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Toxicity of Three Polyethoxylated Tallowamine Surfactant Formulations to

Laboratory and Field Collected Fairy Shrimp, Thamnocephalus platyurus

Article  in  Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology · March 2007

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Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 52, 217–221 (2007)
DOI: 10.1007/s00244-006-0151-y
Toxicity of Three Polyethoxylated Tallowamine Surfactant Formulations to
Laboratory and Field Collected Fairy Shrimp, Thamnocephalus platyurus
John M. Brausch, Philip N. Smith
The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Department of Environmental Toxicology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA
Received: 18 July 2006 /Accepted: 16 September 2006
Abstract. Polyethoxylated tallowamine (POEA) is a non-ionic
surfactant used in herbicide formulations to increase the effi-
cacy of active ingredients. POEA promotes penetration of
herbicide active ingredients into plant cuticles, and in animal
species is known to cause alterations in respiratory surfaces.
POEA use has increased recently with the advent of
‘‘Roundup-Ready’’ crops; however, its potential effects on
aquatic invertebrates are relatively unknown. The aquatic
macroinvertebrate Thamnocephalus platyurus (Crustacea,
Anostraca) was used to assess the acute toxicity of POEA.
Three formulations of POEA consisting of a 5:1, 10:1, and
15:1 average oxide:tallowamine were used in this study. All
POEA formulations were found to be extremely toxic to
T. platyurus with 48-h LC50 concentrations as low as 2.01 lg/
L for 15:1. POEA toxicity increased as the tallowamine chain
length was reduced, whereas the oxide chain length appeared
to only slightly increase toxicity. Based on these results, POEA
has the potential to adversely affect aquatic organisms in areas
in which it is used.
Many pesticide formulations contain adjuvants and inert
ingredients in addition to active ingredients. Adjuvants are de-
fined as an ingredient in the pesticide prescription, which aids or
modifies the action of the principal [active] ingredient (Foy
1987), whereas inert ingredients are dyes and other chemicals
that ‘‘do not affect the target pest or modify pesticide action’’
(Tominack 2000). The most common adjuvants in pesticide
formulations are surfactants, with non-ionic surfactants used
more frequently than ionic surfactants (Van Valkenburg 1982;
Underwood 1992; Foy 1996). There are seven major types of
non-ionic surfactants used in pesticide formulations and the
most-common are alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEOs), alcohol
ethoxylates (AEOs), and alkylamine ethoxylates (ANEOs;
Mulqueen 1990; White 1993; Hochberg 1996).
The most widely used ANEOs in pesticide formulations are
polyethoxylated tallowamines (POEA), adjuvants used
in many RoundupÒ formulations (Monsanto Company,
St Louis, MO, USA). POEA promotes penetration of the active
Correspondence to: John M. Brausch; email: john.brausch@ttu.edu
ingredient into plant cuticles (Relyea 2005a). POEAs are di-
ethoxylates of tallowamine characterized by their average
oxide:tallowamine ratio (Fig. 1). The ratio of oxide: tallow-
amine range from 5:1–25:1 (Huntsman 2005a, b;). At a 5:1
oxide:tallowamine ratio, POEA is dispersible in water, but as
the ratio increases, POEAS become more water soluble
(Huntsman 2005a, b). Tallow, a derivative of fatty tissue from
cattle or sheep, contains a complex mixture of fatty acids
including (from highest to lowest concentrations): oleic, pal-
mitic, stearic, myristic, and linoleic acid (Budavari 1989).
Numerous studies (Howe et al. 2004; Relyea 2005a, b) dem-
onstrated that POEA is toxic to amphibians, and Folmar et al.
(1979) demonstrated that POEA is very toxic to midge larvae
(Chironomus plumosus) with the LC50 = 13 mg/L.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the toxicity
(48-h LC50) of three POEA surfactants to a freshwater
macroinvertebrate potentially exposed to POEA as it enters
the environment. Roundup-Ready cotton is commonly used
throughout the United States (70% of crop) and Texas (50%
of crop); therefore, non-ionic surfactants are used heavily, but
little information is available on their toxicological effects
(United States Department of Agriculture [USDA] 2005;
Krogh et al. 2003). Three recent studies (Lindgren and
Sjostrom 1994; Lindgren et al. 1996; Uppgard et al. 2000)
demonstrated that AEOs are very toxic (LC50 values = 1.9–
166.0 mg/L) to the freshwater fairy shrimp, Thamnocephalus
platyurus. However, studies of ANEOs, and more specifically
POEAs, are lacking.
T. platyurus has been used for toxicity testing of surfactants
as well as the development of quantitative structure-activity
relationships (Lindgren et al. 1996; Uppgard et al. 2000).
T. platyurus is available commercially, and occurs in ephem-
eral water bodies throughout the southwestern United States.
Thus, an additional objective of this study was to compare the
relative sensitivities of wild-type versus laboratory-reared fairy
shrimp.
Materials and Methods
Chemicals
POEA surfactant formulations (98.6%, 99.8%, and 99.4% pure for
T-5, T-10, and T-15, respectively) were supplied by Huntsman
218 J. M. Brausch and P. N. Smith

Surfonic T-5
1.0

0.9

0.8

Proportion of Mortality
Fig. 1. Chemical structure and basic molecular formula for alkyl- 0.7
amine ethoxylates (ANEOs). POEA is characterized by the mass ratio 0.6
between the tallowamine and the oxide portions of the molecule
0.5

0.4

0.3
International LLC (Salt Lake City, UT, USA). Analytical grade
MgSO4, NaHCO3, KCl, and CaSO42H2O were purchased from 0.2

Sigma-Aldrich Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA) for preparation of synthetic 0.1
freshwater.
0.0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Concentration (log ug/L)

Acute Toxicity Testing
Surfonic T-10
Toxicity tests were performed using 24-h-old T. platyurus nauplii. 1.0
Nauplii were hatched from cysts used in Thamnotoxkit F (Creasel
0.9
Ltd., Belgium; labeled as L1 throughout this report) and cysts col-
lected from wild-caught fairy shrimp. Wild type shrimp were col- 0.8

Proportion of Mortality
lected from two grassland (G1 and G2) and two cropland playa lakes 0.7
on the Southern High Plains, Texas, USA (C1 and C2) two weeks 0.6
after major rain events. Grassland playas were those playas whose
0.5
watershed was composed of 75% grassland or native rangeland
determined by visual inspection, whereas cropland playa watersheds 0.4
contained 75% or more agricultural crop, typically cotton in the 0.3
Southern High Plains of Texas (Brausch et al. 2006).
0.2
Gravid female fairy shrimp were collected with dip nets and
transported back to the laboratory in buckets with gentle aeration. 0.1

Females were fed every other day with a YCT (yeast, CerophyllÒ, 0.0
and Trout chow) mixture as described by the USEPA (USEPA 2002); -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
however, they were not fed during testing. Briefly, the food consisted Concentration (log ug/L)
of 5.0 g of flake food (Carnivore pellets, Kamihota Fish, Himeji,
Japan), 5.0 g of dry yeast, and 5.0 g of powdered cereal leaves, which
were all mixed separately in 1 L of milli-Q water and then filtered to Surfonic T-15
remove solutes. The three solutions were then mixed in equal volumes 1.0

and frozen until needed. Females were kept until they deposited their 0.9
cysts, which were collected and dried at 35°C for one week then 0.8
Proportion of Mortality

stored in the dark at 4°C until they were used for toxicity testing
0.7
(Prophet 1963).
All fairy shrimp used in toxicity tests were hatched in moderately 0.6

hard synthetic freshwater (USEPA 2002). Average water character- 0.5

istics were pH = 7.3, alkalinity 63 mg/L as CaCO3, and hardness 94
0.4
mg/L as CaCO3. Cysts were placed in 400-ml beakers with 350 ml of
synthetic freshwater and hatched in a Plant Growth Chamber (Altair 0.3

Refrigeration, Stafford, TX, USA) on a 14:10 light:dark schedule with 0.2

light intensity of 1,575 lux and temperature regulated at 25 € 0.2°C 0.1
(Ali and Dumont 1995; Eriksen and Belk 1999). Twenty-four hours
0.0
after cysts hatched, free-swimming nauplii were randomly selected for
toxicity testing. -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Toxicity tests were conducted in 250-ml beakers filled with 175 ml
moderately hard synthetic freshwater (USEPA 2002) and 20 24-hr-old
nauplii (Centeno et al. 1995). Each experiment was carried out using
seven different POEA concentrations and one control group. Three
different POEA formulations were used for testing with average
oxide: tallowamine ratios of 5:1 (SurfonicÒ T-5 Surfactant), 10:1
(SurfonicÒ T-10 Surfactant), and 15:1 (SurfonicÒ T-15 Surfactant).
Serial dilutions of a stock solution with final nominal concentrations
of 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000 lg/L for all three formulations
of POEA were used as treatment levels. Each formulation was tested
on three different strains of shrimp consisting of five acute toxicity
tests (L1, C1, C2, G1, and G2) and replicated three times for a total of
15 toxicity tests per formulation. Dead nauplii were counted and
Concentration (log ug/L)
Fig. 2. Dose-response relationship for three different POEA formu-
lations to Thamnocephalus platyurus after a 48-h dosing period
recorded at 6, 12, 24, and 48 h during fairy shrimp exposure. Total
mortality at 48 h was used to generate the dose-response curve. Death
was defined as lack of phyllopod movement. Test conditions were
static since water replacement would have added an additional
external stressor and possibly confounded the results of toxicity
testing. Water quality parameters (temperature, pH, DO) were mea-
sured three times throughout each test to assure acceptable water
POEA Toxicity in Fairy Shrimp 219

quality conditions for survival were met according to USEPA docu- Surfonic T-5
ment EPA-821-R-02-012 (2002). 12

10
Statistical Analysis

48h LC50 (ug/L)

8
Mortality data were graphed using logit analysis, and the concentra-
tion that killed 50% of test organisms (LC50) was determined; 95% 6
confidence intervals (CI) of the LC50 value were calculated using
FiellerÕs theorem (Piegorsch and Bailer 1997). Data were analyzed
using the statistical program R version 2.2.1 (R Development Core 4
Team, Boston, MA, USA).
2

Results and Discussion 0

L1 G1 G2 C1 C2 Overall
Playa
POEA Toxicity to T. platyurus
Surfonic T-10
Dissolved oxygen concentrations were between 8.00 and 8.38 6
mg/L in all test containers. pH in test solutions ranged from 6.3
to 6.8 and temperature of 24.7 € 0.1°C. These conditions were
5
well within the ranges determined to be acceptable for
T. platyurus survival (Eriksen and Belk 1999). Mortality was
low in the control groups with <1% throughout the entire 4
48h LC50 (ug/L)
experiment and no more than 5% for any individual test
chamber. 3
SurfonicÒ T-15 Surfactant was the most toxic POEA for-
mulation with an LC50 value of 2.01 € 1.10 lg/L 2
(mean € SE; 95% CI = 1.66–2.42 lg/L; Fig. 2). SurfonicÒ
T-5 was the least toxic of the three surfactants with a 48-h 1
LC50 value for all playa types of 5.17 € 1.10 lg/L (95%
CI = 4.30–6.21 lg/L). SurfonicÒ T-10 Surfactant toxicity was
0
intermediate with an LC50 value of 2.70 € 1.10 lg/L (95% L1 G1 G2 C1 C2 Overall
CI = 2.24–3.27 lg/L; Fig. 2). The general equation for the Playa
logistic regression model was f = a/1 + e^)[(x ) x0)/b],
where f is the proportion of mortality and x is the concentra- Surfonic T-15
tion. Surfonic T-5 had an equation of f = 1.0363/1 5
+ e^)[(x ) .8514)/.6022] (r2 = 0.981), Surfonic T-10
f = 1.0274/1 + e^[(x ) .5228)/.6433] (r2 = 0.979), and
4
Surfonic T-15 had and equation of f = 1.0212/1 +
e^)[(x ) .3671)/.6279] (r2 = 0.987; Fig. 2).
48h LC50 (ug/L)

Laboratory-derived fairy shrimp had LC50 values of 3

4.82 € 0.50 lg/L for SurfonicÒ T-5, 3.68 € 0.62 lg/L for
SurfonicÒ T-10, and 2.60 € 0.10 lg/L for SurfonicÒ T-15
(Fig. 3). These values were generally higher than for wild 2
caught fairy shrimp with LC50 values of 5.60 € 1.08 lg/L for
SurfonicÒ T-5, 2.62 € 0.57 lg/L for SurfonicÒ T-10, and 1
2.01 € 0.47 lg/L for SurfonicÒ T-15 (Fig. 3). Uppgard et al.
(2000) used 15 different AEOs for toxicity testing on
T. platyurus and found 24-h LC50 values ranging from 19– 0
L1 G1 G2 C1 C2 Overall
166 lg/L. Our results indicate ANEOs were more toxic than
Playa
the AEOs tested by Uppgard et al. (2000).
The mechanism of toxicity of POEA to T. platyurus is un- Fig. 3. LC50 values (mean € SE) for 1-day-old Thamnocephalus
known; however, we believe that it is most likely due to dis- platyurus were determined using three different POEA formulations
ruption of oxygen transport in respiratory surfaces. Non-ionic after 48 h of exposure. A laboratory-derived culture (L1), two
surfactants have been reported to disrupt the respiratory grassland playas (G1, G2), and two cropland playas (C1, C2) were
surfaces of many aquatic organisms (Lindgren et al. 1996). tested and replicated three times giving a total of 15 replicates per
Cell membranes of respiratory surfaces consist of a lipid POEA formulation. Error bars indicate standard errors
220
Table 1. LC50 values of POEA to the fairy shrimp Thamnocephalus platyurus as compared to molecular weight and number of alkyl carbons and
oxide carbons
Oxide: Tallow Mean LC50 Molecular
Ratio (lg/L) Weight (g)
5:1 5.17 475
10:1 2.70 710
15:1 2.01 908
bilayer that is relatively impermeable to water-soluble mole-
cules, and movement of solutes across this barrier is conducted
by integral membrane proteins through passive-transport
(Randall et al. 2002). Modeling studies provide evidence that
non-ionic surfactants alter the fluidity of the lipid bilayer
causing the inactivation or removal of integral proteins
resulting in reduced oxygen transport across the membrane
(Swedmark et al. 1971; Part et al. 1985; Lindgren et al. 1996;
Uppgard et al. 2000).
The number of alkyl carbons in the tallowamine portion of
ANEOs was inversely related to the toxicity of POEAs in fairy
shrimp (Table 1). It appears that linearly increasing the num-
ber of carbons in the oxide region slightly increases toxicity,
but did not have as substantial of an effect as decreasing the
number of alkyl carbons. Schoberl et al. (1989) suggested that
the addition of oxide carbons through branching decreases
toxicity of ANEOs to D. magna. Therefore, it may be possible
to fabricate POEA surfactants to be protective of aquatic
invertebrates by increasing the number of alkyl carbons and
adding highly branched oxide carbon chains.
Lutzhoft et al. (1999) demonstrated that pH is known to
influence toxicity of ANEOs, with acidic solutions being more
toxic than basic or neutral solutions, because protonated forms
of ANEOs are more easily integrated into the integral protein
of the lipid bilayer in respiratory surfaces than the deproto-
nated neutral form of ANEOs. Also, the protonated form of
POEA has the ability to alter fluidity of the lipid bilayer to a
greater extent than neutral and basic forms (Lutzhoft et al.
1999). However, pH in our study did not vary considerably.
Therefore, pH did not likely contribute to toxicity differences
observed between POEA formulations. However, pH fluctua-
tions are common in playas because they have little buffering
capacity as a result of low nutrient availability (Keeley and
Zedler 1998). In natural playas ecosystems, pH can vary
substantially (5.0–9.2) with cropland playas appearing to have
the most acidic water (Smith 2003). This is most likely due to
the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers, which are known to
decrease pH (Peierls et al. 1991). Therefore, invertebrates
inhabiting cropland playas are likely more susceptible to
pH-related toxicity of POEA than grassland species.
POEAs bind tightly to leaf cuticles, but due to their water
solublilty they can wash off with heavy rains (Hess and Foy
2000). POEA and other adjuvants can thus enter aquatic
ecosystems via run-off and spray drift. Evaluating the toxicity
of ANEO surfactants in aquatic ecosystems is important due to
the increasing use of ‘‘Roundup-Ready’’ crops (USDA 2005)
resulting in increasing amounts of POEA in the environment.
Until now, there has been no research examining the effects of
POEA on macroinvertebrate species, and this study demon-
strates that native macroinvertebrate species could be highly
J. M. Brausch and P. N. Smith
Number of Number of Tallow to Oxide
Alkyl Carbons Oxide Carbons Ratio (by Mass)
5 18 4.57
3 30 10.51
3 38 13.30
susceptible to adjuvants in pesticide formulation based on
these results. Lab-derived cultures of fairy shrimp underesti-
mated toxicity of POEA T-10 and T-15 in 75% of wild-caught
fairy shrimp, and accurately represented POEA T-5 toxicity. If
this is not considered in regulative processes, and POEAs enter
playas, they could disrupt trophic structure by eliminating a
major primary consumer and prey item in the playa ecosystem.
Additional research is needed to quantify the amount of
POEAs entering aquatic ecosystems. Those data will be nec-
essary to determine the actual risks to native aquatic species.
Conclusions
POEA was very toxic to T. platyurus with average 48-h
LC50s of 2.01, 2.70, and 5.17 lg/L for POEA surfactants
having an oxide:tallowamine ratio of 15:1, 10:1, and 5:1,
respectively. The relative sensitivities of the three strains of
T. platyurus indicated cropland derived shrimp were the most
sensitive, followed by grassland-derived shrimp, and then
lab-derived cultures. Also, results of this study indicate that
decreasing alkyl carbons in the tallow portion of ANEOs
increases the toxicity of POEA to the aquatic invertebrate T.
platyurus. The number of ethylene oxide carbons appeared to
affect toxicity, but not as substantially as decreasing alkyl
carbons.
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