussion of vector data, we explained that often raster data are used as a
backdrop layer, which is then used as a base from which vector features can be digitized.
Another approach is to use advanced computer programs to automatically extract vector
features from images. Some features such as roads show in an image as a sudden change of
colour from neighboring pixels. The computer program looks for such colour changes and
creates vector features as a result. This kind of functionality is normally only available in very
specialized (and often expensive) GIS software.
c. Vector to raster conversion
Sometimes it is useful to convert vector data into raster data. One side effect of this is
that attribute data (that is attributes associated with the original vector data) will be lost when
the conversion takes place. Having vectors converted to raster format can be useful though
when you want to give GIS data to non GIS users. With the simpler raster formats, the person
you give the raster image to can simply view it as an image on their computer without
needing any special GIS software.
d. Raster analysis
There are a great many analytical tools that can be run on raster data which cannot be
used with vector data. For example, rasters can be used to model water flow over the land
surface. This information can be used to calculate where watersheds and stream networks
exist, based on the terrain. Raster data are also often used in agriculture and forestry to
manage crop production.
e. Topology
It expresses the spatial relationships between connecting or adjacent vector features
(points, poly lines and polygons) in a GIS. Topological or topology-based data are useful for
detecting and correcting digitizing errors (e.g. two lines in a roads vector layer that do not
meet perfectly at an intersection). Topology is necessary for carrying out some types of
spatial analysis, such as network analysis.
i. Topology errors
There are different types of topological errors and they can be grouped according to
whether the vector feature types are polygons or polylines.
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Topological errors with polygon features can include unclosed polygons, gaps between
polygon borders or overlapping polygon borders. A common topological error with poly line
features is that they do not meet perfectly at a point (node). This type of error is called an
under shoot if a gap exists between the lines, and an overshoot if a line ends beyond the line it
should connect to.
ii. Topology rules
Fortunately, many common errors that can occur when digitizing vector features can
be prevented by topology rules that are implemented in many GIS applications.
The following list shows some examples of where topology rules can be defined for real
world features in a vector map.
1. Area edges of a municipality map must not overlap.
2. Area edges of a municipality map must not have gaps (slivers).
3. Polygons showing property boundaries must be closed. Undershoots or overshoots
of the border lines are not allowed.
4. Contour lines in a vector line layer must not intersect (cross each other).
5. GIS Application
You can see an example of a GIS Application in figure 1. GIS Applications are
normally programs with a graphical user interface that can be manipulated using the mouse
and keyboard. The application provides menus near to the top of the window (File, Edit etc.)
which, when clicked using the mouse, show a panel of actions. These actions provide a way
for you to tell the GIS Application what you want to do. For example you may use the menus
to tell the GIS Application to add a new layer to the display output.
Toolbars (rows of small pictures that can be clicked with the mouse) normally sit just
below the menus and provide a quicker way to use frequently needed actions. A common
function of GIS Applications is to display map layers. Map layers are stored as files on a disk
or as records in a database. Normally each map layer will represent something in the real
world – a roads layer for example will have data about the street network. When you open a
layer in the GIS Application it will appear in the map view.
The map view shows a graphic representing your layer. When you add more than one
layer to a map view, the layers are overlaid on top of each other. Figures below show a map
view that has several layers being added to it. An important function of the map view is to
allow you to zoom in to magnify, zoom out to see a greater area and move around (panning)
in the map.
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Figure 1 Example showing disease records in a GIS application.
Figure 2 Different layers added to the map view.
58
Unlike paper maps, the maps displayed in GIS Applications can be changed after they
have been created. You can change the symbology of the map layers to make them appear in
different colours or symbols. For example, if we take the map in figure 2 and change the
symbology, we can completely change how it looks as shown in bottom part of figure 2.
Symbology plays an important role in how we interpret maps, and GIS Applications are very
good at letting you change symbology quickly and easily.
Another common feature of GIS Applications is the map legend. The map legend
provides a list of layers that have been loaded in the GIS Application. Unlike a paper map
legend, the map legend or 'layers list' in the GIS Application provides a way to re-order, hide,
show and group layers. Changing the layer order is done by clicking on a layer in the legend,
holding the mouse button down and then dragging the layer to a new position.
2 Concept of GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based radio-positioning and time
transfer system designed, financed, deployed, and operated by the U.S. Department of
Defense. GPS has also demonstrated a significant benefit to the civilian community who are
applying GPS to a rapidly expanding number of applications. GPS applications is increasing
day by day due to
i) The relatively high positioning accuracies, from tens of meters down to the
millimeter level.
ii) The capability of determining velocity and time, to an accuracy commensurate with
position.
iii) The signals are available to users anywhere on the globe: in the air, on the ground, or
at sea.
iv) It is a positioning system with no user charges, that simply requires the use of
relatively low cost hardware.
v) It is in all-weather conditions, available 24 hours a day.
vi) The position information is in three dimensions, that is, vertical as well as horizontal
information is provided.
The number of civilian users is already significantly greater than that of the military
users. However, for the time being the U.S. military still operates several "levers" with which
they control the performance of GPS. Nevertheless, despite the handicap of GPS being a
military system there continues to be tremendous product innovation within the civilian
sector, and it is ironic that this innovative drive is partly directed to developing technology
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and procedures to overcome some of the constraints to GPS performance which have been
applied by the system's military operators.
a) GPS systems
i. Design Consideration
Development work on GPS commenced within the U.S. Department of Defense in
1973, the motivation being to develop an all-weather, 24-hour, global positioning system to
support the positioning requirements for the armed forces of the U.S. and its allies. The
system was therefore designed to replace the large variety of navigational systems already in
use, and great emphasis was placed on the system's reliability and survivability. In short, a
number of stringent conditions had to be met:
i) Suitable for all classes of platform: aircraft (jet to helicopter), ship, land (vehicle-
mounted to handheld) and space(missiles and satellites)
ii) Able to handle a wide variety of dynamics, real-time positioning, velocity and time
determination capability to an appropriate accuracy
iii) The positioning results were to be available on a single global geodetic datum
iv) Highest accuracy to be restricted to a certain class of user,
v) Resistant to jamming (intentional and unintentional)
vi) Redundancy provisions to ensure the survivability of the system
vii) Passive positioning system that does not require the transmission of signals from
the user to the satellites
viii) Able to provide the service to an unlimited number of users
ix) Low cost, low power, therefore as much complexity as possible should be built
into the satellite segment, and total replacement of the Transit1 satellite and other
terrestrial navaid systems.
This led to a design based on the following essential concepts:
1. A one-way ranging system, in which the satellites transmit signals, but are unaware of
who is using the signal (no receiving function). As a result the user (or listener) cannot
easily be: (a) detected by the enemy (military context), or (b) charged for using the
system (civilian context).
2. Use of the latest atomic clock and microwave transmission technology, including spread
spectrum
techniques.
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3. A system that makes range-like measurements with the aid of pseudo-random binary
codes modulated on carrier signals.
4. Satellite signals that are unaffected by cloud and rain.
5. A multiple satellite system which ensures there is always a sufficient number of
satellites visible simultaneously anywhere on the globe, and at any time.
6. Positioning accuracy degradation that is graceful. For example, GPS is able to
simultaneously a variety of users, from those satisfied with general navigational
accuracies (tens of meters) to those demanding very high (sub-centimeter) relative
positioning accuracies. It has now so penetrated certain applications areas that it is
difficult for us to support a number of positioning and measurement modes in order to
satisfy imagine life without GPS
Rarely have so many seemingly unrelated technological advances been required to make
a complex system such as GPS work. Briefly they are:
1. Space System Reliability
The U.S. space program had by 1973 demonstrated the reliability of space hardware. In
particular, the Transit system had offered important lessons. The Transit satellites were
originally designed to last 2-3 years in orbit, yet some of the satellites have operated well
beyond their design life. In fact Transit continued to perform reliably for over 25years.
2. Atomic Clock Technology
With the development of atomic clocks a new era of precise timekeeping had
commenced. However, before the GPS program was launched these precise clocks had never
been tested in space. The development of reliable, stable, compact, space-qualified atomic
frequency oscillators (rubidium, and then cesium) was therefore a significant technological
breakthrough. The advanced clocks now being used on the GPS satellites routinely achieve
long-term frequency stability in the range of a few parts in 1014 per day (about1 sec in
3,000,000 years). This long-term stability is one of the keys to GPS, as it allows for the
autonomous, synchronized generation and transmission of accurate timing signals by each of
the GPS satellites without continuous monitoring from the ground.
3. Quartz Crystal Oscillator Technology
In order to keep the cost of user equipment down, quartz crystal oscillators were
proposed (similar to those used in modern digital watches), rather than using atomic clocks as
in the GPS satellites. Besides their low cost, quartz oscillators have excellent short-term
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stability. However, their long-term drift must be accounted for as part of the user position
determination process.
4. Precise Satellite Tracking and Orbit Determination
Successful operation of GPS, as well as the Transit system, depends on the precise
knowledge and prediction of a satellite's position with respect to an earth-fixed reference
system. Tracking data collected by ground monitor stations is analyzed to determine the
satellite orbit over the period of tracking (typically one week). This reference ephemeris is
extrapolated into the future and the data is then up-loaded to the satellites. Prediction
accuracies of the satellite coordinates, for one day, at the few meter level have been
demonstrated.
5. Spread-Spectrum Technology
The ability to track and obtain any selected GPS satellite signal (a receiver will be
required to track a number of satellites at the same time), in the presence of considerable
ambient noise is a critical technology. This is now possible using spread-spectrum and
pseudo-random-noise coding techniques.
6. Large-Scale Integrated Circuit Technology
To realize the desired low cost, low power and small size necessary for much of the
user equipment, the GPS program relies heavily on the successful application of VLSI
circuits, and powerful computing capabilities built onto them. The GPS system (Figure 3)
consists of three segments:
Figure 3 GPS System Elements
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i. Space Segment
The Space Segment consists of the constellation of spacecraft and the signals
broadcast by them which allow users to determine position, velocity and time. The basic
functions of the satellites are to:
1) Receive and store data transmitted by the Control Segment stations.
2) Maintain accurate time by means of several onboard atomic clocks.
3) Transmit information and signals to users on two L-band frequencies.
4) Provide a stable platform and orbit for the L-band transmitters.
Several constellations of GPS satellites have been deployed, and several more are
planned. The experimental satellites, the so-called "Block I" satellites, were built by the
Rockwell Corporation. The first was launched in February 1978, and the last of the eleven
satellite series (one exploded on the launch pad) was launched in 1985. The operational
series of GPS satellites, the "Block II" and "Block IIA" satellites were also built by the
Rockwell Corporation. The 20 replacement “ Block IIR" series of satellites, first launched in
1997, are built by the General Electric Corporation (now the Lockheed Martin Corporation).
The operational satellite I.D.s are separated into three space vehicle numbering series: SVN 13
through 21 for the Block II, SVN 22 through 40 for Block IIA, and SVN 41 and above for
the Block IIR satellites.
The current status of the GPS constellation and such details as the launch and official
commissioning date, the orbital plane and position within the plane, the satellite I.D.
number(s), etc., can be obtained from several electronic GPS information sources on the
Internet.
Each GPS satellite transmits a unique navigational signal centered on two L-band
frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum, permitting the ionospheric propagation
effect on t h e signals to be eliminated. At these frequencies the signals are highly directional
and so are easily reflected or blocked by solid objects. Clouds are easily penetrated, but the
signals may be blocked by foliage (the extent of blockage is dependent on the type and density
of the leaves and branches, and whether they are wet or dry). The signal is transmitted with
enough power to ensure a minimum signal power level of -160dBw at the earth's surface
(the maximum it is likely to reach is about -153dBw). The satellite signal consists of the
following components (figure 4):
a) The two L-band carrier waves.
b) The ranging codes modulated on the carrier waves.
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c) The so-called "navigation message".
Figure 4 GPS Satellite Signal Components

The primary function of the ranging codes is to permit the signal transit time (from
satellite to receiver) to be determined. The transit time when multiplied by the velocity of light
then gives a measure of the receiver-satellite "range" The navigation message contains the
satellite orbit information, satellite clock parameters, and pertinent general system information
necessary for real-time navigation to be performed. All signal components are derived from the
output of a highly stable atomic clock. Each GPS satellite is equipped with several cesium and
rubidium atomic clocks.
2 The Control Segment
The Control Segment consists of facilities necessary for satellite health monitoring,
telemetry, tracking, command and control, satellite orbit and clock data computations, and data
unlinking. There are five ground facility stations: Hawaii, Colorado Springs, Ascension Island,
Diego Garcia and Kwajalein. All are owned and operated by the U.S. Department of Defense
and perform as under:
a) All five stations are Monitor Stations, equipped with GPS receivers to track the
satellites. The resultant tracking data is sent to the Master Control Station.
b) Colorado Springs is the Master Control Station (MCS), where the tracking data are
processed in order to compute the satellite ephemerides and satellite clock corrections. It
is also the station that initiates all operations of the space segment, such as spacecraft
maneuvering, signal encryption, satellite clock-keeping, etc.
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c) Three of the stations (Ascension Is., Diego Garcia, and Kwajalein) are Upload Stations
allowing for the uplink of data to the satellites. The data includes the orbit and clock
correction information transmitted within the navigation message, as well as command
telemetry from the MCS.
(Overall operation of the Control and Space Segments is the responsibility of the U.S. Air Force Space
Command, Second Space Wing, Satellite Control Squadron at the Falcon Air Force Base, Colorado).
Each of the upload stations can view all the satellites once a day. All satellites are
therefore in contact with an upload station three times a day, and new navigation messages as
well as command telemetry can be transmitted to the GPS satellites every eight hours if
necessary. The computation of (a) Satellite orbits or "ephemerides" and (b) Determination of
the satellite clock errors i s the most important function of the Control Segment. The first is
necessary because the GPS satellites function as "orbiting control stations" and their
coordinates must be known to a relatively high accuracy, while the latter permit a significant
measurement bias to be reduced.
The GPS satellites travel at high velocity (of the order of 4 km/sec), but within
a more or less regular orbit pattern. After a satellite has separated from its launch
rocket and it begins orbiting the earth, it's orbit is defined by its initial position and
velocity, and the various force fields acting on the satellite. In the case of the
gravitational field for a spherically symmetric body this produces an elliptical orbit
which is fixed in space, the Keplerian ellipse. Due to the effects of the other, non-
spherical gravitational components of the earth's gravity field, and non-gravitational
forces, which perturb the orbit, the actual trajectory of the satellite departs from the
ideal Keplerian ellipse (Figure 5).
The most significant forces that influence satellite motion are:
1) Spherical and non-spherical gravitational attraction of the earth
2) Gravitational attractions of the sun, moon, and planets
3) Atmospheric drag effects
4) Solar radiation pressure (both direct and albedo effects)
5) Variable part of the earth's gravitational field arising from the solid earth and
ocean tides.
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Figure 5 (a) The Keplerian Ellipse, and (b) Keplerian Orbital Elements.
3 User Segment
This is the part of the GPS system with which we are most concerned and includes:
a) Applications,
b) Equipment and
c) Positioning strategies.
Each day new applications are being identified, each with its unique requirements with
regards to: accuracy of the results, reliability, operational constraints, user hardware, data
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processing algorithms, latency of the GPS results, etc. Its applications are classified into the
following:
1. Land, Sea and Air Navigation and Tracking, including enroute as well as precise navigation,
collision avoidance, cargo monitoring, vehicle tracking, search and rescue operations, etc.
2. Surveying and Mapping, on land, at sea and from the air. Includes geophysical and resource
surveys, GIS data capture surveys, etc.
3. Military Applications (Although these are largely mirrored by civilian applications, the
military GPS systems are generally developed to "military specifications" and a greater
emphasis is placed on system reliability).
4. Recreational Uses, on land, at sea and in the air.
5. Other specialized uses, such as time transfer, attitude determination, spacecraft operations,
atmospheric studies, etc.
a) GPS Equipment
GPS user equipment has undergone an extensive program of development, both in the
military and civilian area. In this context, GPS "equipment" comprises of:
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Operational procedures or requirements.
The basic concept of GPS positioning is that of positioning-by-ranges. The geometrical
principles of positioning can be demonstrated in terms of the intersection of loci. In the two-
dimensional case, a measured range to a known point constrains the position to lie on circle
with the measured range as radius. In three dimensions a measured range to a known point
constrains the position in 3 – D space to lie on the surface of a sphere centered at the known
point, with radius being the measured distance (Figure 6). In the case of GPS, the distance
measurement is made to a satellite with known position; however the principle applies to any
range measuring positioning system, terrestrial or satellite-based.
In two dimensions, position can be defined as the intersection of two circles, involving
distances d1 and d2 to two known points, as shown in figure 7. Note that there are two
possible solutions, only one of which is correct. In general one solution can be discarded
rather easily through a prior knowledge of approximate position and velocity. Another
possibility is to measure another range to a third point and if all ranges are measured
without error the intersection of three LOPs is a single uniquely defined point.
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Figure 6 Surfaces of Position for Range Measurements.
Figure 7 The Intersection of Circular Lines of Position for 2-D Positioning.

In the three-dimensional case, the intersection of three spheres describes two points in
space, only one of which is correct (Figure 8). Hence, a minimum of three ranges are
required, to three separated known points, in order to solve the 3-D position problem. The
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quality of the positioning solution is dependent, amongst other things, on the accuracy with
which the ranges can be measured and the geometry of the intersection.
Figure 8 Intersections of Surfaces of Position Based on Range Measurements.

If the point being positioned is stationary, the two (or three) ranges do not need to
be measured simultaneously. If the point is moving however, all ranges must be measured
simultaneously (or over an interval of time during which the point has not moved by an
amount greater than the uncertainty of the "fix"). Because the GPS constellation was
designed to ensure at least four satellites are always visible anywhere on the earth, satellite
positioning using simultaneously measured ranges is the basic positioning strategy for most
navigation applications.
However, there is still the issue of how to account for measurement biases, as the
technology used for making GPS range measurements does not give calibrated distance from
the receiver to the satellite. Disturbing influences and errors in fact contaminate the range
measurements to an unacceptable degree, and hence the basic positioning principle is
modified in several ways to satisfy the varying levels of accuracies required by different
applications
b) GPS Satellite Constellation and Signal
i. GPS Constellation Design
GPS satellites are in nearly circular orbits, at an altitude of approximately 20,200km
above the earth (Figure 9), this has a number of consequences:
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i) Their orbital period is approximately 11hrs 58mins, so that each satellite makes
two revolutions in one sidereal day (the period taken for the earth to complete
one rotation about its axis with respect to the stars)
ii) At the end of a sidereal day (23hrs 56mins in length) the satellites are again over
the same position on earth.
iii) Reckoned in terms of a solar day (24hrs in length), the satellites are in the same
position in the sky about four minutes earlier each day.
iv) The orbit ground track approximately repeats each day, except that there is a
very small drift of the orbital plane to the west which is arrested by periodic
manoeuvres.
Figure 9 The GPS Constellation "Birdcage".

The following general remarks can be made with regard to satellite constellation design
for navigation purposes:
1. Higher a satellite, the longer it is visible above the horizon (the extreme case is the
geostationary satellites).
2. Higher a satellite, the better the coverage due to longer fly-over passes and extended
visibility of the satellite across large areas of the earth.
3. Higher a satellite, the less the rate-of-change of distance, and the lower the Doppler
frequency of a transmitted signal.
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4. Greater the angle of inclination, the more northerly the track of the sub-satellite point
across the surface of the earth.
5. No satellite can be seen simultaneously from all locations on the earth.
6. Depending on the positioning principles being employed, there may be a
requirement for observations to be made to more than one satellite simultaneously
from more than one ground station.
ii. GPS Signal
The basis of the GPS signal is the two L-band carrier signals. These are generated by
multiplying the fundamental frequency fo (10.23MHz) by 154 and 120, yielding the two
microwave L-band carrier waves L1 and L2 respectively (figure 1.2). The frequency of the
two waves is: fL1 = fo x 154 =1575.42 MHz, and fL2 = fo x 120 = 1227.6 MHz.
These are radio frequency wave’s capable oftransmission through the atmosphere over
great distances, but which cannot penetrate solid objects.All GPS satellites transmit carrier
waves at the same two L-band frequencies (unlike the GLONASS system, where a
different frequency is assigned to each satellite. However, the L-band carrier waves
themselves carry no information, and must be modified (or modulated) in some way. In
the Global Positioning System the L-band carrier waves are modulated by two ranging codes,
and the navigation message. The two distinct GPS ranging codes are:
1) C/A code (sometimes referred to as the "clear/access" or "coarse/acquisition" code),
sometimes also known as the "S code".
2) P code (the "private" or "precise" code) was designed for use only by the military, and
other authorized users.
The L1 carrier was designed to be modulated with both the P and C/A codes, whereas
the L2 carrier would be modulated only with the P code. Under the policy of Anti-Spoofing
(Section 1.2.3) the P code is encrypted through modulation by a further secret code (the "W
code") to produce a new "Ycode". Both carrier signals contain the navigation message.
The C/A and P (or Y) codes provide the means by which a GPS receiver can measure one-way
ranges to the satellites. Both the C/A and P code generating algorithms are known, and are
based on a simple Tapped Feedback Shift Register scheme. One C/A code is assigned to
each GPS satellite (the PRN code number is often used as the satellite I.D.). Each C/A code
is a 1023 "chip" long binary sequence, generated at a rate of 1.023 million chips per second
(that is, 1.023 MHz), thus the entire C/A code sequence repeats every millisecond.
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The P code is a far more complex binary sequence of 0's and 1's, being some 267
days long with a chipping rate at the fundamental frequency fo (10.23 MHz). The resolution
of this code (length of the P code chip) is ten times the resolution of the C/A code. Instead
of assigning each satellite a unique code, as is the case with the C/A code, the P code is
allocated such that each satellite transmits a one week portion of the 267 day long PRN
sequence, restarting the code sequence at the end of each week.
To measure one-way range (from satellite to receiver), a knowledge of the ranging
code(s) is required by the user's receiver. Knowing which PRN code is being transmitted by
a satellite means that a receiver can generate a local replica of the same code sequence.
These PRN codes possess a very important attribute: a given C/A (or P or Y) code will fully
correlate with an exact replica of itself only when the two codes are aligned, and have a low
degree of correlation with other alignments.
As the same P (or Y) code is synchronously modulated on both carrier waves, any difference
in signal transit time of the same PRN sequence is due to the retardation of the two L-band
signals by a different amount as they travel through the ionosphere. The effect of the
ionosphere on signal propagation is essentially a function of signal frequency; hence
measurement on both frequencies is a very effective way of overcoming the ionospheric signal
delay.
c) GPS measurements
1. Transmitted Signal
The signal that actually leaves a GPS satellite antenna is a combination of the three
components: carrier wave, ranging codes and navigation message. There are two distinct
procedures for the combination of signal components: (a) BPSK modulation of binary
sequences onto the carrier waves, and (b) modulo-2 addition of binary sequences.
There are two main types of measurements that can be made on the GPS signals:
1. Range observations based on the PRN codes, sometimes referred to as "code
range" or" code phase".
2. Carrier phase observations, which are more precise range-type measurements,
but which have a much higher degree of "ambiguity" than the code ranges.
2. GPS Range
The PRN codes are accurate time marks that permit the receiver's navigation computer
to determine the time of transmission for any portion of the satellite signal.
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The L1 carrier modulated by the C/A code is converted to a signal of lower frequency
and then mixed with a locally generated matching C/A code. The local C/A code is generated
on a different time scale (due to non-synchronization of receiver clock to GPS Time and the
travel time of the signal from the satellite to antenna) to that of the incoming C/A code. As
soon as the incoming signal and the receiver C/A code sequences are aligned within the
receiver the ones and zeros of the two codes cancel, leaving the received carrier modulated only
by the binary navigation message.
The extraction of the code range, or more precisely the determination of the amount
by which the receiver generated PRN code must be shifted to align it with the incoming
signal, is carried out with the aid of a PRN code correlator in some form "delay-lock loop"
scheme.
It should be noted, however, that modern "narrow correlator" C/A code measurement
technology as implemented in several "top-end" GPS receivers has demonstrated ten times
better correlation performance for the C/A code correlation than that quoted above.
3. GPS Carrier Phase
The wavelengths of the carrier waves are very short (approximately 19cm for L1 and
24cm for L2) compared to the C/A and P code wavelengths. Assuming a measurement
resolution of 1-2% of the wavelength, this means that carrier phase can be measured to
millimeter precision compared with a few metres for C/A code measurements. Unfortunately
a phase measurement is ambiguous as it cannot discriminate one (L1 or L2) wavelength
from another. In other words, time of transmission information for the L-band signal
cannot be imprinted onto the carrier wave as is done using PRN codes (this would be
possible only if the PRN code frequency was the same as the carrier wave, rather than 154 or
120 times lower in the case of the P code, and 1540 or 1200 times lower for the
o o
C/Acode). The basic phase measurement is therefore an angle in the range 0 to 360 .
iv. Ranging Using PRN Codes
Consider for a moment a perfect system, where all satellite clocks are synchronized to
the same time system: the GPS Time (GPST). Furthermore, the ground receiver's clock also
maintains the same synchronization, and none of the clocks drift from this GPST scale.
Now suppose the satellite starts transmitting its L1 carrier (modulated with the combined C/A
PRN code and navigation data). At the same instant, the receiver begins generating the C/A
PRN code corresponding to that particular satellite (Figure 10). Under these circumstances the
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satellite and receiver generated C/A codes would be output in unison. When the satellite
signal is received, however, it will be lagging the receiver generated code due to the signal
transit time. Multiplying the time offset required aligning the two codes (in effect
determining the signal transit time) by the speed of light yields the satellite to receiver distance.
Figure 10 One-Way Ranging Using PRN Codes.

v. Observation Model of the Pseudo-Range
The observation equation for a receiver-clock-biased range is:
p = r + erc(tr ).c
Where,
c = Velocity of electromagnetic radiation in a vacuum (or simply the "velocity of
light")
erc = Receiver clock error caused by the receiver oscillator (assume satellite clock
time is "true" time) at time of reception tr
p = Measured range
r = True "geometric" range.
Each observation made by the receiver can be parameterized as follows:

(x – x)2 + (ys – y)2 + (zs – z)2 = (p – erc.c)2
Where,
xs, ys , zs = Coordinate of the satellite and x, y, z is the coordinate of the

receiver.
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As the 3-D coordinate of the satellite is known, then each measurement p contains
four parameters which may be considered unknown: the 3-D coordinate of the receiver ( x,
y, z ) and the receiver clock error ( erc ). By making four measurements, to four different
satellites, the following system of equations is obtained:
(xs1 – x)2 + (ys1 – y)2 + (zs1 – z)2 = (p 1 – erc.c)2
(xs2 – x)2 + (ys2 – y)2 + (zs2 – z)2 = (p 2 – erc.c)2
(xs3 – x)2 + (ys3 – y)2 + (zs3 – z)2 = (p 3 – erc.c)2
(xs4 – x)2 + (ys4 – y)2 + (zs4 – z)2 = (p 4 – erc.c)2

If more than four measurements are made the method of Least Squares, or other
estimation techniques, can be used to determine the optimum solution.
vi. Coping with the Satellite Clock Bias
Satellite clock error is the largest source of GPS measurement error. Under the
assumption that the satellite clock error is an unknown quantity, the observation equation for
such a satellite-biased range:
p = r + esc (Ts) c
Where,
esc = Satellite clock error caused by the satellite oscillator not being
synchronized to
"true" time (GPST)
p = Measured range
r = True range
T s = T i m e o f Tr a n s m i s s i o n
Each observation made by the receiver can be parameterized, except for the
replacement of
the term esc for erc:
(xs – x)2 + (ys – y)2 + (zs – z)2 = (p – esc.c)2

The 3-D coordinate of the satellite signal transmitter ( xs , ys , zs ) is known,
hence in the case of three range observations there are six unknowns in the system: the 3-D
coordinate of the receiver ( xr1, yr1, zr1 ) and the three satellite clock error terms (
esc1, esc2, esc3 ). Hence, at first glance, six satellite-biased range observations are
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required to solve this positioning problem. It is not, however, possible simply to make
observations to more satellites as each new observation introduces a new satellite clock
parameter.
d) GPS components
A. GPS receiver
The following components of a generic GPS receiver can be identified (Figure 11):
1. Antenna and Preamplifier
Antennas used for GPS receivers have broad beam characteristics, thus they do
not have to be pointed to the signal source like satellite TV receiving dishes. The
antennas are compact and a variety of designs are possible. There is a trend to
integrating the antenna assembly with the receiver electronics.
2. Radio Frequency Section and Computer Processor
The RF section contains the signal processing electronics. Different receiver
types use somewhat different techniques to process the signal. There is a powerful
processor onboard not only to carry out computations such as extracting the ephemerides
and determining the elevation/azimuth of the satellites, etc., but also to control the
tracking and measurement function within modern digital circuits, and in some cases to
carry out digital signal processing.
3. Control Unit Interface
The control unit enables the operator to interact with the microprocessor. Its size
and type varies greatly for different receivers, ranging from a handheld unit to soft keys
surrounding an LCD screen fixed to the receiver "box".
4. Recording Device
A variety of storage devices were utilized in the past, including cassette and tape
recorders, floppy disks and computer tapes, etc., but these days almost all receivers
utilize solid state (RAM) memory or removable memory "cards".
5. Power Supply
Transportable GPS receivers these days need low voltage DC power. Most
GPS receivers operate from a number of power sources, including internal NiCad or
Lithium batteries, external batteries such as wet cell car batteries, or from mains power.
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Figure 11 The Generic GPS Receiver.

B. Antenna and RF technology components
Antenna and RF technology components are briefly discussed below:
i. Antennas
The task of the antenna is to convert the energy of the arriving electromagnetic waves
into an electric current that can be processed by the receiver electronics. There are some special
considerations as far as antenna design is concerned:
1. Antenna must be able to pick and discriminate very weak signals.
2. It may need to operate at just the L1 frequency, or at both the L1 and L2 frequencies.
3. Signals are right-hand circularly polarized; the GPS antenna must also be right-hand
circularly polarized.
4. A ntenna gain pattern that enhances the ability of the RF section to discriminate
against multipath signals (such as left-hand circularly polarized signals).
5. Stable electrical centre.
6. L ow cost, and reliable.
Types of GPS antennas:
1. Monopole or dipole configurations
2. Quadrifilar helices
3. Spiral helices
4. Micro strip
5. Choke ring, and other multipath resistant designs
Antennas are required to be rugged, simple in construction, have stable phase centers,
be resistant to multipath, and have good gain and pattern coverage characteristics. The micro
strip antenna is almost universally used for navigation applications.
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e) Trends i n GPS Instrumentation

It is impossible to precisely predict trends in GPS instrumentation. The task is no
easier if we focus our attention only to a specific market segment, such as positioning
hardware for ITS applications. Nevertheless, speculation based on R&D activities being
undertaken at present gives us some clues:
1. The third generation of GPS receivers presently available already exhibit significant
gains in miniaturization, reduction in power consumption, and portability, over the
earlier models.
2. The choice confronting GPS manufacturers is whether to maintain a broad-based
development program, and market a product that is versatile enough to satisfy many
applications (including the provision of interchangeable components such as antennas,
RF units, memory, etc., to accomplish this), or to focus on specialist applications
(military, navigation, differential navigation, surveying, kinematic, etc.). To date, most
manufacturers are split between those with products for the high precision surveying
market, and those focusing on the low cost, high volume navigation market.
3. There have been many predictions of low cost GPS receivers. However there is an
enormous range of prices from the "top-of-the-line" surveying receivers to the "bare-
bones" GPS" engines" implemented on one or more chips.
4. There is a trend towards product differentiation, with many different configurations of
tracking channels, data recording options, and, in particular, software options.
5. An exciting marriage is possible between satellite navigation and satellite
communication, combining real-time positioning with instantaneous transmission of
position. GPS receivers may be fitted to many different platforms (some unmanned, for
example rail rolling stock and ship cargo containers), and their locations remotely
monitored at a central site via a satcom link.
6. Market surveys suggest that the greatest growth is expected to be in the commercial and
consumer markets. Consumer applications such as ITS, integration of GPS and cellular
phones, and portable GPS for outdoor recreation and similar activities will account for
more than 60% of the market by the year 2000..
7. New tracking electronics, such as "narrow-correlator" technology, would improve
pseudo-range measurement precisions, as would a combination of phase and pseudo-
range measurement.
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8. Both are, however, still relatively expensive technologies and are not found on "bare-
bones" GPS board sets. Further electronic tracking refinements will lead to more
multipath-resistant receivers.
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CHAPTER 7
Land use Planning
Land use Planning (LUP) means to put the land unit under a specific use or purpose
while maintaining its inherent quality for future use. For example, whether the land is best
suited for grain crop cultivation or for poultry farming / sugarcane mill /recreation parks etc.
LUP refers to the best use of land in its present form with conserving its quality for
future or coming generation. Land use Planning is the composition of three words viz. land,
use and planning. Land means embodying the total natural environment of the area of the
Earth not covered by water. Land by definition includes not only soil but also all the living
things, organisms, the air and water bodies within or on it and the rocks below, land with its
vast resources of floras and fauna, water minerals and soils. Use means to put the resource for
output to meet one’s needs and Planning means what best can be achieved out of a resource.
1. Importance of Land Use planning
Land-use planning is needed to analyze the change in technology, size of
population, composition of community and requirement of a community. The
planning should be such that is technically feasible, economically viable, ecologically
sustainable and socially accepted.
Wherever groups of people use land and its resources, land use is planned, being
aware of it or not. Land use does not consider production only, but also land functions such as
protected areas, land recreation, road-building, waste disposal sides and use restricted areas
such as buffer zones for exhaust gases, areas for regenerating groundwater, buffer zones for
traffic noise pollution, etc.
2. Objective of Land use planning
The sole objective or function of land use planning is to guide decisions on land use
in such a way that responses of environment are put to the most beneficial use for man, while
at the same time conserving those resources for the future.
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3. Concept of Land use planning

Land is the most important resource of a community/ country, which provide food,
shelter, cloths and other needs. So land use survey in a country like India is must which
provides a picture about the :
i) Intensively used,
ii) Underused
iii) Unused lands
Land resource is limited and population pressure on it is increasing day by day.
The country needs to produce 250 million tons of food grains by 2025 for feeding
approximately 1.3 billion populations. The per capita availability of land which was about 0.5
ha during 1960s, shrinked to 0.3 ha by the turn of 20th century and likely to reach the level of
0.1 ha by the year 2030. This pressure of population has damaging effect on the national land
resource and ecosystem. To maintain and restore the ecological balance, there should be an
optimal use of every type of land. While we see that large part of the country/ states land area
is not yielding the desire rate of production because of impedimental factors like soil erosion,
salinity alkalinity, water logging etc. (Sharma et.al, 1991). The land use planning is therefore,
highly needed for sustainable development of the country.
4. Phases of Land use planning
a) Identification of problem.
b) Data collection and interpretation.
c) Plan formulation.
d) Review and adoption of plan.
e) Implementation of plan.
5. Factor affecting Land use Planning
a) Physical or Natural
i) Geological (Geology)
ii) Physiographic
iii) Soil
iv) Climate
v) Hydrology
vi) Flora/ Fauna
b) Cultural or Anthropogenic
i) Cultural
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ii) Social
iii) Economical
iv) Political
6. Techniques of Land use planning
There are many techniques for land use planning. Remote sensing is one of the best
modern techniques for land resource survey and land use planning. It is the science and art of
obtaining information (data) about any object on or near the earth surface without getting in
touch with that object. The data thus collected are very useful for providing authentic
information. Basic survey of physiographic / landforms, soils, climate, hydrology, flora and
fauna is carried out through the application of remote sensing technique i.e. interpretation of
aerial photographs and satellite data imageries with ground truth.
7. Types of Soil Survey
1. Standard Soil survey (1 :> 150000 scale)
2. Reconnaissance or Semi detailed Soil Survey (1:10000 to 1:50000 scale)
3. Detailed Survey ((1 :< 10000 scale)
8. Planning at different levels
Planning at different levels need information at different scales and levels of
generalization:
National District Local
Scale: 1:5 to 1:1 m 1:50000 to 1:250000 1:20000 to 1:5000 or larger.
Air photographs can be used as base maps at the local level, since field workers and
experience show that local people can recognize where they are on the photos. Two way links
between planning at different levels (Figure 1).
Figure 1 Two way links between planning at different levels
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1. National level
This planning is concerned with national goals and the allocation of resources
which are complex. A national land-use plan may cover:
a) Land-use policy: balancing the competing demands for land among different
sectors of the economy, food production, export crops, tourism, wildlife
conservation, housing and public amenities, roads, industry.
b) National development plans and budget: project identification and the
allocation of resources for development.
c) Coordination of sectoral agencies involved in land use;
d) Legislation on such subjects as land tenure, forest clearance and water rights
2. District level
It refers not necessarily to administrative districts but also to land areas that fall
between
national and local levels. The kinds of issues tackled at this stage include:
a) Developments such as new settlements, forest plantations and irrigation
schemes.
b) Improvement of infrastructure such as water supply, roads and marketing
facilities.
c) Development of management guidelines for improved kinds of land use on each
type of land.
3. Local level
a) Planning unit may be the village, a group of villages or a small water
catchment.
b) This is the first level of planning, with its priorities drawn up by the local
people.
c) It is about getting things done on particular areas of land – what, where and
when, and who will be responsible.
d) "Bottom-up” approach. The experience and local knowledge of the land
users and local
technical staff are mobilized to identify development priorities
8.1 Advantages
1. People will be enthusiastic as it is their own, and willing to participate in its
implementation .
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2. Awareness of land-use problems and opportunities.

3. Close attention to local constraints.
4. Better information is fed upwards for higher levels of planning.
8.2 Disadvantages
1. Local interests are not always the same as regional or national interests .
2. Limited technical knowledge - technical agencies need to make a big investment in
time and labour.
3. Local efforts may collapse because of a lack of higher-level support.
9. Steps for soil survey for land use planning
ii. Preparation of base maps with the help of toposheets.
iii. Demarcation of physiographic boundaries with the help of aerial photographs and
satellite imageries.
iv. Field checks to confirm the physiographic boundaries by surrounding the area and
auguring the field.
v. Recording the morphological characteristics of the soil profile in the field.
vi. Collection of soil profile samples from different physiographic units.
vii. Physico-chemical analysis of soil samples in the laboratory
viii. Soil classification according to Soil Taxonomy.
ix. To establish physiography- soil relationship.
x. Identification of soil series.
xi. Land evaluation on the basis of land capability classification (USDA) and soil
suitability classification (FAO Framework)
xii. Land use planning on the ground basis of land/soil qualities
10. Principles of Land Use Planning
A. Proposal Principles
As the land has the productive capacity for food grains forestry, animal husbandry etc, it
follows some inherent principles. On the basis of the central idea, eleven principles are
explained below and converted into proposals for practical actions:
1. Land use planning is orientated to local conditions in terms of both method and
content
Planning approaches often fail because global models and implementation strategies
are applied and taken over automatically and uncritically. But LUP is not a standardized
procedure which is uniform in its application world-wide. Its content is based on an initial
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regional or local situation analysis. Different types of soils are good for different type of crops
such as black soils are good for cotton and calcareous alluvial soils are good for sugarcane
cultivation but if we reverse this system the yield will be very low.
2. Land use planning considers cultural viewpoints and builds up on local
environmental knowledge
Rural societies or groups can often provide complex indigenous knowledge of the
environment. If this is the case, such local knowledge should be part of the basis for planning
and implementing a sustainable land use. The crop should be eco-friendly such as rice in
tropical region and wheat in temperate region.
3. Land use planning takes into account traditional strategies for solving problems
and conflicts
Traditional rural societies have their own way of approaching problems and settling
conflicts concerning land use. In the process of land use planning, such mechanisms have to
be recognized, understood and taken into account.
4. Land use planning assumes a concept which understands rural development to be
a "bottom-up" process based on self-help and self-responsibility
The population should actively participate in the process of LUP. The results of
planning and the implementation of measures can only be sustainable if plans are made with
and by the people, not behind them or even against them. Planning is therefore not just a
matter for experts, but should be carried out together with those affected by it. To ensure a
feeling of ownership concerning self-help activities, people who are affected have to be
involved in the planning process from the early beginning
5. Land use planning is a dialogue, creating the prerequisites for the successful
negotiation and co-operation among stakeholders
The core task of LUP consists of initiating a process of communication and co-
operation which "allows all participants to formulate their interests and objectives in the
dialogue". On the basis of sound decisions a sustainable form of land use is proposed
"whereby the aims and interests of other participating groups are taken into account to the
greatest possible extent" (GTZ/Rauch 1993). An important element of participation-orientated
LUP is the identification of the various groups of participants and differentiating them in
terms of their use and access to land resources. In addition, their position on the social scale
(gender approach) and their capacities, either as stakeholders or as members of authorities and
of other organizations have to be considered.
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6. Land use planning is a process leading to an improvement in the capacity of the

participants to plan and take actions
The participatory methods used in all planning steps of LUP promote the technical
and organizational capabilities of all participants, thereby extending their capacity to plan and
to act. In the medium term, this qualification process leads to an improvement in the capacity
of local groups for self determination.
7. Land use planning requires transparency
Transparency in planning and the extent, to which stakeholders are informed,
strengthen both their willingness and capacity to participate in planning and decision-making.
It increases the motivation of the people for creating sustainable results. An open exchange of
information leads to discussions about objectives among the key figures and promotes the
willingness to reach a consensus. The dissemination of information in the local language(s)
contributes to an improved transparency. In addition, it strengthens the trust of the population
in land use planning activities.
8. The differentiation of stakeholders and the gender approach are core principles in
land use planning.
A prerequisite for realistic land use planning is the detailed analysis of the various
interest groups. The aim is to find out the various interests of the participants in order to
create a basis for the negotiation and decision-making process. Men and women often do not
have the same access to land and have specific ways of articulating themselves. Different
interests are arising from the economic and social character of their roles and scope of duties.
Therefore, the role of gender is an important criterion when differentiating stakeholders.
9. Land use planning is based on interdisciplinary cooperation.
The ecological, economic, technical, financial, social and cultural dimensions of land
use make it necessary to work with an interdisciplinary approach. Land use planning provides
many interfaces with other technical disciplines and planning fields. It uses a broad spectrum
of tools. A one-sided view of planning will be avoided due to the interdisciplinary and inter-
sectoral configuration of the planning groups.
10. Land use planning is an iterative process; it is the flexible and open reaction based
on new findings and changing conditions.
LUP is more than the preparation of a planning document; it is an iterative process.
Iteration is both the principle and the method simultaneously. New developments and findings
are specifically observed and incorporated into the planning process. It may lead to the
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revision of decision and the repetition of steps already taken. This can render superfluous both
analyses and data bases which would have been set up at some expense. Iterative planning
requires flexibility in planning, but in no way constitutes a "concealed lack of planning".
11. Land use planning is implementation-orientated.
Land use planning (LUP) has to consider how the negotiated decisions and the
solutions identified are to be implemented. LUP does not end with the land use plan. The
implementation of limited measures (e.g. the development of cultivation techniques which
conserve land resources) right at the outset, or parallel to the LUP process, plays an important
role in increasing the trust of the people in the village as far as the planning process is
concerned. Development projects use LUP for a variety of reasons. The objectives and the
expected impact are manifold, and depend on the specific situation.
12. Land Use Classification
India has a diverse agro-climate, topography and soil types on the basis of which it
has been categorized into various regions. Major part of the country is rainfed. Rainfall,
therefore, constitutes an important parameter in the classification of the country into various
regions for the purpose of planning.
a) Agro-Climatic Regions
India has been divided into 15 agro-climatic zones on the basis of climate, in
combination with soil and other factors that affect the agriculture in the region. This
classification originated in 1979 by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
through the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP). These are:
1. Western Himalayan Region
2. Eastern Himalayan Region
3. Lower Gangetic Plains Region
4. Middle Gangetic Plains Region
5. Upper Gangetic Plain Region
6. Trans Gangetic Plains Region
7. Eastern Plateu and Hill Region
8. Central Plateau and Hill Region
9. Western Plateau and Hill Region
10. Southern Plateau and Hill Region
11. East Coast Plains and Hill Region
12. West Coast Plains and Ghat Region
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13. Gujarat Plains and Ghat Region

14. Western Dry Region.
15. Island Region.
b) Agro-Ecological Regions (AERs) and sub-Regions (AESRs)
i. Agro-Ecological Regions
The country has also been categorized into 20 Agro-Ecological Regions on a 1:4
million scale map, based on:
b. Physiography
c. Soils
d. Climate
e. Length Growing period
f. Water holding capacity of the soil
The mapping and classification of the various parts of the country for generation of
agro-ecological regions involved the superimposition of four base maps, namely
physiography, soils, bioclimatic and length of growing period and have been used for
resource planning at national level.
ii. Agro-Ecological Sub-Regions (AESRs)
The agro-ecological regions were subsequently refined to prepare a 60 Agro-
Ecological Sub-Regions (AESR). Map for regional level planning using the detailed soil
information at subgroup level, physiography at land form level, and bioclimatic (refined limits
of arid, semi-arid and sub-humid bioclimatic) types and length of growing period (LGP) at 30
day class interval. The AESR map is useful for regional level planning and resource
allocation. The information of length of growing period as well as agro ecological zoning
supported by moisture availability index can act as an excellent base for crop modeling and
crop suitability evaluation.
B. General Principles
1. Principles of maximization:
2. Principles of equal marginal productivity:
3. Principles of marginal return:
4. Principles of specialization and comparative advantage:
5. Principles of first choice:
6. Principles of increasing efficiency of land use according to environment:
7. Principles of optimizing land use and capability of low degradation;
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8. Principles of fixing cropping pattern around human settlement for lesser

effort and lesser expense on transport.
9. Principles of mapping
10. Principles of sustainable use with prevention from erosion, green and FYM
incorporation, maintenance of soil health.
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CHAPTER 8
Land Evaluation, Capability and Suitability
Land evaluation is the act of expressing the value of something or judging the worth
of it. Land evaluation is the value significance or suitability if a piece of land for certain use.
Land evaluation is concerned with the assessment of land performance when used for
specified purposes. The assessment is made in terms of production, suitability, the inputs
needed to obtain that production, and economic return. It is the subsequent step following the
soil resource mapping and classification. Therefore the land evaluation is a tool to be used as
a base for land use planning. It is the function of land evaluation to bring information for
understanding and to present planners with comparisons of the most promising kinds of land
use. Two factors or groups of factors and a working procedure play a role:
a) Land requirement
The demand put to the land with respect to the purpose for which it is to be used such
as Agriculture (rice, wheat, bajra), Horticuture, Forestry, Pasture etc.
b) Land quality
Quality of the various land properties to meet these requirements
Matching both the above factors make it possible to arrive at an expression of suitability of
certain piece of land for certain use.
1. Aims of land evaluation
Land evaluation may be concerned with present land performance. However, it
involves change and its effects with change in the use of land and sometimes changes in the
land itself. Land evaluation takes into consideration the economics of the proposed land, the
social consequences for the people of the area and the country concerned, and the
consequences, beneficial or adverse, for the environment. Thus land evaluation should
indicate:
i. How is the land currently managed, and what will happen if present practices
remain unchanged?
ii. What improvements in management practices, within the present use, are
possible?
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iii. What other uses of land are physically possible and economically and
socially relevant?
iv. Which of these uses offer possibilities of sustained production or other
benefits?
v. What adverse effects, physical, economic or social, are associated with each
use?
The land evaluation process does not in itself determine the land use changes that are
to be carried out, but provides data on the basis of which such decisions can be taken. To be
effective in this role, the output from an evaluation normally gives information on two or
more potential forms of use for each area of land, including the consequences, beneficial and
adverse, of each.
2. Principles
The basic principles of land evaluation are as follows:
i. Land suitability is assessed and classified with respect to specified kinds of use
This principle embodies recognition of the fact that different kinds of land use have
different requirements. As an example, an alluvial flood plain with impeded drainage might
be highly suitable for rice cultivation but not suitable for many forms of agriculture or for
forestry. The concept of land suitability is only meaningful in terms of specific kinds of land
use, each with their own requirements, e.g. for soil moisture, rooting depth etc. The qualities
of each type of land, such as moisture availability or liability to flooding, are compared with
the requirements of each use.
ii. Evaluation requires a comparison of the benefits obtained and the inputs needed
on different types of land
Land in itself, without input rarely if ever possesses productive potential; even the
collection of wild fruits requires labour, whilst the use of natural wilderness for nature
conservation requires measures for its protection. Suitability for each use is assessed by
comparing the required input e, such as labour, fertilizers or road construction, with the goods
produced or other benefits obtained.
iii. A multi disciplinary approach is required
The evaluation process requires contributions from the fields of natural science, the
technology of land use, economics and sociology. In particular, suitability evaluation always
incorporates economic considerations to a greater or lesser extent. In qualitative evaluation,
economics may be employed in general terms only, without calculation of costs and returns.
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In quantitative evaluation the comparison of benefits and inputs in economic terms plays a
major part in the determination of suitability. It follows that a team carrying out an evaluation
require a range of specialists. These will usually include natural scientists (e.g.
geomorphologists, soil surveyors, and ecologists), specialists in the technology of the forms
of land use under consideration (e.g. agronomists, foresters, irrigation engineers, experts in
livestock management), economists and sociologists.
iv. Evaluation is made in terms relevant to the physical economic and social context
of the area concerned
Such factors as the regional climate, levels of living of the population, availability and
cost of labour, need for employment, the local or export markets, systems of land tenure
which are socially and politically acceptable, and availability of capital, form the context
within which evaluation takes place. It would, for example be unrealistic to say that land was
suitable for non-mechanized rice cultivation, require large amounts of low-cost labour, in a
country with high labour costs. The assumptions underlying evaluation will differ from one
country to another and, to some extent, between different areas of the same country.
v. Suitability refers to use on a sustained basis
The aspect of environmental degradation is taken into account when assessing
suitability. There might, for example, be forms of land use which appeared to be highly
profitable in the short run but were likely to lead to soil erosion, progressive pasture
degradation, or adverse changes in river regimes downstream. Such consequences would
outweigh the short-term profitability and cause the land to be classed as not suitable for such
purposes. Agriculture normally involves clearance of any natural vegetation present and
normally soil fertility under arable cropping is higher or lower, depending on management,
but rarely at the same level as under the original vegetation.
vi. Evaluation involves comparison of more than a single kind of use
This comparison could be, for example, between agriculture and forestry, between
two or more different farming systems, or between individual crops. Often it will include
comparing the existing uses with possible changes, either to new kinds of use or
modifications to the existing uses. Occasionally a proposed form of use will be compared
with non-use, i.e. leaving the land in its unaltered state, but the principle of comparison
remains. Evaluation is only reliable if benefits and inputs from any given kind of use can be
compared with at least one, and usually several different, alternatives. If only one use is
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considered there is the danger that, whilst the land may indeed be suitable for that use, some
other and more beneficial use may be ignored.
3. Basic concepts and definitions
They are needed as a basis for the subsequent discussion. These concern the land itself, kinds
of land use, land characteristics and qualities, and improvements made to land:
i) Land
Land comprises the physical environment, including climate, relief, soils, hydrology
and vegetation, to the extent that these influence potential for land use. It includes the results
of past and present human activity, e.g. reclamation from the sea, vegetation clearance, and
also adverse results, e.g. soil salinization. Purely economic and social characteristics,
however, are not included in the concept of land; these form part of the economic and social
context.
A land mapping unit is a mapped area of land with specified characteristics. Land
mapping units are defined and mapped by natural resource surveys, e.g. soil survey, forest
inventory. Their degree of homogeneity or of internal variation varies with the scale and
intensity of the study. In some cases a single land mapping unit may include two or more
distinct types of land, with different suitability, e.g. a river flood plain, mapped as a single
unit but known to contain both well-drained alluvial areas and swampy depressions.
Land is thus a wider concept than soil or terrain. Variation in soils, or soils and
landforms, is often the main cause of differences between land mapping units within a local
area: it is for this reason that soil surveys are sometimes the main basis for definition of land
mapping units. However, the fitness of soils for land use cannot be assessed in isolation from
other aspects of the environment, and hence it is land which is employed as the basis for
suitability evaluation.
ii. Land use
Suitability evaluation involves relating land mapping units to specified types of land
use. The types of use considered are limited to those which appear to be relevant under
general physical, economic and social conditions prevailing in an area. These kinds of land
use serve as the subject of land evaluation. They may consist of major kinds of land use or
land utilization types.
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a) Kinds of Land Use

A major kind of land use is a major subdivision of rural land use, such as rainfed
agriculture, irrigated agriculture, grassland, forestry, or recreation. Major kinds of land use are
usually considered in land evaluation studies of a qualitative or reconnaissance nature.
b) Land Utilization Type
It is a kind of land use described or defined in a degree of detail greater than that of a
major kind of land use. In detailed or quantitative land evaluation studies, the kinds of land
use considered will usually consist of land utilization types. They are described with as much
detail and precision as the purpose requires. Thus land utilization types are not a categorical
level in a classification of land use, but refer to any defined use below the level of the major
kind of land use.
A land utilization type consists of a set of technical specifications in a given physical,
economic and social setting. This may be the current environment or a future betting modified
by major land improvement, e.g. an irrigation and drainage scheme. Attributes of land
utilization types include data or assumptions on:
1. Produce, including goods (e.g. crops, livestock timber), cervices (e.g. recreational
facilities) or other benefits (e.g. wildlife conservation)
2. Market orientation, including whether towards subsistence or commercial production
3. Capital intensity
4. Labour intensity
5. Power sources (e.g. man's labour, draught, animals, machinery using fuels)
6. Technical knowledge and attitudes of land users
7. Technology employed (e.g. implements and machinery, fertilizers, livestock breeds, farm
transport, methods of timber felling)
8. Infrastructure requirements (e.g. sawmills, tat factories, agricultural advisory services)
9. Size and configuration of land holdings, including whether consolidated or fragmented
10. Land tenure, the legal or customary manner in which rights to land are held, by
individuals or groups
11. Income levels, expressed per capita, per unit of production (e.g. farm) or per unit area.
Management practices on different areas within one land utilization type are not
necessarily the same. For example, the land utilization type may consist of mixed farming,
with part of the land under arable use and part allocated to grazing. Such differences may
arise from variation in the land, from the requirements of the management system, or both.
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a) Farm Land utilization types

1. Rainfed annual cropping based on groundnuts with subsistence maize, by smallholders
with low capital resources, using cattle drawn farm implements, with high labour
intensity, on freehold farms of 5-10 ha.
2. Farming similar to (i) in respect of production, capital, labour, power and technology, but
farms of 200-500 ha operated on a communal basis.
3. Commercial wheat production on large freehold farms, with high capital and low labour
intensity, and a high level of mechanization and inputs.
4. Extensive cattle ranching, with medium levels of capital and labour intensity, with land
held and central services operated by a governmental agency.
5. Softwood plantations operated by a government Department of Forestry, with high capital
intensity, low labour intensity, and advanced technology.
6. A national park for recreation and tourism.
Two terms, multiple and compound land utilization types, refer to situations in which
more than one kind of land use is practiced within an area.
c) Land Kind Use
i) Multiple
This consists of more than one kind of use simultaneously undertaken on the same
area of land, each use having its own inputs, requirements and produce. Example is a timber
plantation used simultaneously as a recreational area.
ii) Compound
It consists of more than one kind of use undertaken on areas of land for purposes of
evaluation are treated as a single unit. The different kinds of use may occur in time sequence
(e.g. as in crop rotation) or simultaneously on different areas of land within the same
organizational unit. Mixed farming involving both arable use and grazing is an example.
Sometimes an appropriate land utilization type can be found by making several lands
mapping unit’s part of the same management unit, e.g. livestock management which
combines grazing on uplands in the rainy season and on seasonally flooded lowlands in the
dry season.
Land utilization types are defined for the purpose of land evaluation. Their
description need not comprise the full range of farm management practices, but only those
related to land management and improvement. At detailed levels of evaluation, closely-
defined land utilization types can be extended into farming systems by adding other aspects of
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farm management. Conversely, farming systems that have already been studied and described
can be adopted as the basis for land utilization types.
4. Land characteristics
It is an attribute of land that can be measured or estimated. Examples are slope angle,
rainfall, soil texture, available water capacity, biomass of the vegetation, etc. Land mapping
units, as determined by resource surveys, are normally described in terms of land
characteristics.
If land characteristics are employed directly in evaluation, problems arise from the
interaction between characteristics. For example, the hazard of soil erosion is determined not
by slope angle alone but by the interaction between elope angle, slope length, permeability,
soil structure, rainfall intensity and other characteristics. Because of this problem of
interaction, it is recommended that the comparison of land with land use should be carried out
in terms of land qualities.
5. Land qualities
It is a complex attribute of land which acts in a distinct manner in its influence on the
suitability of land for a specific kind of use. Land qualities may be expressed in a positive or
negative way. Examples are moisture availability, erosion resistance, flooding hazard,
nutritive value of pastures, accessibility. Where data are available, aggregate land qualities
may also be employed, e.g. crop yields, mean annual increments of timber species. A land
quality is not necessarily restricted in its influence to one kind of use. The same quality may
affect, for example, both arable use and animal product
There are a very large number of land qualities, but only those relevant to land use
alternatives under consideration need be determined. A land quality is relevant to a given type
of land use if it influences either the level of inputs required, or the magnitude of benefits
obtained, or both. For example, capacity to retain fertilizers is a land quality relevant to most
forms of agriculture, and one which influences both fertilizer inputs and crop yield. Erosion
resistance affects the costs of soil conservation works required for arable use, whilst the
nutritive value of pastures affects the productivity of land under ranching.
Examples of land qualities
i. Land qualities related to productivity of crops or other plant growth
Crop yields (a resultant of many qualities listed below)
Moisture availability
Nutrient availability
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Oxygen availability in the root zone

Adequacy of foothold for roots
Conditions for germination
Workability of the land (ease of cultivation)
Salinity or alkalinity
Soil toxicity
Resistance to soil erosion
Pests and diseases related to the land
Flooding hazard (including frequency, periods of inundation)
Temperature regime
Radiation energy and photoperiod
Climatic hazards affecting plant growth (including wind, hail, frost)
Air humidity as affecting plant growth
Drying periods for ripening of crops.
ii. Land qualities related to domestic animal productivity
Productivity of grazing land (a resultant of many qualities listed under 1.)
Climatic hardships affecting animals
Endemic pests and diseases
Nutritive value of grazing land
Toxicity of grazing land
Resistance to degradation of vegetation
Resistance to soil erosion under grazing conditions
Availability of drinking water.
iii. Land qualities related to forest productivity
The qualities listed may refer to natural forests, forestry plantations, or both.
Mean annual increments of timber species (a resultant of many qualities listed
under A.)
Types and quantities of indigenous timber species
Site factors affecting establishment of young trees
Pests and diseases
Fire hazard.
iv. Land qualities related to management and inputs
The qualities listed may refer to arable use, animal production or forestry.
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Terrain factors affecting mechanization (trafficability)

Terrain factors affecting construction and maintenance of access roads
(accessibility)
Size of potential management units (e.g. forest blocks, farms, fields)
Location in relation to markets and to supplies of inputs.
6. Diagnostic criteria
Qualities or characteristics employed to determine limits of land suitability classes or
subclasses are known as diagnostic criteria.
It is a variable which has an understood influence upon the output from, or the required
inputs to, a specified use, and which serves as a basis for assessing the suitability of a given
area of land for that use. This variable may be a land quality, a land characteristic, or a
function of several land characteristics. For every diagnostic criterion there will be a critical
value or set of critical values which are used to define suitability class limits.
7. Land Evaluation
There are two approaches of land evaluation:
a) Qualitative
1. Land capability classification (Klingbiel & Montgomery.1966)
2. Land irrigability classification ( Soil Survey Staff, 951:USBR,1953)
b) Quantitative
1. Soil index rating (Storie, 1978)
2. Actual and potential productivity (Riquier et al. 1970)
3. Soil suitability classification (FAO, 1976; Sys, 1985; Sys et al. 1993)
8. Land Capability Classification
The technique which allows determination of the most suitable use for any area of
land is called land classification. A great number of systems of land classification are in use,
varying mainly according to the purpose for which the land is classified. Land may be
classified according to its present land use, its suitability for a specific crop under the existing
forms of management, its capability for producing crops or combinations of crops under
optimum management, or its suitability for non-agricultural types of land use. A good
knowledge of the land capability and suitability combined with good understanding of the soil
characteristics and management aspects are the keys to more productive and sustainable
agriculture.
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Land Capability Classification is the grouping of land into defined classes based on
their capability to produce crops. The capability of land unit depends on their limitations and
is designed to emphasize on the hazards in different kinds of soils.
The grouping of soil unit into capability classes and sub classes is done on the basis
of their capability to produce crops and pasture biomass without deteriorating the productivity
over a long period of time. The purpose of land capability classification systems is to study
and record all data relevant to finding the combination of agricultural and conservation
measures which would permit the most intensive and appropriate agricultural use of the land
without undue danger of soil degradation.
Klingebiel and Montgomery (1961) established criteria for placing soils in different
capability classes. The USDA land classification system is interpretative, using the USDA
soil survey map as a basis and classifying the individual soil map units in groups that have
similar management requirements. The criteria used for assessing land unit the physical land
properties and the degree of limitation, as a function of the severity with which crop growth is
inhibited. It is mainly based on inherent soil characteristics, the external land features and the
environmental factors that limit land use.
The factors that determine the capability of a soil are:
1) Depth of soil, stoniness, rockiness.
2) Texture and structure of soil
3) Permeability( Movement of air and water into the soil)
4) Relief as express by slope.
5) Extent of erosion
6) Susceptibility to overflow, flooding and wetness.
7) Presence of toxic salts, alkali and other unfavorable chemical properties such as pH,
salt.
8) Severely of climate (soil temperature and moisture regimes)
a) Level of Land capability classification : It is done at three levels:
i. Class
Land capability class indicates the degree of total limitations on the land use. At the highest
of categorization, eight soil classes are distinguished numbered from I to VIII. Soils having
greatest capabilities for response to management and least limitations are included in Class I,
those with least capabilities and greatest limitations are placed in Class VIII. Class I to Class
IV include land suited for cultivation and can be used for other purposes. Class V to Class
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VIII includes land that cannot be cultivated in their present state under normal management
and should be maintained under natural vegetation of forest or grasses.
Class I
These soils are excellent cultivable, produce almost no limitations restricting their
use. Erosion hazards on these soils are low; they are deep, productive and easily worked. For
optimum production, these soils need ordinary management practices to maintain
productivity, as regards both soil fertility and favorable physical soil properties. These are
shown green on land capability maps.
Class II
These soils have some limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require moderate
conservation practices. Limitations of soils in Class II include (singly or in combination) the
effect of gentle slopes, moderate susceptibility to erosion, less than ideal soil depth, somewhat
unfavorable soil structure, slight to moderate correctable salinity, occasional damaging
overflow, wetness correctable by drainage, slight climatic limitation. Soils in this class require
more than ordinary management practices for obtaining optimum production and for
maintaining productivity. These are shown yellow on land capability maps.
Class III
These soils have severe limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require special
conservation practices. The limitation of soils in this class are those of Class II, but in higher
degree; including additional limitations such as shallow depth, low moisture-holding capacity,
and low fertility that is not easily corrected. Class III soils require considerable management
inputs, but even so, choice of crops or cropping systems remains restricted because of
inherent limiting factors. These are shown brown on land capability maps.
Class IV
These soils have very severe limitations that restrict the choice of plants and or
require very careful management. Restrictions, both in terms of choice of plants and or
management and conservation practices are greater than in Class III to such an extent that
production is often marginal in relation to the inputs required. Limiting factors are of the same
nature as in the previous classes but more severe and difficult to overcome. Several
limitations such as steep slopes are a permanent feature of the land. These are shown pink on
land capability maps.
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In the USDA system, soils of classes V to VIII are generally not suited for
cultivation, although certain of them may be made suitable for agricultural use with costly
measures.
Class V
These soils have few or no erosion hazards but have other limitations, impracticable
to remove, that restrict their use to pasture, range, woodland, or wildlife food and cover.
Although they may be level or nearly level, many of these soils are subject to inundation or
are stony or rocky. These are shown dark grey on land capability maps.
Class VI
These soils have severe limitations- that make them generally unsuited to cultivation
and limit their use largely to pasture or range, woodland, or wildlife food cover. This class is a
continuation of Class IV, with very severe limitations that cannot be corrected. They may
serve for some kinds of crops, such as tree crops, provided unusually intensive management is
practiced. These are shown orange on land capability maps.
Class VII
These soils have very severe limitations that make them unsuited to cultivation and
also, restrict their use largely to grazing, woodland, or wildlife. The limitations are such that
these soils are not suited for any of the common crops. These are shown red on land capability
maps.
Class VIII
These soils and land forms have maximum limitations such as rocky, arid, wet or
extremely saline and do not use for commercial plant production. These are suitable only for
wild life and recreation. These are shown purple on land capability maps.
ii. Sub class
It is the subdivision of capability classes. Sub classes explain the reason for the
limitation for intensive crop production. These are based on climate, erosion, soil hazard and
wetness. Adding limitation symbol to the capability class designates the subclass such as II c
and III e indicate the Class II with climatic limitation and Class III with risk of erosion
respectively.
iii. Unit
Unit is the smallest and last category in land capability classification system. Adding
number to the subclasses forms land capability units. For example capability units IIc1 would
represent ClassII with climate arises from different causes.
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In the second level of generalization of the USDA land capability classification

system, sub classes specify the kind of limitations. Four kinds of limitations are recognized at
this level, namely, risk of erosion; wetness, drainage or overflow; rooting zone limitations,
and climatic limitation. The third level that of the capability unit provides more specific and
detailed information for application to specific fields on a farm.
9. Land irrigatibility classification
The objective of this classification is to evaluate the suitability of the mapped soils for
sustained use under irrigation. The soil units are first grouped together into soil irrigatibility
classes according to their kind and degree of limitations for sustained use under irrigation.
Unlike LCC, special attention is paid in irrigatibility classification to three factors namely
drain ability of land, predicted effect of irrigation on salinity and alkalinity status of soil and
the cost of input for land development. For evaluating the suitability of soils for irrigation the
criteria used are available water holding capacity, effecting rooting depth and intake
characteristics of the soils. This system is based on limitations of different land
characteristics such as texture, depth, permeability, salinity and topography. The suitability of
soils for irrigation is classified as under:
Class 1 to 3
Arable, suitable for irrigated agriculture with negligible (class 1) to moderate (class
3) limitations.
Class 4
Restricted arable; with severe limitation of soil, land not irrigable except under
special conditions suitable for irrigated agriculture with negligible (class 1) to moderate (class
3) limitations.
Class 5
Undermined arable land has severe limitations of soil salinity and/or drainage for
irrigated agriculture.
Class 6
Non arable is unsuitable for irrigation.
10. Land Suitability Classification
Land suitability is the fitness of a given type of land for a defined use. The land may
be considered in its present condition or after improvements. The process of land suitability
classification is the appraisal and grouping of specific areas of land in terms of their
suitability for defined uses. Thus, for example, in a region where arable use, animal
102
production and forestry were all believed to be possible on certain areas, a separate suitability
classification is made for each of these three kinds of use. There may be certain parts of the
area considered, for which particular kinds of use are not relevant, e.g. irrigated agriculture
beyond a limit of water availability. In these circumstances, suitability need not be assessed.
Such parts are shown on maps or tables by the symbol NR: Not Relevant.
a) Structure of the suitability classification
The framework has the same structure, i.e. recognizes the same categories, in all of
the kinds of interpretative classification as given below. Each category retains its basic
meaning within the context of the different classifications and as applied to different kinds of
land use. Four categories of decreasing generalization are recognized:
i. Land Suitability Orders Reflecting kinds of suitability.
ii. Land Suitability Classes Reflecting degrees of suitability within Orders.
iii. Land Suitability Reflecting kinds of limitation or main kinds of

Subclasses improvement measures required, within Classes.
iv. Land Suitability Units Reflecting minor differences in required management

within Subclasses.
i) Land Suitability Orders

Land suitability Orders indicate whether land is assessed as suitable or not suitable
for the use under consideration. There are two orders represented in maps, tables, etc. by the
symbols S and N respectively.
Order S Suitable Land on which sustained use of the kind under consideration is
expected to yield benefits which justify the inputs, without
unacceptable risk of damage to land resources.
Order N Not Land which has qualities that appear to preclude sustained use
Suitable of the kind under consideration.
Land may be classed as Not Suitable for a given use for a number of reasons. It may
be that the proposed use is technically impracticable, such as the irrigation of rocky steep
land, or that it would cause severe environmental degradation, such as the cultivation of steep
slopes. Frequently, however, the reason is economic (that the value of the expected benefits
does not justify the expected costs of the inputs that would be required).
103
ii) Land Suitability Classes

Land suitability Classes reflect degrees of suitability. The classes are numbered
consecutively, by Arabic numbers, in sequence of decreasing degrees of suitability within the
Order. Within the Order Suitable the number of classes is not specified. There might, for
example, be only two, S1 and S2. The number of classes recognized should be kept to the
minimum necessary to meet interpretative aims; five should probably be the most ever used.
If three Classes are recognized within the Order Suitable, as can often be
recommended, the following names and definitions may be appropriate in a qualitative
classification:
Land having no significant limitations to sustained application

Class S1 of a given use, or only minor limitations that will not significantly
Highly Suitable reduce productivity or benefits and will not raise inputs above an
acceptable level.
Land having limitations which in aggregate are moderately

severe for sustained application of a given use; the limitations will
Class S2 reduce productivity or benefits and increase required inputs to the
Moderately Suitable extent that the overall advantage to be gained from the use,
although still attractive, will be appreciably inferior to that expected
on Class S1 land.
Land having limitations which in aggregate are severe for

Class S3
sustained application of a given use and will so reduce productivity
Marginally
or benefits, or increase required inputs, that this expenditure will be
Suitable
only marginally justified.
In a quantitative classification, both inputs and benefits must be expressed in common

measurable terms, normally economic. In different circumstances different variables may
express most clearly the degree of suitability, e.g. the range of expected net income per unit
area or per standard management unit, or the net return per unit of irrigation water applied to
different types of land for a given use.
Where additional refinement is necessary it is recommended that this should be
achieved by adding classes, e.g. S4, and not by subdividing classes, since the latter procedure
would contradict the principle that degrees of suitability are represented by only one level of
the classification structure, that of the suitability class. This necessarily change the meanings
104
of class numbers, e.g. if four classes were employed for classifying land with respect to arable
use and only three with respect to forestry, Marginally Suitable could refer to S4 in the former
case but S3 in the latter.
An alternative practice has been adopted in some countries. In order to give a
constant numbering to the lowest Suitable class, classes have been subdivided as, e.g. S2.1,
S2.2. This practice is permitted within the Framework, although for the reason given in the
preceding paragraph it is not recommended.
Suitability Class S1, Highly Suitable, may sometimes not appear on a map of a
limited area, but could still be included in the classification if such land is known or believed
to occur in other areas relevant to the study. Differences in degrees of suitability are
determined mainly by the relationship between benefits and inputs. The benefits may consist
of goods, e.g. crops, livestock products or timber, or services, e.g. recreational facilities. The
inputs needed to obtain such benefits comprise such things as capital investment, labour,
fertilizers and power. Thus an area of land might be classed as Highly Suitable for rainfed
agriculture, because the value of crops produced substantially exceeds the costs of farming,
but only Marginally Suitable for forestry, on grounds that the value of timber only slightly
exceeds the costs of obtaining it.
It should be expected that boundaries between suitability classes will need review and
revision with time in the light of technical developments and economic and social changes.
Within the Order Not Suitable, there are normally two Classes:
Class N1 Land having limitations which may be surmountable in

Currently Not Suitable time but which cannot be corrected with existing knowledge
at currently acceptable cost; the limitations are so severe as to
preclude successful sustained use of the land in the given
manner.
Class N2 Land having limitation

Permanently Not Suitable ns which appear so severe as to preclude any possibilities of
successful sustained use of the land in the given manner.
Quantitative definition of these classes is normally unnecessary, since by definition

both are uneconomic for the given use. The upper limit of Class N1 is already defined by the
lower limit of the roast suitable class in Order S.
105
The boundary of Class N2, Permanently Not Suitable, is normally physical and
permanent. In contrast, the boundary between the two orders, Suitable and Not Suitable is
likely to be variable over time through changes in the economic and social context.
iii) Land Suitability Sub classes
Land suitability sub classes reflect kinds of limitations, e.g. moisture deficiency,
erosion hazard. Subclasses are indicated by lower-case letters with significance, e.g. S2m,
S2e, and S3me. There are no subclasses in Class S1.
The number of subclasses recognized and the limitations chosen to distinguish them will
differ in classifications for different purposes. There are two guidelines:
1. The number of subclasses should be kept to a minimum that will satisfactorily
distinguish lands within a class likely to differ significantly in their management requirements
or potential for improvement due to differing limitations.
2. As few limitations as possible should be used in the symbol for any subclass.
One, rarely two, letters should normally suffice. The dominant symbol (i.e. that which
determines the class) should be used alone, if possible. If two suitable may be divided into
suitability sub classes according to kinds of limitation, e.g. N1m, N1me, N1m, although this
is not essential. As this land will not be placed under management for the use concerned it
should not be subdivided into suitability units.
iv) Land Suitability Units
Land suitability units are subdivisions of a subclass. All the units within a subclass
have the same degree of suitability at the class level and similar kinds of limitations at the
subclass level. The units differ from each other in their production characteristics or in minor
aspects of their management requirement (often definable as differences in detail of their
limitations). Their recognition permits detailed interpretation at the farm planning level.
Suitability units are distinguished by Arabic numbers following a hyphen, e.g. S2e-1, S2e-2.
There is no limit to the number of units recognized within a subclass.
v) Conditional Suitability
The designation Conditionally Suitable may be added in certain instances to condense
and simplify presentation. This is necessary to cater for circumstances where small areas of
land, within the survey area, may be unsuitable or poorly suitable for a particular use under
the management specified for that use, but suitable given that certain conditions are fulfilled.
The possible nature of the conditions is varied and might relate to modifications to the
management practices or the input e of the defined land use (occasioned, for example, by
106
localized phenomena of poor soil drainage, soil salinity); or to restrictions in the choice of
crops (limited, for example, to crops with an especially high market value, or resistant to
frost). In such instances, the indication "conditional" can avoid the need for additional
classifications to account for local modifications of land use or local major improvements.
Conditionally Suitable is a phase of the Order Suitable. It is indicated by a lower case
letter c between the order symbol and the class number, e.g. Sc2. The conditionally suitable
phase, subdivided into classes if necessary, is always placed at the bottom of the listing of S
classes. The phase indicates suitability after the condition (e) has been met.
Employment of the Conditionally Suitable phase should be avoided wherever
possible. It may only be employed if all of the following stipulations are met:
i. Without the condition(s) satisfied, the land is either not suitable or belongs to
the lowest suitable class.
ii. Suitability with the condition(s) satisfied is significantly higher (usually at
least two classes).
iii. The extent of the conditionally suitable land is very small with respect to the
total study area.
If the first or second stipulation is not met, it may still be useful to mention the
possible improvement or modification in an appropriate section of the text. If the third
stipulation is not met, then the area over which the condition is relevant is sufficiently
extensive to warrant either a new land utilization type or a potential suitability classification,
as appropriate.
As the area of land classed as Conditionally Suitable is necessarily small, it will not
normally be necessary to subdivide it at the unit level.
It is important to note that the indication "conditional" is not intended to be applied to
land for which the interpretation is uncertain, either in the sense that its suitability is marginal
or because factors relevant to suitability are not understood. Use of "conditional" may seem
convenient to the evaluator, but its excessive use would greatly complicate understanding by
users and must be avoided.
107
CHAPTER 9
Remote Sensing Indices
Vegetation indices have been designed to characterize the vegetation health assessment of
stress condition due to biotic and a- biotic environment. These indices are calculated using the
radiation reflectance in different bands and canopy temperatures. The indices developed by
different authors are as under:
A. Spectral indices
1. Ratio vegetation index (RVI/SR )
It was first described by Jordan (1969) and calculated as:
𝑁𝐼𝑅
𝑅𝑉𝐼 =
𝑅
2. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
It was ascribed to Rouse et al. (1973) and is calculated as:
𝑅𝑉𝐼 − 1
𝑁𝐷𝑉𝐼 =
𝑅𝑉𝐼 + 1
Or
𝑁𝐼𝑅 − 𝑅
𝑁𝐷𝑉𝐼 =
𝑁𝐼𝑅 + 𝑅
3. Infrared Percentage Vegetation Index (IPVI)
It was first described by Crippen (1990) and is calculated as:
𝑁𝐷𝑉𝐼 + 1
𝐼𝑃𝑉𝐼 =
2
Or
𝑁𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑃𝑉𝐼 =
𝑁𝐼𝑅 + 𝑅
4. Difference Vegetation Index(DVI)
It was ascribed in some papers to Richardson and Everitt (1992) and is calculated
as:
DVI = NIR − R
108
5. Perpendicular Vegetation Index (PVI)

It was first described by Richardson and Wiegand (1977) and is
calculated by the following formula:
PVI = sin a NIR − cos a R
Where,
a = angle between the soil line and the NIR axis.
6. Weighted Difference Vegetation Index (WDVI)
It was introduced by Clevers (1988) and is computed by the following formula:
WDVI = NIR − g ∗ R
Where,
g = Slope of the soil line.
7. Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI)
It was developed by Huete (1988) to remove soil noise and is computed by the
following formula:
NIR − R
SAVI = 1+L
NIR − R
Where,
L = Correction factor (0 for very high vegetation cover to 1 for
very low vegetation cover) The most typically used value is
0.5 which is for intermediate vegetation cover.
8. Transformed Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (TSAVI)
It was developed by Baret et al. (1989) and Baret and Guyot (1991) and is
computed by the following formula:
s NIR − s ∗ R − a
TSAVI =
a ∗ NIR + R − a ∗ s + X ∗ 1 + s ∗ s
Where,
a = Soil line intercept
s = Soil line slope
X = Adjustment factor (0.08 to minimize soil noise).
9. Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (MSAVI)
It was developed by Qi et al. (1994) and is computed by the following formula:
NIR − R
SAVI = 1+L
NIR + R + L
109
Where,
L = 1 − 2 ∗ s ∗ NDVI ∗ WDVI
s = Slope of the soil line.
10. Second Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index(MSAVI2)
It was developed by Qi et al. (1994) as a recursion of MSAVI and is computed by
the following formula:
1 2
MSAVI2 = 2 NIR + 1 − 2 ∗ NIR + 1 − 8 NIR − R
2
11. Global Environmental Monitoring Index (GEMI)
It was developed by Pinty and Verstraete (1991) to minimize atmospheric noise and
is calculated by the following formula:
R − 0.125
GEMI = eta ∗ 1 − 0.25 ∗ eta −
1−R
Where,
{ 2 ∗ NIR2 − R2 + 1.5 ∗ NIR + 0.5 ∗ R
eta =
NIR + R + 0.5
12. Atmospherically Resistant Vegetation Index(AVRI)
It was introduced by Kaufman and Tanre (1992) by replacing ‘R’ reflectance with
the term in NDVI equation:
rb = R − B − R
NIR − rb
ARVI =
NIR + rb
Where,
rb = R − γ B − R
γ = 1.0
The parent index of ARVI is NDVI. The substitution of ‘rb’ for red in any of the
ratio- based indices gives the atmospherically resistant version of that index.
13. Green Vegetation Index( GVI)
Kauth and Thomas (1976) developed a 4-band version for MSS, Crist
and Cicone (1984) developed a 6-band version for TM and is calculated as:
GVI = −0.29 ∗ MSS4 − 0.56 ∗ MSS5 + 0.60 ∗ MSS6 + 0.49 ∗
MSS7
(For MSS bands)
110
GVI = −0.2848 ∗ TM1 − 0.2435 ∗ TM2 − .5436 ∗ TM3 + 0.7243 ∗

TM4 + 0.0840 ∗ M5 − 0.1800 ∗ TM7
(For TM bands)
14. Transformed Vegetation index(TVI):
It was developed Rouse et al. (1973, 1974) and is computed by the equation as
under:
𝑇𝑉𝐼 = 𝑁𝐷𝑉𝐼 + 0.5
15. Disease Water Stress Index(DWSI)
This index is computed by the equation as under:
802𝑛𝑚 + 547𝑛𝑚
𝐷𝑊𝑆𝐼 =
1657𝑛𝑚 + 682𝑛𝑚
16. Disease Water Stress Index(DWSI-5)
This index is computed by the equation as under:
800𝑛𝑚 + 550𝑛𝑚
𝐷𝑊𝑆𝐼 =
1650𝑛𝑚 + 680𝑛𝑚
B. Stress indices
1. Canopy Temperature Difference(CTD)
It is calculated as the difference between canopy and air temperature:
𝐶𝑇𝐷 = 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑎
Where,
Tc = Canopy temperature, oC
Ta= Air temperature, oC
2. Stress Degree Day(SDD)
It is calculated as the summation of canopy and air temperature differential:
𝑆𝐷𝐷 = 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑎
3. Canopy Temperature Variability(CTV)

It is the standard deviation of canopy temperatures and calculated as:
𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 2
𝐶𝑇𝑉 =
𝑛
4. Temperature Stress Day(TSD)
It is the difference between canopy temperatures of crop field and well watered plot:
𝑇𝑆𝐷 = 𝑇𝑐𝑤 − 𝑇𝑐
111
Where,
Tc = Canopy temperature of well watered plot
5. Satellite Derived Stress Index(SDSI)
It is calculated by the following formula:
DT – AT
SDSI =
(DT – NT)
Where,
DT and NT = Day and night time canopy temperatures obtained by satellite
AT = Day time air temperature obtained from meteorological observatory
6. Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI)
It is expressed by the following formula:
𝐸𝑇
𝐶𝑊𝑆𝐼 = 1 −
𝑃𝐸𝑇
C. Remote Sensing Methods for ET Estimation
Remote sensing methods are derived from energy balance method and some of the
important methods are discussed here:
1. Bartholic, Namken and Wiegand Model
Daily ET is estimated using remotely sensed data in the equation:
Rn − G
ETd =
Ta − Tc
1 +γ
es Ta − es Tc
Where,
ETd = Daily ET, mm
γ = Psychrometric constant, mm of Hg °C-1
Ta = Air temperature above the canopy, °C
Tc = Canopy temperature, °C
ea (Ta), es (Tc) = Saturation vapour pressure (mm of Hg) at Ta
and
Tc, respectively
2. Brown and Rosenberg Resistance Model
Aerodynamic resistance is incorporated in this method and daily ET is
computed using the equation as under:
ρaCp Tc − Ta
LE = Rn − G +
ra
112
Where,
ρa = Density of air, kg m-3
Cp = Heat capacity of air, J kg-1 °C-1
z −d 2
-1
In
zo
ra = Aerodynamic resistance, s m , 𝑟𝑎 = k2uz
z = Height above the ground, m

d = Zero plane displacement, 0.63 h
zo = Roughness parameter, 0.13 h
k = Von Karman's constant, 0.41
uz = Wind speed at height z, m s-1
h = Crop height, m
3. Energy Balance - Stability Corrected Aerodynamic Resistance Model
Tc − Ta
LE = Rn − G + ρaCp
rac
Where,
rac = Stability corrected aerodynamic resistance
Tc − Ta
rac = ra 1 − n zo − d g
To2
Where,
n = Empirical constant
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 ms-2
To= Average air temp, °K
zo = 0.1 h (where, 'h' is height of crop in m )
d = 0.66 h
4. Soer Method
It estimates evapotranspiration from the net radiation components to avoid
direct measurement of net radiation:
Ta − Tc
LE = Rs 1 − α − RLN − G + ρaCp
ra
RLN = ε (RI − σTc4)
Where,
RLN = Net long wave radiation, w m-2
RS = Incoming solar radiation, w m-2
If measured value of Rs is not available then it is calculated as:
113
RS = RA (a + b n/N)
Where,
a = 0.32 (Hisar)
b = 0.46 (Hisar)
n = Actual sun shine hours
N = Maximum possible sun shine hours
RA = Solar radiation outside the atmosphere
RI = Incoming long wave radiation
If in coming measured value of RI is not available then net long wave
radiation is computed as:
n
RLN = εσTc4 0.56 − 0.092 ea 0.1 + 0.9
N
Where,
Tc = Canopy temperature (°K)
ea = Actual vapour pressure (mm of Hg)
σ = Stefan's constant = 5.67x10-8 wm-2K-4 = 2.06x10-9 mm/day
α = Albedo of crop surface = 0.25
ε = Emissivity of crop (0.96-0.98)
114
CHAPTER 10
Satellite launched by India
India has launched 73 Indian satellites (as of 5 January 2014) of many types since its
first attempt in 1975(Table 1). Satellites have been launched from various vehicles, including
those from Indian Space Research Organization, and previously from American, Russian,
European satellite-launch rockets, and the U.S. Space Shuttle. The organization responsible
for Indian satellites is the Indian Space Research Organization. Some of the satellite launched
first and lunched vehicle developed first in their series are as under:
I. Aryabhata
It was India's first satellite, named after the great Indian astronomer of the same name.
It was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Kosmos-
3M launch vehicle. It was built by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) to gain
experience in building and operating a satellite in space.
II. Bhaskara-I and II
They were two satellites built by the Indian Space Research Organization that formed
India's first low orbit Earth Observation Satellite. They collected data on telemetry,
oceanography and hydrology.
III. Rohini
It is the name given to a series of satellites launched by the Indian Space Research
Organization. The Rohini series consisted of four satellites, all of which were launched by the
Indian space research organization Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) and three of which made it
successfully to orbit.
i. Rohini Technology Payload
It was a 35 kg experimental spin stabilized satellite was launched on 1979-08-10
from The Satish Dhawan Space Centre(SDSC). It is the launch centre for the Indian Space
Research Organization (ISRO). It is located in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, 83 km north of
Chennai. Originally called Sriharikota Range (SHAR, an acronym ISRO have retained to the
present day) and then Sriharikota Launching Range, the centre was renamed in 2002 after the
death of ISRO's former chairman Prof Satish Dhawan.
115
ii. RS-1
It was also a 35 kg experimental spin stabilized satellite was successfully launched on
1980-07-18 from SDSC into an orbit of 305 x 919 km with an inclination of 44.7°. The
satellite provided data on the 4th stage of SLV. The satellite had an orbital life of 20 months.
iii. RS-D1
It was a 38 kg experimental spin stabilized satellite was launched on 1981-05-31 The
launch of the SLV was a partial success as the satellite did not reach the intended height and
thus it only stayed in orbit for 9 days. It achieved an orbit of 186 x 418 km with an inclination
of 46° The satellite carried a solid state camera for remote sensing applications that performed
to specifications.
iv. RS-D2
It was a 41.5 kg experimental spin stabilized satellite was launched successfully on
1983-04-17 into an orbit of 371 x 861 km and an inclination of 46°. The camera had the
capability to take pictures both in Visible and infrared bands. It reentered the atmosphere on
1990-04-19.
v. Ariane Passenger Pay Load Experiment (APPLE)
It was an experimental communication satellite with a C-Band transponder launched
by Indian Space Research Organization on June 19, 1981 by Ariane, a launch vehicle
of the European Space Agency (ESA) from Centre Spatial Guyanais near Kourou in
French Guiana.
vi. APPLE
It was India's first three-axis stabilized experimental geostationary communication satellite.
On July 16, 1981, the satellite was positioned at 102° E longitude. The 672 kg satellite served
as test bed of the Indian telecommunications space relay infrastructure despite the failure of
one solar panel to deploy.
vii. IRS-1A
It was the first of the series of indigenous state-of-art remote sensing satellites, was
successfully launched into a polar sun-synchronous orbit on March 17, 1988 from the Soviet
Cosmodrome at Baikonur. IRS-1A carries two cameras, LISS-I and LISS-II with resolutions
of 73 meters and 36.25 meters respectively with a swath width of about 140 km during each
pass over the country. Mission completed during July 1996 after serving for 8 years and 4
months.
116
viii. IRS-P2
It was an Earth observation satellite launched under the NNRMS (National Natural Resources
Management System) programme undertaken by ISRO. The objectives of the mission were to
provide space borne capability to India in observing and managing the Natural Resources and
utilizing them in productive manner. The satellite carried Imaging multi-spectral radiometers
on board for radio sensing of the resources. It was launched by second developmental
flight of PSLV. Mission accomplished after 3 years of service in 1997.
ix. GSAT-1
An experimental satellite for the first developmental flight of Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicle, GSLV-D1.
x. EDUSAT
India’s first exclusive educational satellite launched by, GSLV-F01
Table 1 Indian satellites launched
Satellite |Launce Date Launch vehicle Type of Satellite
GSAT-14 05.01.2014 GSLV-D5 Geo-Stationary Satellite
Mars Orbiter Mission

05.11.2013 PSLV-C25 Space Mission
Spacecraft
GSAT-7 30.08.2013 Ariane-5VA-215 Geo-Stationary Satellite
Geo-
INSAT-3D 26.07.2013 Ariane-5 VA-214 Stationary/Meteorological
Satellite
IRNSS-1A 01.07.2013 PSLV-C22 Navigation Satellite
SARAL 25.02.2013 PSLV-C20 Earth Observation Satellite
RISAT-1 26.04.2012 PSLV-C19 Earth Observation Satellite
Experimental / Small
Jugnu5 12.10.2011 PSLV-C18
Satellite
SRMSat4 12.10.2011 PSLV-C18
Satellite
Megha-Tropiques 12.10.2011 PSLV-C18 Earth Observation Satellite
GSAT-12 15.07.2011 PSLV-C17 Geo-Stationary Satellite
117
RESOURCESAT-2 20.04.2011 PSLV-C16 Earth Observation Satellite
YOUTHSAT3 20.04.2011 PSLV-C16
Satellite
GSAT-5P 25.12.2010 GSLV-F06 Geo-Stationary Satellite
STUDSAT2 12.07.2010 PSLV-C15
Satellite
CARTOSAT-2B 12.07.2010 PSLV-C15 Earth Observation Satellite
Oceansat-2 23.09.2009 PSLV-C14 Earth Observation Satellite
ANUSAT1 20.04.2009 PSLV-C12
Satellite
RISAT-2 20.04.2009 PSLV-C12 Earth Observation Satellite
Chandrayaan-1 22.10.2008 PSLV-C11 Space Mission
CARTOSAT - 2A 28.04.2008 PSLV-C9 Earth Observation Satellite
IMS-1 28.04.2008 PSLV-C9 Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-4B 12.03.2007 Ariane-5ECA Geo-Stationary Satellite
CARTOSAT - 2 10.01.2007 PSLV-C7 Earth Observation Satellite
SRE - 1 10.01.2007 PSLV-C7
Satellite
INSAT-4CR 02.09.2007 GSLV-F04 Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-4C 10.07.2006 GSLV-F02 Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-4A 22.12.2005 Ariane-5GS Geo-Stationary Satellite
HAMSAT 05.05.2005 PSLV-C6
Satellite
CARTOSAT-1 05.05.2005 PSLV-C6 Earth Observation Satellite
EDUSAT (GSAT-3) 20.09.2004 GSLV-F01 Geo-Stationary Satellite
Resourcesat-1(IRS-
17.10.2003 PSLV-C5 Earth Observation Satellite
P6)
INSAT-3A 10.04.2003 Ariane-5G Geo-Stationary Satellite
118
INSAT-3E 28.09.2003 Ariane-5G Geo-Stationary Satellite
KALPANA-
12.09.2002 PSLV-C4 Geo-Stationary Satellite
1(METSAT)
INSAT-3C 24.01.2002 Ariane-42L H10-3 Geo-Stationary Satellite
Technology
Experiment Satellite 22.10.2001 PSLV-C3 Earth Observation Satellite
(TES)
INSAT-3B 22.03.2000 Ariane-5G Geo-Stationary Satellite
Oceansat (IRS-P4) 26.05.1999 PSLV-C2 Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-2E 03.04.1999 Ariane-42P H10-3 Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-2DT January 1998 Ariane-44L H10 Geo-Stationary Satellite
IRS-1D 29.09.1997 PSLV-C1 Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-2D 04.06.1997 Ariane-44L H10-3 Geo-Stationary Satellite
IRS-P3 21.03.1996 PSLV-D3 Earth Observation Satellite
IRS-1C 28.12.1995 Molniya Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-2C 07.12.1995 Ariane-44L H10-3 Geo-Stationary Satellite
IRS-P2 15.10.1994 PSLV-D2 Earth Observation Satellite
Stretched Rohini
Satellite Series 04.05.1994 ASLV Space Mission
(SROSS-C2)
IRS-1E 20.09.1993 PSLV-D1 Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-2B 23.07.1993 Ariane-44L H10+ Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-2A 10.07.1992 Ariane-44L H10 Geo-Stationary Satellite
Stretched Rohini
(SROSS-C)
IRS-1B 29.08.1991 Vostok Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-1D 12.06.1990 Delta 4925 Geo-Stationary Satellite
119
INSAT-1C 21.07.1988 Ariane-3 Geo-Stationary Satellite
Stretched Rohini
Satellite 13.07.1988 ASLV Earth Observation Satellite
Series(SROSS-2)
IRS-1A 17.03.1988 Vostok Earth Observation Satellite
Stretched Rohini
(SROSS-1)
INSAT-1B 30.08.1983 Shuttle [PAM-D] Geo-Stationary Satellite
Rohini (RS-D2) 17.04.1983 SLV-3 Earth Observation Satellite
Delta 3910 PAM-

INSAT-1A 10.04.1982 Geo-Stationary Satellite
D
Bhaskara-II 20.11.1981 C-1 Intercosmos Earth Observation Satellite
Ariane Passenger
Payload Experiment 19.06.1981 Ariane-1(V-3) Geo-Stationary Satellite
(APPLE)
Rohini (RS-D1) 31.05.1981 SLV-3 Earth Observation Satellite
Rohini (RS-1) 18.07.1980 SLV-3
Satellite
Rohini Technology Experimental / Small

10.08.1979 SLV-3
Payload (RTP) Satellite
Bhaskara-I 07.06.1979 C-1 Intercosmos Earth Observation Satellite
Provided technological
Aryabhata 19 .4. 1975 C-1 Intercosmos experience in building and
operating a satellite system.
6
W2M 21.12.2008 ARIANE 5 EUROPE
6
HYLAS 27.11.2010 ARIANE 5 EUROPE
120
Suggested Readings
F A O, (1974). Approach to Land Classification. Soil Bulletin 22, Rome.
F A O, (1976). A Framework for Land Evaluation. Soil bulletin 32, Rome.
Georgiadou, Y and Doucet, K D, (1990). The issue of Selective Availability. GPS World, 1(5),
53-56.
Gibbons, G, (1996). A national GPS policy. GPS World, 7(5), 48-50.
Kaplan, E (ed.), (1996). Understanding GPS: Principles & Applications. Artech House
Publishers, Boston London, 554 pp.
Klingebiel, A A and P H Montgomery, (1961). Land capability classification, USDA
Handbook. 210. SCS, Washington, DC. 21 p.
Langley, R B, (1993). The GPS observables. GPS World, 4(4), 52-59. LANGLEY, R.B.,
1991d. Time, clocks, and GPS. GPS World, 2(10), 38-42.
Langley, R B, 1991a. The GPS receiver - An introduction. GPS World, 2(1), 50-53.
Langley, R B, 1991c. The mathematics of G P S. GPS World, 2(7), 45-50.
Langley, R B,( 1991b). The orbits of GPS satellites. GPS World, 2(3), 50-53.
N A P A, (1995). The Global Positioning System: charting the future. Rept. by National
Academy of Public Administration and the National Research Council, National
Academy Press, 332 pp.
N R C, (1995). The Global Positioning System: a shared national asset. Rept. by National
Research Council, National Academy Press, 264pp.
Parkinson, B W, (1994). GPS eyewitness: the early years. GPS World, 5(9), 32-45.
Rauch James E, (1993). "Productivity Gains from Geographic Concentration of Human
Capital: Evidence from the Cities," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol.
34(3), pages 380-400, November.
Riquier, J ; Bramao, D L and Cornet, J P, (1970). A new system of soil appraisal in terms of
actual and potential productivity, F A O Report.AGL, TESR/70/-6, Rome.
Seeber, G, (1993). Satellite Geodesy: Foundations, Methods & Applications. Walter de
Gruyter, Berlin New York, 531pp.
Sharma, D P, Singh, K N, Rao, K V G K and Kumbhare, P S, (1991) Irrigation of wheat with
saline drainage water on a sandy loam soil. Agricultural Water Management 19, 223–
233.
121
Spilker Jr, J J and Parkinson, BW (eds.), (1995). Global Positioning Systems: Theory and
Applications. American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics (AIAA), 1995, Vol. 1
(694 pp), Vol. 2(601 pp).
Spilker Jr, J J,( 1980). GPS signal structure and performance characteristics. In: Global
Positioning System, papers published in Navigation, reprinted by the (U.S.) Inst. of
Navigation, Vol.1, 29-54.
Storie, (1978). A Revised Storie Index for Use with Digital Soils Information. ANR
Publication Bulletin 8335 p.1-10
Sys C E, Van R, Debaveye J and Beernaert F, (1993). Land Evaluation Part III. Crop
requirements. Agric. Publications No.7. General Administration for Dev. Co-
operation, Brussels, Belgium.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1953). Bureau of Reclamation Manual Vol. V. Irrigated land
use, part 2, land classification. Department interior, Washington, D C.
Van Dierendonck, A J, Russell, S S, Koptizke, E R and Birnbaum, M, (1980).The GPS
navigation message. In: Global Positioning System, papers published in Navigation,
reprinted by the (U.S.) Inst. of Navigation, Vol.1, 55-73.
Website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#Map_symbology
Wells, D E , Beck, N, Delikaraoglou, D, Kleusberg, A, Krakiwsky, E J, Lachapelkle, G, Langley,
R B, Nakiboglu, M, Schwarz, K P, Tranquilla, J M and Vanicek, P, (1987). Guide to
GPS Positioning. 2nd. ed. Canadian GPS Associates, Fredericton, New Brunswick,
Canada, 600 pp.
122
Published by Department of Agricultural Meteorology, CCS HAU Hisar
123
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Practical manual on Remote Sensing , GIS and Land Use Planning

Book · January 2015

Ram Niwas Khichar Ml

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District AgroMet Unit: Mahendragarh View project

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Remote Sensing, GIS

Department of Agricultural Meteorology

Principles of Remote Sensing

Figure 1 Components of Remote Sensing

C. Interaction with the Target

Figure 2 Electromagnetic radiation

Figure 3 Energy Spectrum

Table 1 Wavelength of visible colours

Figure 4 Electromagnetic Radiation spectrum

of the energy and the material and condition of the feature.

Figure 5 Reflection by vegetation, water and soil (Spectral signatures)

3. Wien’s displacement law:

Emissivity black body is 1 and white body is 0, whereas the emissivity of

Sensor and Platform

2.3 Across-track (whisk broom) scanner

Figure 1 Across Track scanner

Figure 2 Along Track scanner

without impacting radiometric resolution. Because detectors are usually solid-state

Wing aircraft (Low altitude) Satellite (High altitude)

2.6 Satellite Characteristics

Figure 3 Swath of satellite

Figure 4 Instantaneous Field of View

wavelength range at various spectral resolutions is referred as monochromatic /panchromatic

Figure 6 Temporal resolution

would actually be an object 100,000cm (1km) long on the ground.

Figure 1 Geostationary satellite

Figure 2 Sun-synchronous satellites

operations on March 17th, 2013 (Table 3).

Figure 3 Sun-synchronous satellite

Table 3 Indian Remote Sensing satellites launched

Sr. Satellite Date of Launch Launch Vehicle Status

2 IRS 1B 29 August 1991 Vostok, USSR Mission Completed

3 IRS P1 (also IE) 20 September 1993 PSLV-D1 Crashed, due to launch

4 IRS-P2 15 October 1994 PSLV-D2 Mission Completed

5 IRS-1C 28 December 1995 Molniya, Russia Mission Completed

6 IRS-P3 21 March 1996 PSLV-D3 Mission Completed

7 IRS 1D 29 September 1997 PSLV-C1 Mission Completed

8 IRS-P4 (Oceansat-1) 27 May 1999 PSLV-C2 Mission Completed

9 Technology 22 October 2001 PSLV-C3 Mission Completed

10 IRS P6 17 October 2003 PSLV-C5 In Service

11 IRS P5 (Cartosat 1) 5 May 2005 PSLV-C6 In Service

12 Cartosat 2 (IRS P7) 10 January 2007 PSLV-C7 In Service

13 Cartosat 2A 28 April 2008 PSLV-C9 In Service

14 IMS 1 28 April 2008 PSLV-C9 In Service

15 Oceansat-2 23 September 2009 PSLV-C14 In Service

16 Cartosat-2B 12 July 2010 PSLV-C15 In Service

17 Resourcesat-2 20 April 2011 PSLV-C16 In Service

18 Megha-Tropiques 12 October 2011 PSLV-C18 In Service

19 RISAT-1 26 April 2012 PSLV-C19 In Service

20 SARAL 25 Feb 2013 PSLV-C20 In Service

Figure 5 ( a & b) LiDAR sensor on board aero plane

Figure 6 Doppler radar

Data and Analysis

a class since the parametric decision space is continuous.

Maps and Coordinate System