Brain-Computer Interface Review
Szilárd BULÁRKA
Applied Electronics Department
University of Politehnica Timisoara
Timisoara, Timis
szilard.bularka@student.upt.ro
Abstract— Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is a device that
allows direct communication path between central nervous
system and external devices without peripheral nerves
dependency. Brain-Computer Interface and its applications
reached beyond medical applications, it is used to enhance,
improve, restore or replace functions or it can be used as a
research tool. Stakeholders of the field have developed future
plans and the ethical in research. the multidisciplinary nature of
Brain-Computer Interface is based on neuroscience, signal
processing, biomedical sensors, and hardware. This paper aims
to present briefly the current state and the future of Brain-
Computer Interfaces. The future works of the author are based
on hardware approach using System-On-Chip combined with
novelty memristor crossbar memory, which can be used to
emulate axons and neurons directly in the hardware.
Keywords—Brain-Computer Interface,BCI, state of the art, BCI
applications, neuroscience, computational neuroscience
I. INTRODUCTION
The brain-computer interface is a device that allows direct
communication path between the brain and external devices
without peripheral nerves dependency. .In the early days BCI
was more a science fiction topic, nowadays thanks to the huge
advancements in neuroscience, signal processing,
computational neuroscience, sensors etc. BCI is a growing
area of research. Since Hans Berger has recorded the neuron
firing process in 1924 using electroencephalography, (EEG)
unlocked the possibility to investigate schizophrenia and other
brain diseases. Nowadays among EEG we can monitor the
brain waves using various novelty noninvasive methods like
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Functional
Near-infrared Spectroscopy Imaging (fNIR) and invasive
methods like Electrocorticography (ECoG). In the early days
of BCI, the main applications were focused on motor
rehabilitation. Nowadays BCI is used beyond medical
applications like entertainment, military, research tool, etc.
The reasoning why most of the BCI applications are motor
related is strongly correlated why animals need brains.
According to Daniel Wolpert, the need for a brain is related to
movement. The studies of squids can argue with D. Wolpert's
hypothesis. Squids use their brain to swim and to find their
attachment place, after the attachment to the bottom of the
ocean, it digests its own brain. Thanks to neuroscience a lot of
the brain was reverse engineered. The 10/20 electrode
placement for EEG offer satisfactory spatial coverage for most
of the applications, but for sophisticated applications like
978-1-5090-3748-3/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE
Aurel GONTEAN
Applied Electronics Department
University of Politehnica Timisoara
Timisoara, Timis
aurel.goneant@upt.ro
silicon sensor placement for ECoG, fMRI play a key role.
Todays BCI requirements are: good temporal and spatial
resolution, mobility, user friendliness, ethical, discreteness,
robustness. fMRI and fNIR are used mainly as research tools
because the imaging process of those is time-consuming and
the mobility of the user is highly restricted. For modern BCIs
EEG and ECoG offers optimal performances and mobility.
ECoG is a highly invasive method and involve higher costs
but the silicone based sensors offer higher signal to noise ratio,
better spatial resolution, ease of use and most of them offer
discreteness. ECoG is mainly used in replace and restore
applications. Thanks to its noninvasiveness EEG is preferred
for most of the applications, nowadays dry electrodes offer
ease of use and discreteness. Using novelty signal processing
techniques the performance of EEG systems has been
increased in the last years. The appearance of medical graded
gadget EEG headsets like EPOC by Emotiv, Muse by
Interaxon, etc. have opened a new application area in the field
of entertainment and mental state monitoring for BCI. The
reduced cost and the performances offered by most of these
devices offer the possibility to young scientists to contribute to
research. Because the field of BCI research is a young and
growing, BNCI Horizon 2020 [1] is a Coordination and
Support Action founded within the European Commission's
Framework Programme 7 to facilitate the communication and
collaboration between stakeholders. BNCI Horizon 2020 have
proposed a roadmap which includes the current state and a
guideline for future applications. The BCI Awards [2] donated
by g.tec offer a good overview of outstanding and innovative
research projects in the field of BCI research. On the other
hand, the BCI Awards offer a good dataset for benchmarking.
Figure. 1. Emotiv EPOC 16 chanel EEG headset (left), 128 chanel 3D neural
probe for ECoG by Neuro Nexus (right)
II. CURRENT STATE OF BCI
In the early days, BCI was mainly used in medical
applications. Nowadays as the performances, the discreteness
and the costs have seen a great improvement, BCI can be used
in almost every domain where human to machine interaction
can be imagined. According to BNCI Horizon 2020, the
author embraces the five application areas for BCIs.
A. BCI used to replace functions
BCI can offer a solution for patients with disabilities
caused by chronic diseases. In case of stroke many people loss
their motor functions or their ability to speak. The first attempt
to create a new communication path using BCI for patients
with severe motor disabilities was based on cursor
movements. According to G. E. Fabiani et. al [7] the overall
system performance depend on the number of features and the
classification method. The use of linear discriminant analysis
(LDA) can offer optimal performances for linear separable
data. Non-linear classifiers (like. statistical classifiers or
neuronal networks) can offer better performances but the
number of features needs to be carefully chosen thanks to the
exponential relation between the number of weights and the
number of features. One of the most popular applications for
BCI is wheelchair control. EEG-based methods suffer from
lack of accuracy and low signal to noise ratio. In order to
maximize the overall system performance, various methods
were proposed to ensure low-cost function and safety.Velocity
and direction control proportional with the concentration level
and time was embraced by many authors. The main
disadvantage is caused by the rapid exhaustion of the user.
According to R. Satti [9] a shared control strategy can offer
better performances, where the computer can assist the user to
ensure safety and to minimize the cost function. The cost
function in terms of wheelchair application is defined as the
sum of concentration time ratio and mission time ratio. In
order to create shared control systems the wheelchair need to
be equipped with environmental sensors (i.e infrared sensors,
vision, etc) and trajectory control to minimize the number of
commands and collision avoidance. According to L. Merino
et. al. [16] BCIs based on Steady State Visual Envoked
Potentials (SSVEP) does not require training as Motor
Imagery based BCIs. In the related work six 3x3 cm flickering
stimulus was used with color and frequency changing, each
flickering square indicating a command. The SSVEP
frequency detection was made using Canonical Correlation
Analysis (CCA). The proposed method offered robustness and
good accuracy across multiple users. The main benefit of this
method is the easiness to add more commands without the
need for a training session. Using a webcam feedback with the
proposed method to control a quadcopter is a novelty
application of BCI. The second most studied BCI application
after movement is related to speech synthesizing. According to
J. S. Brumberg, the discrete classification of vowels and
consonants is very difficult. Motor imagery is suitable for
continuous control like mouse control in 2D space. The above
study presents a method to generate the 8 vowel sounds in
English using motor imagery to navigate through a map of
sounds defined by the outer boundary of the vowels. (i.e ih
/hid, uh/ hood, /eh head). During the training participants were
instructed to imagine right-hand movement for /aa/ vowels,
left-hand movement for /uw/ vowels and both feet movement
for /iy/ sounds. To provide improved BCI performance both
audio and visual feedback was presented for the participants.
Figure. 2. Ear-EEG [4]
In BCI four paradigms are used, P300 signals, motor imagery,
Steady State Visual Evoked Potentials (SSVEP) and Slow
Cortical Potentials. A.A Tores-Garcia et. al. have proposed a
new paradigm for speech classification called imagined
speech. [14].
B. BCI used to restore functions
BCI is a potential method for stroke rehabilitation. Using
signals from the brain to control assistive devices like assistive
robots or muscle stimulators. Earlier studies have
demonstrated that ipsilateral areas to the moving limb are
responsible for execution and planning. D.T Bundy et. al.
demonstrated for the first time that contralesional hemispheric
EEG signals can be used to control cursor movements in one
dimension. [3].
C. BCI used to improve functions
Thanks to novelty wearable EEG devices which can be
used long time periods without intervention BCI applications
gained place also in health improvement. D. Looney et. al.
proposed an Ear-EEG device for continuous brain monitoring
applications. The proposed device consisted of an ear plug
(fig. 2) with embedded electrodes to record brain waves within
the ear canal. [4]. A recent application proposed by B.
Mirkovic et. al. is a hearing device control using BCI. [19].
Using continuous EEG speech envelope tracking can be made
in order to detect the direction of attention to a natural speech.
The above study proves that continuous EEG offer lower
accuracy than scalp EEG due to the lower number of
electrodes, but both offer sufficient decoding accuracy.
Another recent BCI application is related to memory
improvement using wearable EEG headset. According to M.
Avaneh, et al. parietal and occipital EEG signal amplitude
measurements from 1-2s after the onset can be used to identify
poorly or well-memorized words. [20]
D. BCI used to enhance functions
One of the main limitation in BCI performance is due to
the inability of the users to learn to provide sterling EEG
patterns. A small percent of the users suffer from BCI
deficiency, which means they can't learn how to use a BCI.
One possible solution is to create interactive co-learning
environment with several feedback paths (i.e visual,
somatosensory, auditory), in this manner, the user engagement
can be considerably increased and the user gains more detailed
information about his neuronal activity. (i.e. what is wrong
with the provided pattern). This game like feedback methods
offer not just better EEG patterns but also enhance the user
capabilities. Thanks to the modern lifestyle mood disorder is
one of the most common illness. Numerous studies have
shown the relationship between music and mood. Affective
Brain-Computer Interfaces (aBCI) are a possible solution for
mood enhancement. According to I. Daly et. al. [18] aBCI
music interface can be used to modulate emotions. The
proposed system is consisted of EEG and other physiological
signal recorder, an affective state detector based on support
vector machines, a reasoning system to determine the best way
to change the user affective state to a target affective state and
a piano music generator. The above-mentioned solution can
detect the current affective states with a mean accuracy of 0.54
and it has a potential in novelty music therapy applications.
Affective state monitoring has opened new communication
pathways also for artists. One of the most popular application
is Eunoia by Lisa Park, which can translate emotions (i.e
sadness, anger, hatred, desire, happiness) into acoustic
vibrations in real-time. Severall studies have demonstrated the
cognitive benefits of playing video games. Unity 3D is a
highly embraced open source game and virtual reality engine.
C. Kapeller et. al. [17] have released a screen-overlay control
interface (SOCI) plugin for Unity which can be used together
with Oculus Rift VR glasses. The plugin uses popular BCI
paradigms as P300 and c-VEP delivered by an openGL flash
module. Synchronous BCIs like Code-modulated Visual
Evoked Potentials (c-VEP) require a stable refresh rate with
good synchronization with an external trigger. The above
plugin ensures the requirements by constantly running the
Unity game at 60 Hz refresh rate and an internal UDP handler
in the SOCI player provide an accurate trigger.
E. BCI used as research tool
In the early days, BCIs has focused mainly on communication
an control. Novel hardware and machine learning methods
unlocked new applications for BCIs among replace, restore,
enhance and improve applications it can be used as a research
tool in various fields. (e.g neuroscience, marketing, etc). Some
recent studies revealed the influence of soft drinks to brain-
computer interface. According to J. Mundahl [22], caffeine
decreases the alpha power at rest but increase attention.
Caffeine has negligible effects on BCI performance because
the two effects cancel out each other. Sugar based drinks
decrease the BCI performance. The above observations result
from EEG data recorded over left and right motor cortex
positions (C3, C4) for six participants before and after caffein
or sugar based drink consumption. In each case, the resting
state was recorded followed by a left-right cursor control.
Another interest in BCI is subject to subject transferability
with a minimal training session. According to H. Cho et. al. in
the case of motor imagery BCI [21] if the individual features
are similar to standard features the subject transfer rate is
comparable with individual accuracy. A possible solution for
subject to subject transfer is interactive neurofeedback [23]
where the user learn how to use the system or co-adaptive way
where both the user and the computer learn.The above
methods do not help just for subject to subject transferability
but also can contribute to BCI illiteracy problem solving.
III. FUTURE OF BCI
BCI is a rapidly growing field of research joining together
various fields. The bellow table depicts various applications
and their status on the market.
Application Time to market
Control of devices 5-10 yrs
User state monitoring 3-5 yrs
Evaluation 1-3 yrs
Training and education 3-5 yrs
Gaming and entertainment Now
Cognitive improvement 3-5 yrs
Safety and security 5-10 yrs
Table 1. BCI market overview
Controlling an artificial actuator using BCI is one of the
most complex applications. Recently developed methods
decode cognitive signals to control artificial device, the main
drawback is the caused mental fatigue by the need for
continuous concentration. In the near future shared control
systems will appear, cognitive signals will be used to decode
the main characteristics of movements (e. g. direction, the
intent of the movement) and the detailed characteristics will be
accomplished by the actuator itself. Recent studies have
demonstrated the remapping of the internal body
representation of the brain due to the long-term usage of
artificial actuators which lead to a perceptual experience that
the artificial device became an extension of the user's body.
According to Mariushi et. al [24] activation of right parietal
cortex have been recorded during myoelectric prosthetic hand
movements. In future among various classical feedbacks (e. g.
visual, auditory, haptic) direct brain micro-stimulation (e.g.
deep brain stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation,
transcranial direct current stimulation, etc) patterns will be
used to enhance the user experience and to minimize the
learning time. Currently various BCI hardware is available on
the market starting from gadget type BCI headset for gaming
applications to expensive research headsets and signal
amplifiers. On the other hand, various type of software was
developed for feature extractors, classifiers, etc by researchers
or by companies. The lack of industrial standard represents a
huge impediment to the future development of BCIs. In order
to facilitate the communication between stakeholders and
different disciplines, various international projects were
founded. (e. g. BNCI Horizon 2020). In the future, industrial
standards will be developed as connectors for EEG caps,
software application interfaces and datasets for benchmarking.
IV. FUTURE WORK
Our future contributions will be based on a hardware
platform using a system on a chip combined with a memristor
crossbar memory. The proposed hardware offer several
advantages over classical approaches where personal
computers or smartphones are used for feature extraction,
classification, user interface like lower power consumption,
higher computational performances, brain-like behavior,
wearable. According to Maheshwar Pd. Sah [25] both axons
and synapses can be emulated using memristors. The proposed
method can offer the advantages of traditional algorithms
using ARM core processor, field programable gate arrays, and
novelty neuromorphic devices.
 V. CONCLUSIONS
Brain-computer interfaces have great potential in almost
every application where human to machine interface can be
imagined from entertainment to artificial prosthesis control.
Thanks to the rapidly growing computational power and
novelty sensor development, nowadays everybody has access
to medical graded gadget EEG caps which permit larger area
of applications, i.e games, mental state monitoring etc. On the
other hand, the lack of standardization and a well-established
ethics can slow down the research progress. Understanding
and solving BCI illiteracy is one of the biggest challenge.
Feedback quality improvement and co-adaptive systems are
possible solutions both for BCI illiteracy and better system
performances. The invention of memristive systems has
opened the possibility to create neuromorphic chips which act
as a biological neuron. Using a hybrid system using well-
known signal processing combined with hardware based
classifiers, the overall system performance can be improved
due to its adaptive behavior.
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