Improving Child Outcomes With
Data-Based Decision Making:
Collecting Data
Ms. Carol is concerned about Dominique,
one of the children in her preschool class,
who has difficulty interacting appropriately
with peers and often engages in aggressive
behaviors. Ms. Carol wants to intervene
with Dominique and collect data to see
how she responds. Similarly, Ms. Kathy is
concerned about the early literacy
development of one of the children in her
Robin L. Hojnoski, PhD
Karen L. Gischlar, EdS
Lehigh University
Kristen N. Missall, PhD
University of Kentucky
32 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009
YEC
class. Jaylen does not seem to be acquiring
phonological awareness skills at the same
rate as his peers. Ms. Kathy wants to work
with him individually and track his
progress, but she is not sure how to go
about doing this. Another teacher, Mr.
Nick, has been working on increasing
Trevor’s participation in activities in his
inclusive preschool classroom. However,
after 3 months, Mr. Nick is not seeing
much improvement in this area, according
to his daily class notes. These teachers
have similar needs and interests—they wish
to intervene with children individually and
intentionally and to systematically assess
the effects of their efforts to determine
whether the children are making adequate
progress. Where do they start?
DOI: 10.1177/1096250609333025
http://yec.sagepub.com
© 2009 Division for Early Childhood

C
ollecting and graphing
performance data are
important parts of the
educational process. Such procedures
help educators, caregivers, and other
important stakeholders make data-
based decisions to accelerate child
progress. With school-age children,
collecting and graphing data have
been associated with more frequent
instructional changes to better meet
children’s needs (Fuchs, Fuchs,
Hamlett, & Stecker, 1991), increased
quality of Individual Education Plan
(IEP) objectives (Codding, Skowron,
& Pace, 2005), and increased child
performance (Browder, Demchak,
Heller, & King, 1989; Fuchs &
“
Collecting and graphing
Fuchs, 1986). Furthermore, many
applied research studies in early
intervention use frequent collection of
performance data and evaluation of
performance data are an graphed data (e.g., Duda, Dunlap,
Fox, Lentini, & Clark, 2004;
important part of the Godfrey, Grisham-Brown, Schuster,
& Hemmeter, 2003; Ingersoll &
educational process. Schreibman, 2006; Ziolkowki &
”
Goldstein, 2008) to examine the
effects of intervention and instruction.
Collecting and graphing data
also are important elements of tiered
models of service delivery (e.g.,
response to intervention), which are
becoming part of the dialogue in
early childhood education (Brown,
Odom, & Conroy, 2001; Fox,
Dunlap, Hemmeter, Joseph, &
Strain, 2003; Sandall & Schwartz,
2002; Schwartz & Olswang, 1996;
VanDerHeyden & Snyder, 2006).
For example, “recognition and
response” is a model developed for
early childhood programs that
focuses on data-based decision
making and increasing services on
the basis of child response to current
intervention and instruction (Buysse,
Winton, & Zimmerman, 2007;
Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.
Coleman, Buysse, & Neitzel, 2006).
Additionally, there is an increasing
trend in the early childhood field
toward the ongoing use of
performance data; innovative
projects, such as Individual Growth
and Development Indicators (IGDI;
see http://www.ggg.umn.edu) and
the Parenting Interactions With
Children: Checklist of Observations
Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO; see
http://www.cpd.usu.edu/project.php?
id=119), include progress
monitoring as a central feature of
interventions designed to improve
outcomes for young children.
Although early childhood
educators report that data collection
is important, research suggests data
collection practices in early care and
education settings are inconsistent,
and lack of skill has been reported as
one of the barriers to frequent and
systematic use of data (Sandall,
Schwartz, & LaCroix, 2004). The
purpose of this article is to describe
basic elements of collecting
performance data to promote
systematic progress monitoring and
improve child outcomes in early care
and education settings. Although the
topic of collecting data could include
many technical aspects, the goal of
this article is to provide the reader
with basic knowledge needed to
collect meaningful child performance
information through identification of
important, valued, and functional
behaviors that are then targeted for
instruction or intervention.
Selecting a Target
Behavior
One of the first considerations in
collecting data is selecting a target
behavior as the focus of intervention
33
 Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.
“
Identifying a target
behavior facilitates
collection of child
performance data that can
be graphed to
demonstrate the child’s
progress toward a goal.
” Early Learning Behaviors
34 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
or instruction and of data collection
efforts. Identifying a target behavior
facilitates collection of child
performance data that can be
graphed to demonstrate the child’s
progress toward a goal. The target
behavior should be meaningful and
important to the child’s ability to
function in his or her daily
environment, enhance the child’s
successful participation in activities
and interactions, and promote
growth in other developmental
areas. Typically, target behaviors are
selected in the areas of early
learning and social behavior. These
domains are often the foundation of
early education experiences, and as
such, educators often develop goals
for children that focus on early
learning skills and social behavior.
When focusing on early learning,
cognitive, or adaptive skills, the
target behavior often reflects a skill
important for continued
development. The target behavior
may represent a specific skill (e.g.,
using scissors), an indicator of a
broader area of growth (e.g.,
rhyming as an indicator of emergent
literacy), or a specific skill that is
prerequisite for later skills (e.g.,
voluntary grasp and release as a
prerequisite for stacking). Because
Mr. Nick is interested in increasing
Trevor’s participation in classroom
activities, he would observe a global
skill made up of multiple, specific
skills that occur in multiple, specific
contexts. For example, Mr. Nick
wants Trevor to use materials
appropriately during exploration
time, look at the teacher during
large-group instruction, and follow
mealtime routines. Collectively,
Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009
these skills represent active
engagement and participation in
classroom activities, but in isolation,
each context presents a specific skill
to be demonstrated and maintained.
Mr. Nick chooses engagement as the
target behavior and defines
engagement as physical, verbal, or
vocal behavior that is consistent
with the designated task. This broad
definition allows for flexibility in
measuring the target behavior across
settings and contexts.
Sometimes early learning,
cognitive, or adaptive target
behaviors are generated from
assessment data. For Jaylen,
rhyming is targeted because
acquisition of this phonological
awareness skill is an important
indicator of general emergent
literacy skill development (Anthony
& Lonigan, 2004), and the IGDI
assessment data indicate that
Jaylen’s skills are lacking in this
area. An important consideration in
using assessment data to identify
target behaviors is the underlying
skill reflected in the assessment item.
To effectively use assessment data to
identify target behaviors, careful
consideration must be given to the
skill reflected in the assessment item,
independent of the materials. For
example, many early childhood
assessments include items that
require a child to stack a set of
blocks. Although it may be
appealing to use that skill as a target
behavior, the item defines the skill
too narrowly. Stacking blocks is not
the behavior of interest; rather, the
ability to voluntarily grasp and
release an object in alignment with
other objects is the skill required for
stacking. Moving beyond the
assessment item allows for more
flexible demonstration of the skill.

For example, perhaps, a child can
stack cups when cleaning up after
snack or stack books to put away.
Both applications are more
functional examples of the skill of
interest likely to occur in the natural
setting.
Social Behavior
When addressing social
behaviors, the target behavior is
often the behavior that is
problematic (e.g., hitting to get a
“
toy, noncompliance). Problem
behaviors concern teachers and are
When intervening with selected as behaviors for
intervention because of the impact
social behaviors, it is problem behaviors can have on the
child’s ability to engage in classroom
important to attend activities, benefit from instruction,
and engage effectively with peers
to the function of the and adults. In these situations, the
target behavior can be a
replacement behavior (see O’Neil,
problematic behavior or Horner, Albin, & Storey, 1996, for a
more detailed discussion) or the
the purpose that the alternative and desired behavior that
the child should use in place of the
behavior serves. problematic behavior (e.g.,
requesting, compliance) as the target
”
behavior. We advocate focusing on
replacement behaviors when
developing interventions and
tracking response to interventions
for several reasons. First, focusing
on replacement behaviors addresses
the notion of the function of the
problem behavior by identifying
behaviors that meet the child’s need
(e.g., gaining adult attention).
Second, the replacement behavior
may be an important keystone
behavior that has the potential to
affect other behaviors of concern
(e.g., teaching the child to use verbal
communication). Finally, selecting a
positive target behavior shifts the
Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.
emphasis of the entire data
collection, intervention, and
evaluation process from negative to
positive.
When intervening with social
behaviors, it is important to attend
to the function of the problematic
behavior or the purpose that the
behavior serves (see Chandler &
Dahlquist, 2002, for a detailed
discussion). In general terms, the
function of the behavior is what the
individual gains from the behavior
or why he or she engages in the
behavior. By understanding the
function of the problem behavior,
interventions can target appropriate
and adaptive behaviors that serve
the same function. Typically, the
function of a behavior is identified
as either (a) gaining access to
something or (b) avoiding or
escaping something. Gaining access
can be further broken into gaining
access to attention (e.g., teacher,
parent), to desired materials or
tangibles (e.g., food, toys), or to
sensory stimulation. Similarly,
avoiding or escaping can be further
broken into avoiding attention or
task demands or reducing sensory
stimulation. Identifying the function
of a particular behavior is
accomplished usually through a
detailed process that involves
interviews and collection of
observational data that focus on
the environmental context of the
problem behavior. Often the
function of a behavior can be
defined by attending to what
happens just before and right after
the problem behavior occurs.
Identifying predictors of the
behavior can be helpful in
developing interventions. For
example, if the problem behavior
seems to occur more often during
35
 Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.
36 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
difficult tasks, interventions might
include alternating difficult tasks
with easier tasks, adjusting the
overall difficulty, or providing
additional supports during the task.
Figure 1 provides a basic graphic
organizer for considering the
predictors and function of behavior,
using Dominique as an example.
The notion of “fair pair” suggests
that once we identify the function of
the problem behavior, we need to
pair reducing the problem behavior
with increasing the alternative and
desired behavior that serves the
same function. Ideally, the
replacement behavior should be
more efficient and effective than the
problem behavior at obtaining the
desired outcome, which may require
adult support. For example, when
Dominique requests a toy, adults
should support the effectiveness of
the behavior by providing the
desired toy, which could be
accomplished through “turn
taking.” If the intervention is
effective at increasing the desired
Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009
behavior, the negative behavior
should decrease; that is, as
Dominique increases her use of
requesting and waiting, her
aggressive behavior to gain access to
toys should decrease.
Keystone behaviors are another
important concept in selecting
target behaviors. A keystone
behavior is one that affects or is
related to other behaviors. Selecting
a keystone behavior as the target
behavior may promote positive
change in related behaviors,
maximizing the benefits of
instruction and intervention
(Barnett, Bauer, Ehrhardt, Lentz, &
Stollar, 1996). Increasing
Dominique’s communication skills is
likely to affect her level of
aggression and peer interactions
positively. Keystone behaviors also
have the potential to affect an entire
response class of behaviors. A
response class is a term used to
describe a group of behaviors
that serve the same function or
purpose. These behaviors may or
may not look similar. For example,
during play, Dominique may hit,
scream, or grab to get a toy from a
peer. During lunch, Dominique
may bang her plate or grab to get
more food. Although these
behaviors look different, they all
belong to the same response class
because they all have the effect of
gaining the desired object (e.g.,
toys and food). If communication
is selected as the target behavior,
as a keystone behavior, it may
reduce the occurrence of hitting
as well as screaming and grabbing.
Finally, choosing a positive
behavior for data collection may
affect the entire process by shifting
attention and efforts in a positive
direction. Problematic behaviors can
 Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.

Figure 1
Functions of behavior

Predictors or what occurs Behavior of concern Consequences or what occurs

before the target behavior after the behavior
Dominique engages in
e.g., During free play with peers aggressive behavior Obtains desired toy

Access Escape/Avoid

Setting Task Social

configuration
This can This can
include non- This can
include Attention Tangibles Sensory
preferred vs. include alone,
activity, one-on-one,
preferred This can This can include This can
transition, large group,
task, easy vs. include both preferred items include an
structured vs. small group;
difficult positive and in the case of increase in or a
unstructured, adult support;
task, choice negative access, or non- reduction of
time of day peer group;
vs. no teacher preferred items sensory
choice in presence of attention and in the case of stimulation
task preferred peer escape/avoid
individuals vs. attention (e.g., toys,
presence of activities, food
non-preferred task demands,
individuals settings)

be frustrating and overwhelming. those activities that do and do not

They demand a great deal of
attention and effort that can be
draining and that can interfere with
attending to positive behaviors that
the same child may exhibit.
Identifying a positive behavior for
data collection forces attention to
the occurrence of this behavior; this
leads to natural opportunities to
reinforce the behavior. For example,
data could be collected on Trevor’s
off-task behavior or his lack of
active engagement in the classroom.
Focusing on engagement instead
draws attention to the instances in
which Trevor is actively engaged
and, ultimately, assists in identifying
classroom and activity variables that
support Trevor’s engagement. Mr.
Nick can look at the data to identify
promote Trevor’s active engagement.
Operational Definitions
For any target behavior, an
operational definition is critical.
Operational definitions specify
important elements of the target
behavior so that accurate data can
be collected. They make behaviors
specific, observable, and measurable
(e.g., requests, identifies, complies;
Alberto & Troutman, 1999).
Examples of the target behavior
offer clear illustrations (e.g., Trevor
uses materials as intended during
exploration time), and listing
nonexamples provides information
about behaviors that look similar
but should not be considered as

Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 37

 Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.
“
Operational definitions
specify important
elements of the target
behavior so that
accurate data can
be collected.
”
38 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
instances of the target behavior
(e.g., Trevor bangs materials on the
table during exploration time).
In creating operational
definitions, attention is given to the
topography of the behavior, or what
the behavior looks like in specific
terms. In identifying the topography
of the behavior, it is helpful to think
about how the behavior would be
described specifically to someone
who has never observed the
behavior. For example, Ms. Carol
explains the topography of
Dominique’s aggressive behavior as
“verbal, vocal, or physical behaviors
that result in discomfort or injury to
a peer or adult, including yelling,
hitting, kicking, and pushing.”
Nonexamples of her aggressive
behavior might include hitting a
peer’s hand in a “high five” or
shouting loudly in play. In defining
the desired and alternative
behaviors, Ms. Carol describes
requests as “any verbal, vocal, or
gestural behavior used to obtain a
desired object.” The inclusion of
verbal, vocal, and gestural behaviors
allows for multiple ways that
requests can be made, thus creating
a response class (or a set of
acceptable behaviors) for
communication. For children at
various levels of skill development,
this flexibility might be needed. For
children who have verbal skills for
requesting, the operational
definition may be limited to verbal
behavior.
In selecting and defining a target
behavior, the teacher needs to
consider which dimension(s) (e.g.,
frequency, duration, intensity)
should be the focus. Specifying these
dimensions as part of the
operational definition helps make
the target behavior less ambiguous
Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009
and facilitates precise measurement
needed to document change (Alberto
& Troutman, 1999). Dimensions of
behavior include frequency (i.e., the
number of times a behavior occurs),
duration (i.e., how long a behavior
lasts), and latency (i.e., length of
time to respond). The frequency of
temper tantrums that occur once a
week may not be as concerning as
the duration if the tantrum
continues for a long period of time.
Thus, duration becomes part of the
operational definition (e.g., crying
and/or flailing of arms and/or legs
that lasts longer than 3 min).
Adding a time element to an
operational definition of compliance
clarifies the conditions under which
a behavior is considered compliant
(e.g., child response consistent with
adult request within 10 s).
Selecting a Measurement
System
The dimensions of the
operational definitions of the target
behavior will inform the focus of the
measurement and the type of
recording method. Direct
observation is used frequently with
a range of behaviors, because it is a
method that teachers can use during
everyday routines in naturalistic
settings. Table 1 provides a brief
description of recording methods
that are useful for direct observation
of target behaviors. It is important
to select a recording method that
will best capture the target behavior.
Ms. Carol observes Dominique’s use
of requesting and waiting during
playtime using a frequency count,
whereas Mr. Nick observes Trevor’s
engagement using an interval
recording system. If Mr. Nick was
concerned only with increasing

Table 1
Methods of Recording Data
Recording Method Description
Event recording • Each occurrence of the target behavior is recorded, and at the end of
(frequency count) the observation, a total number of occurrences is calculated, yielding
the number or frequency of behaviors.
• Best used with behaviors that are short in duration and have a clear
beginning and end (e.g., positive behaviors, such as requests and social
initiations, or negative behaviors, such as hitting or calling out).
• Uses some indicator of the occurrence of the behavior, such as tally
marks on a recording form.
Time sampling • Specific time intervals (e.g., 30 s, 2 min) are selected and used in
observing and recording the target behavior. Sampling methods yield
an approximation of the frequency of behavior as opposed to a precise
recording of actual frequency.
Partial-interval time • A predetermined time interval is used, and the target behavior is
sampling recorded if it occurs during any part of the interval, yielding a
percentage of total intervals (or percentage of observation) that the
behavior is observed. Occurrence of the target behavior is recorded only
once during an interval regardless of whether there are additional
occurrences of the behavior.
• Best used with behaviors that occur frequently.
Whole-interval time • A predetermined time interval is used, and the target behavior is
sampling recorded if it occurs and is maintained during the entire interval. If the
behavior begins and ends before the interval has elapsed, the target
behavior is not recorded as occurring. This method yields a percentage
of total intervals (or percentage of observation time) that the behavior
is observed.
• Best used with behaviors that are longer in duration; otherwise, the
method will underestimate the occurrence of the behavior
Momentary time • Interval is divided into a “rest” part and a “watch” part. Observation of
sampling the target behavior occurs only for a portion of the predetermined time
interval or during the “watch” part of the interval (e.g., last 5 s of a 15-
s interval). The target behavior is recorded as occurring only if it occurs
during the “watch” part of the interval.
• This method yields a percentage of total intervals (or percentage of
observation time) behavior is observed and is best utilized with high-
frequency behaviors or behaviors that are longer in duration.
Duration • The elapsed time between onset and offset of the target behavior is
recorded.
• Duration data can be summarized by each occurrence or by the total
duration of the behavior during the period of observation.
• Observer starts the stopwatch when the behavior begins and stops the
watch when the behavior ends.
• Best used with behaviors with a clear beginning and end, where the
dimension of interest is how long behavior lasts and where the behavior
is longer in duration (e.g., on-task, prosocial, or out-of-area behaviors).
Latency • The elapsed time between the prompt or request for behavior and the
performance of the target behavior is recorded.
• Observer starts the stopwatch when the prompt or request is given and
stops the watch when the target behavior is initiated.
• Latency data can be summarized by each occurrence.
• Best used with behaviors that have a clear beginning and are signaled
by some type of prompt (e.g., compliance).
Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.
Example
Ms. Rita makes a mark on a recording form
posted on the cabinet near the art area each
time Lilly asks for materials during project
time.
Mr. Tom observes during circle time to see if Jay
is actively engaged. Because it is difficult to
observe and conduct circle time, Mr. Tom uses
intervals that correspond to each circle time
activity, which are approximately 3 min. Mr.
Tom marks yes or no on a clipboard in the cir-
cle area if he observes Jay as actively
engaged during any part of the specific activ-
ity or interval.
Mr. Tom observes during circle time to see if Jay
is actively engaged. Because it is difficult to
observe and conduct circle time, Mr. Tom uses
intervals that correspond to each circle time
activity, which are approximately 3 min. Mr.
Tom marks yes or no if he observes Jay as
actively engaged during the entire activity or
interval.
Mr. Tom observes during circle time to see if Jay
is actively engaged. Because it is difficult to
observe and conduct circle time, Mr. Tom uses
intervals that correspond to each circle time
activity, which are approximately 3 min. Mr.
Tom marks yes or no if he observes Jay as
actively engaged at the end of each specific
activity or interval.
Ariel has difficulty choosing and staying with an
appropriate activity during independent
exploration. Ms. Tina starts her watch when
Ariel begins to wander during independent
exploration and stops her watch when Ariel
chooses an activity and begins the activity.
Mr. Andre starts his watch when he gives Leon a
direction to line up at the door and stops his
watch when Leon complies with the request
and has lined up behind his peers.
39
 Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.
40 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
engagement in one context, he also
could use a duration recording to
measure the amount of time that
Trevor is engaged in classroom
activities.
In some cases, the target
behavior is measured through direct
assessment that yields some type of
score. For Jaylen, rhyming is
measured with the Rhyming IGDI
(Early Childhood Research Institute
on Measuring Growth and
Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009
Development, 2000; i.e., number
correct per 2 min on the Rhyming
IGDI). Direct assessment also may
be conducted with teacher-
developed materials and criteria for
success. For example, a teacher may
ask a child to cut a piece of paper to
assess fine motor skills and rate the
quality of the performance using a
rubric, or he or she may ask a child
to select a number of crayons from
an array to assess beginning number
knowledge and note yes or no as to
whether the child demonstrates the
skill, or he or she may observe a
child’s independent dressing skills
using a checklist of steps involved
and noting which steps are
completed successfully. These
assessments yield a rating or score
related to the progress a child is
making. The teacher may rate a
child’s fine motor skills initially
as a 1, indicating emerging skill, and
as the intervention progresses, the
teacher rates the behavior as a 3,
indicating that the skill is mastered
and the child can generalize use of
the skill across cutting tasks.
Similarly, on a checklist of 10 steps
of independent dressing,
observations may indicate that the
child initially can complete only 3 of
the steps, but as the intervention
continues, the child increases the
number of steps completed to 7.
Most assessment methods
require the use of additional
materials to collect data, such as
assessment materials (e.g., rhyming
cards), a stopwatch, and recording
forms or graphs that organize the
data. With some practice, data
collection methods can be
incorporated into ongoing classroom
activities. Also, creative ways to
collect data can be devised that

minimize the need for additional
materials. For example, in collecting
frequency data, a teacher can place
a specific number of rubber bands
on her wrist and transfer one rubber
band to the other wrist each time
the behavior is observed. A similar
system could be used to transfer
“
objects in pockets or cotton balls
placed in a jar each time the
Engaging in regular behavior occurs. In Trevor’s case,
Mr. Nick wants to record whether
data-based decision Trevor is engaged in different
activities during large-group
making by collecting, instruction. To do this, he places a
piece of masking tape on his
graphing, and interpreting clothing for each activity and then
marks on the tape whether or not
Trevor is engaged. A similar system
data is a significant and could be used with multiple pieces
of tape if data are being collected on
meaningful way to fully more than one child. These data are
recorded on a form at a time more
engage in the process of convenient for the teacher. Also,
data recording forms can be placed
intentional, systematic, and on clipboards and placed near the
area where the skill will be observed
effective intervention. or in a location that is convenient
and easily accessible for the teacher.
” Visible data collection systems, such
as white boards, can cue teachers to
collect the desired data. The key is
to develop a system that can be used
easily during data collection sessions
to capture the target behavior
accurately so that representative
information is obtained. Figure 2
provides some sample forms that
can be used in collecting various
types of data.
Once the measurement system
has been developed, additional
considerations include determining
the time of day and/or setting for
data collection and determining who
is responsible for collecting data.
The behavior of concern will
determine when and where data are
Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.
collected, in most cases. Ms. Carol
collects data during playtime, when
the target behaviors occur. In
Jaylen’s case, the time of day or
setting is less relevant because
emergent literacy skills are not
explicitly linked to or dependent on
a specific activity. For some
behaviors that are of concern
throughout the day, teachers and
caregivers may prioritize the most
important setting for the target
behavior and collect data in that
context only. For example, Trevor’s
participation in classroom activities
is important throughout the day, but
Mr. Nick decides that participation
in large-group instruction is the
priority because of the implications
for actively engaging in learning
activities in this setting.
Data should be collected by the
person who has the most
opportunity to observe the target
behavior. If Ms. Carol is responsible
for supervision of the block area
and that is where the behavior most
often occurs, then she would collect
the data. In other cases, more than
one teacher may collect data on a
target behavior. Perhaps Ms. Kathy
administers the Rhyming IGDI one
week, but on another week, the
teacher assistant administers the
assessment. Both teachers should be
knowledgeable about how to collect
the information and how to create a
visual representation of the
information collected. Finally, for
some behaviors, parents or other
caregivers in different settings may
collect data. Clear operational
definitions of target behaviors and a
precise measurement system that
captures the target behavior will
facilitate consistent and accurate
data collection regardless of who
collects the data.
41
 Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.

Figure 2 Data Collection as the

Sample data collection forms
First Step
Sample Data Collection Forms
In sum, getting started with data
Event Recording:
For each 3 minute interval record the frequency of disruptive behavior by
collection involves three basic steps
making an X each time one of the behaviors occurs. that address questions of what,
Target Child _________________________ where, when, how, and who. The
Teacher____________________________
what involves the first step of
Activity _____________________________Date__________ selecting a target behavior, and the
Observation time ____:____to ___:____ Observer______ second step entails creating an
0 3 minutes 4 7 minutes 8 11 minutes 12 15 minutes operational definition. The where,
Requesting when, how, and who make up the
Waiting third step of creating a measurement
system that will yield the most
Partial Interval Recording
For each 3 minute interval, record whether the child is engaged in the activity.
informative data. Data can be
Remember, the behavior only has to occur for part of the interval to be marked, collected on any behavior in any
but only record one instance of the behavior regardless of how many times it
occurs.
setting; the key is selecting an
Whole Interval Recording
appropriate target behavior and an
For each 3 minute interval, record whether the child is engaged in the activity. appropriate way to measure the
Remember the behavior must occur for the entire interval in order to be
recorded. target behavior.
Time Sampling Interval Recording After data are collected, two key
On the last second of each 3 minute interval, record whether the child is engaged processes remain: (a) graphing data
in the activity. Record only the behavior observed at the last second of the
interval. and (b) interpreting and using data
Target Child:
to make programming decisions.
Teacher(s)_____Activity______________________________________________
Engaging in regular data-based
decision making by collecting,
Date___/___/___Time____:____to ____:____ Observer______
graphing, and interpreting data is a
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
significant and meaningful way to
fully engage in the process of
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
intentional, systematic, and effective
intervention. After data are graphed,
Latency Recording: each of these teachers can use the
When a directive is given, begin timing. Stop your watch when the target child information to determine whether
initiates a behavior consistent with the direction given.
the children are making desired
Target Child _________________________
Teacher____________________________ progress and if the selected
Activity _____________________________Date__________
interventions are effective and to
discern next steps in supporting skill
Observation time ____:____to ___:____ Observer______
development, maintenance, and
Directive Time to action generalization. The graphed data
provide objective information about
Duration Recording:
skill level and response to
Start your stopwatch when the target child begins to engage in the target behavior. intervention that can be interpreted
Stop your watch when the target child stops the behavior and restart when the
behavior resumes. Record the time for each instance. to make data-based decisions
Instance T ime
#1
intended to improve social, early
#2 learning, and adaptive outcomes for
#3
#4 the young children. Teachers can use
these data for their own purposes

42 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2009

 Collecting Data / Hojnoski et al.

and also to communicate with children’s needs and progress, the

parents, caregivers, and other effectiveness of specific supports,
educational personnel about and next steps of intervention.

Ms. Carol collects data on the increase Trevor’s engagement. The

frequency with which Dominique
uses requesting and waiting
behavior before she begins an
intervention. Jaylen completes the
Rhyming IGDI task with Ms.
Kathy on a weekly basis before
beginning a small-group early
literacy intervention. Mr. Nick
uses a time sampling interval
recording method to measure
Trevor’s level of engagement in
large-group instruction for 1 week
before using specific strategies to
teachers continue to collect data
during the interventions. Each
teacher sets aside time each week
to graph data and look at each
child’s growth over time.
Periodically, they sit down with
other service providers and
parents to discuss the children’s
progress. Systematically collecting
and using data have improved the
teachers planning and instruction
with the children in their
classrooms.

Note
You may reach Robin L. Hojnoski by e-mail at roh206@lehigh.edu.

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