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(Yen & Khaleghi, 2016) Design and Construction Challenges of Jointless Bridges in Seismic Regions
(Yen & Khaleghi, 2016) Design and Construction Challenges of Jointless Bridges in Seismic Regions
(Yen & Khaleghi, 2016) Design and Construction Challenges of Jointless Bridges in Seismic Regions
ABSTRACT
Jointless bridges have been used for bridges in the United States for years since
the beginning of the National Interstate Highway System in 1950s. Through the
intervening years, more and more states have utilized Jointless bridge construction in
varying degrees establishing national standards and uniform design policy regarding
bridge lengths, skews, details or design procedures. Many states since then have
moved toward continuous bridges with jointless integral abutments and piers, as
standard design and construction practice.
Jointless bridge superstructures are constructed to work integrally with the
abutments. Movements due to creep, shrinkage and temperature changes are
accommodated by using flexible beatings or foundation and through incorporating
relief joints at the ends of the approach slabs. In addition to reduced maintenance
costs, other advantages of jointless bridges include improved structural integrity,
reliability and redundancy, improved long-term serviceability, improved riding surface,
reduced initial cost, and improved aesthetics. In recent times, jointless bridges have
been built in seismically sensitive areas.
This paper will attempt to capture the state-of-practice in the United States, but
will lean toward practices favored by the Washington State Department of
Transportation (WSDOT) with its long history of continuous bridges in seismic regions.
The design and construction practices, seismic design and detailing of jointless bridges
have been addressed in this paper.
Proceedings of the 11th US-Taiwan Bridge Engineering Workshop
Taipei, Taiwan, October 20~21, 2016
1. INTRODUCTION
Jointless bridges are defined as bridges with no expansion joints between the
superstructure and the supporting abutments. Because of several problems resulting
from the traditional practice, the jointless bridge has been widely adopted.
Precast, prestressed superstructures have an important advantage over both steel
and cast-in-place concrete superstructures for jointless bridges. The advantage is that
precast, prestressed superstructures experience considerably less thermal movement
than steel superstructures, and less long-term movements than cast-in place concrete
superstructures. This is because the manufacturing process for precast members is
such that much of the long term shrinkage will have occurred prior to erection and
establishment of continuity in the superstructure. Moreover, the amount of creep that
will occur over time decreases with increasing age of concrete at time of erection.
Concrete superstructures are less sensitive to temperature changes due to the lag
between the air temperature and the interior temperature of a concrete member with its
relatively large mass. This phenomenon is reflected in AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications (AASHTO BDS), which provides lower design temperature
variations for concrete superstructures than for steel. In a moderate climate, a
concrete superstructure will expand and contract a total of approximately 12 mm per 30
m of bridge length with seasonal temperature variation. However, a steel
superstructure will typically expand and contract approximately 25 mm per 30 m of
length.
Bridge piers and abutments restrain thermal movements and induce tensile or
compressive forces in the superstructure. With properly proportioned piers and
abutments these restraint forces are routinely and safely ignored in the design of the
superstructure.
Thermal movements of a cast-in-place concrete superstructure are similar to those
of a precast, prestressed concrete superstructure. However, creep and shrinkage
movements are considerably greater for cast-in-place than for precast superstructures.
For these reasons, shrinkage and creep movements of precast, prestressed concrete
superstructures are frequently ignored for structures of moderate length. However for
longer spans the differential shrinkage between the cast-in-place slab and the precast
girder in addition to creep and thermal effects should be considered.
Even though thermal movements in precast, prestressed members are minimal,
restraint forces in the superstructure will be present. Flexible jointless abutments and
semi-rigid or flexible piers are used to minimize the restraint forces in jointless bridges.
For single-span bridges, stability is provided by passive pressure behind the backwall
and for multiple-span bridges, intermediate piers contribute to the bridge's stability.
Jointless bridges could be founded on piles or shafts or spread footings on soil if the
soil is well compacted and the possibility of settlement of the foundation is considered
in the design as shown in Figure 1.
and redefines the structural system after each hinge forms until the potential collapse
mechanism is achieved.
By the LRFD SGS, bridges are designed for a life safety performance objective
considering the seismic hazard corresponding to a 7% probability of exceedance in 75
years. In the current LRFD seismic design provisions the desired seismic structural
response is collapse prevention of the superstructure. This response can be
accomplished by forcing damage into the columns, which are then more easily repaired
or replaced than the superstructure.
Designing for life safety means that significant damage can result. Significant
damage includes permanent offsets, damage between approach structures and the
bridge superstructure, between spans at expansion joints, permanent changes in bridge
span lengths, and permanent displacements at the top of bridge columns. Damage
also consists of severe concrete cracking, yielding and buckling of reinforcement,
major spalling of concrete and severe cracking of the bridge deck slab. These
conditions may require closure of the bridge to repair the damages. Partial or
complete replacement of columns may be required in some cases. For sites with
lateral flow due to liquefaction, piles may suffer significant inelastic deformation and
partial or complete replacement of the columns and piles may be necessary.
In addition to the Soil Structure Interaction (SSI) analyses, site stability include
soil liquefaction, basin effects, soft- clay sites, and slope hazards shall be considered.
Investigation into soil liquefaction includes analysis for lateral spread, loss of support,
and dynamic settlement, as well as mitigation of such effects through site
improvements. Large site amplification effects are possible for soft-clay sites. Slope
failure has been recognized as one of the major causes of bridge collapse due to
earthquakes.
In jointless bridges, the ends of the girders are fixed to the abutments and
expansion joints are eliminated at these supports. With the expansion joints
eliminated, forces are induced in the substructure due to resistance to thermal
movement and to creep and shrinkage that have to be considered in the design of
jointless abutments.
While jointless abutments have been used successfully for 50 years, their
implementation has not been an exact science, but rather a matter of intuition,
experimentation and observation. Inspection of many bridges with failed expansion
bearings has revealed that anticipated catastrophic damage has not always occurred.
The most common technique used in foundation design is the p-y method. Using
this procedure, pile response is obtained by an interactive solution of differential
equations using finite-difference techniques. The soil response is described by a
family of non-linear curves (p-y curves) that compute soil resistance, p, as a function of
pile deflection, y.
The most desirable end conditions for a jointless abutment are the stub or
propped-pile cap type which provides the greatest flexibility and offers the least
resistance to cyclic thermal movements. Under these conditions, only the abutment
piling and wings are subjected to higher stresses that could cause minor cracking of the
wingwalls.
Approach slabs have been found to be one of the most critical components of a
jointless bridge. The approach slabs serve two primary purposes:
1. Approach slabs reduce the compaction of the backfill material behind the
backwall due to traffic. Control of excessive passive soil resistance to thermal
expansion is also achieved.
2. The thermal movements of the system are transferred from the end of the bridge
to the point where the approach slab joins the roadway pavement. A flexible
pavement joint is provided at this point. In addition, some agencies use plastic
sheets or expanded polystyrene boards below the approach slab to provide a
positive separation from the subgrade to enhance movement.
Approach slabs are generally about 6 to10 m long and are standardized in most
states. The flexible pavement joint should match that of the particular joint material
used to accommodate the movement rating desired. Theoretically, the reinforcement
needed for connection to the abutment should exceed the weight of the slab multiplied
by the coefficient of friction between poured concrete and sub-base material used.
Another method, which has been used in some states is to design the approach slab
bottom reinforcement based on a span equal to 50% of the slab length, usually 6 to 10
m. Assuming that the approach slab is dragged on the approach fill, the reinforcement
to tie the slab to the abutment backwall is nominal. The width of the joint at the free
end of the approach slab should be kept small.
Abutment resistance shall be limited to 70% of the value obtained using the
procedure given in the AASHTO SGS. Abutment stiffness, Keff, and passive capacity,
Proceedings of the 11th US-Taiwan Bridge Engineering Workshop
Taipei, Taiwan, October 20~21, 2016
For SDC D, the beam bearing support length, N, must accommodate the relative
longitudinal earthquake displacement demand at the supports or at a hinge within a
span between two frames. That length is determined as:
N = (4+1.65∆eq)×(1+0.00025S2) ≥ 610 (mm) ............................ (2)
The hinge seat length in “well-balanced frames” (adjacent frames for which the ratio of
the natural periods is equal to or greater than 0.7) to be evaluated as follows:
N = ∆p/s + ∆cr+sh + ∆temp + ∆eq + 100 (mm) ................................. (3)
where
∆eq=Relative earthquake loading longitudinal displacement demand
∆p/s=Displacement due to prestressing
∆cr+sh=Displacement due to creep and shrinkage
∆temp=Displacement due to temperature effects
Precast abutments can be a very efficient solution for standard pier shapes or when
accelerated bridge construction is necessary. Precasting can also be the best solution
for unique sections that require high-quality concrete or geometry control, when there
is a long lead time that allows the contractor to fabricate abutment sections
concurrently with precast superstructure members, and when a precasting yard is
located in the region. The cast-in- place backwall and the shear key are designed to
resist the lateral seismic forces from the retained soil.
Adjust Dynamic Characteristics of the bridge should be considered to achieve
acceptable seismic performance. Because the superstructure is moment-connected to
the end diaphragms, girder rotation will theoretically induce moments in the abutment
piles. These moments are usually ignored in the design of superstructure, since the
superstructure is generally considerably stiffer than the diaphragms. Girder rotation
can be minimized by casting the end span deck slab prior to the backwall. However,
in certain situations, particularly in longer span jointless bridges, moments due to
superstructure rotation are considered in the design of the abutment.
The presumptive values given above shall be considered applicable for use in the
permissible earthquake resisting elements that require Owner’s approval. If the design
is based on presumptive resistances that are not greater than 70 percent of the values
listed above, then the structure may be classified in the “permissible earthquake-
resisting elements.”
An equivalent linear secant stiffness, Keff, is required for analyses. For jointless-
or diaphragm-type abutments, an initial secant stiffness may be determined as follows:
......................................................................... (4)
If computed abutment forces exceed the soil capacity, the stiffness should be softened
iteratively (Keff1 to Keff2) until abutment displacements are consistent (within 30 percent)
with the assumed stiffness. For seat-type abutments, the expansion gap should be
included in the initial estimate of the secant stiffness.
.................................................................... (5)
where
Pp=Passive lateral earth pressure capacity
Hw=Height of backwall
Fw=Factor between 0.01 to 0.05 for soils ranging from dense sand to compacted
clays
Dg=Width of gap between backwall and superstructure
For transverse stiffness concrete shear keys shall be considered sacrificial where
they are designed for lateral loads lower than the design earthquake loads. A
minimum level of design for shear keys corresponds to lateral loads not including
earthquake loads. If sacrificial concrete shear keys are used to protect the piles, the
bridge shall be analyzed and designed as applicable. If a fuse is used, then the effects
of internal force redistribution resulting from fusing shall be taken into account in the
design of the bridge. The elastic resistance shall be taken to include the use of:
Proceedings of the 11th US-Taiwan Bridge Engineering Workshop
Taipei, Taiwan, October 20~21, 2016
Elastomeric bearings;
Sliding, or isolation bearings designed to accommodate the design displacements;
Breakaway elements, such as isolation bearings with a relatively high yield force;
Shear keys;
Yielding elements, such as wingwalls yielding at their junction with the abutment
backwall;
Elastomeric bearings whose connections have failed and upon which the
superstructure is sliding;
Spread footings that are proportioned to slide; or
Piles that develop a complete plastic mechanism.
The dowels force the pier to move with the superstructure as it undergoes thermal
expansion and contraction, and, to a lesser extent, creep and shrinkage.
Accommodation of these movements requires careful analysis during the design of the
piers. Normally, the stiffness of the piers is reduced due to cracking and creep of the
pier concrete, which should be factored into the analysis.
The advantages of this type of simplified pier detailing are: thin elastomeric pads
are relatively inexpensive, temporary shoring is not required during construction, all
piers participate in resisting seismic forces, and the girders are positively attached to
the piers. In addition, with multiple piers active in resisting longitudinal and
transverse forces, the designer need not rely solely on passive soil pressures at the
jointless abutments to resist lateral forces.
The disadvantage of semi-rigid piers is that they are slightly more complicated
than other types because careful assessment of foundation conditions, pier stiffness, and
estimated movements are required. Indeed, in some situations, semi-rigid piers are
inappropriate. For example, short piers bearing on solid rock may not have adequate
flexibility to accommodate large movements without distress to the piers.
For a skewed multi-column type pier, displacements and curvatures in the
direction transverse to the pier cap and along the pier cap must be considered separately.
Once curvatures are estimated, an effective EI must be chosen in order to compute
internal moments and shears. A set of equivalent external forces, in equilibrium with
the computed internal moments and shears, can be computed by statics. This set of
equivalent forces is used in subsequent analysis to represent the effects of
superstructure movements on the piers.
Reinforcement extending from the bottom of the beams and spliced within the
diaphragm is proportioned to resist creep and shrinkage demands. A central hinge bar
extends from the drop cap up into the diaphragm. Such structures behave as if they
possess a continuous superstructure with a pinned connection to the substructure.
They are suitable for use in regions of moderate and high seismic hazard.
Figure 10: Fixed pier connection for raised and semi-raised crossbeam
Proceedings of the 11th US-Taiwan Bridge Engineering Workshop
Taipei, Taiwan, October 20~21, 2016
17. CONCLUSIONS
The use of jointless bridges with jointless abutments is growing in the United
States, because of the benefits achieved in lowering first cost in construction and
minimizing future maintenance. Further benefits of this type construction are design
efficiency, added system redundancy, ease of construction and greater flexibility in
span arrangement particularly with fully continuous beam systems.
Precast concrete superstructures have an important advantage for jointless bridges.
This is because the manufacturing process for precast members is such that much of the
long term shrinkage will have occurred prior to erection and establishment of
continuity in the superstructure. Moreover, the amount of creep that will occur over
time decreases with increasing age of concrete at time of erection.
18. REFERENCES
AASHTO (2014), LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 7th edition, Washington, DC.
Proceedings of the 11th US-Taiwan Bridge Engineering Workshop
Taipei, Taiwan, October 20~21, 2016
AASHTO (2009), AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design,
Washington, DC.
WSDOT, Bridge Design Manual, Publication No.M23-50, Olympia, Washington,
U.S.A.
Proceedings of the 11th US-Taiwan Bridge Engineering Workshop
Taipei, Taiwan, October 20~21, 2016
EDUCATION
M.E. in Civil Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, 1998.05.
Ph.D. in Applied Mechanics and Civil Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
Virginia, 1992.01.
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Proceedings of the 11th US-Taiwan Bridge Engineering Workshop
Taipei, Taiwan, October 20~21, 2016
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