L9-L18 FORMULA BOOK CONTENT

REGULAR LANGUAGES AND REGULAR GRAMMARS

Regular Expressions
Regular expressions describe regular languages using different notations. Notations are
combinations of strings of symbols from:
1. Some alphabet Σ
2. Parentheses ( and )
3. Operators:
a. + : union
b.  : concatenation
c. * : multiplicity (occurrence of a symbol zero or more times)
Primitive regular expressions
1. : denotes empty set
2. Λ: denotes {λ}
3. aϵ Σ: denotes denotes {a}
If r1 and r2 are regular expressions, then are also regular expressions.
Language associated with regular expression
Language Regular Expression
L(r1 + r2) L(r1)Ս L(r2)
L(r1  r2) L(r1) L(r2)
L(r1*) (L(r1))*
L((r1)) L(r1)

Language denoted by regular expression

Language Regular Expression
{a,b,c} a+b+c
{a}Ս{bc} a+(bc)
{a,bc}* (a+(bc))*

Generalized Transition Graph

A generalized transition graph is a transition graph whose edges are labeled with regular
expressions.
Any transition graph is reduced to two-state transition graph shown in Figure 3.1 and the regular
expression for the same is derived as r1*r2(r3+r4 r1*r2)*
 Figure 3.1
Regular Grammars
Regular grammar is another way of representing the regular language.
In a regular grammar at most one variable appears on the right side of the production. It is either
right-linear or left-linear.
A grammar G=(V, T, S, P) is said to be linear grammar if all the productions contain at most
one variable on the right side of the production, without restriction on the position of the
variable.
A grammar G=(V, T, S, P) is said to be right-linear if all the productions are of the form AxB
or Ax, where A, Bϵ V and xϵT*.
A grammar G=(V, T, S, P) is said to be left-linear if all the productions are of the form ABx
or Ax, where A, Bϵ V and xϵT*.

PROPERTIES OF REGULAR LANGUAGES

If L1 and L2 are regular languages, then so are
1. Union: L1 Ս L2
2. Intersection: L1 ∩ L2
3. Concatenation: L1L2
4. Complement: Ĺ1
5. Star: : L1*
6. Difference: L1- L2
7. Reversal: L1R
8. Homomorphism:
9. Right quotient
Homomorphism
Homomorphism is a substitution in which a single letter is replaced with a string.
Suppose Σ and Γ are alphabets, then a function h : Σ  Γ* is called a homomorphism. If
w=a1a2….an then h(w)= h(a1)h(a2)….h(an).
If L is a language on Σ, then its homomorphic image is defined as h(L)= {h(w) : w ϵ L}.
Right Quotient
Let L1 and L2 be languages on the same alphabet, then the right quotient of L1 and L2 is defined
as
L1/L2= {x : xy ϵ L1 for some y ϵ L2 }
Identifying nonregular languages
A pumping lemma is a method to show that a given language is not regular i.e., it is used to
identify nonregular languages.
Given an infinite regular language L there exists an integer m such that for any string w ϵ L with
length |w|≥m can be decomposed as w=xyz with |xy|≤m and |y|≥1 such that w i=xyiz ϵ L for all
i=0, 1, 2, ….

CONTEXT FREE LANGUAGES

Context free grammar
A grammar G=(V, T, S, P) is said to be context free if all productions in P have the form Ax,
where A ϵ V and x ϵ (V Ս T)*.
A language L is said to be context free if and only if there is a context free grammar G such that
L= L(G).
Leftmost and Rightmost derivations
A derivation is said to be leftmost if in each step the leftmost variable in the sentential form is
replaced. If in each step the rightmost variable is replaced, then the derivation is called rightmost
derivation.
Derivation Trees
A derivation tree is an ordered tree in which the nodes are labeled with the left sides of the
production and in which the children of a node represent its corresponding right side.
Ambiguity
A context free grammar is said to be ambiguous if there exist some w ϵ L(G) if there exists either
two or more derivation trees or two or more leftmost derivations or two or more rightmost
derivations.