~ Pergamon

Pergamon War. Sci.

War. Sci. Tech. Vol. 39,
Tech. Vol. 39, No.9,
No. 9, pp.
pp. 95-103,
©
95-103, 1999
0 1999IAWQ
1999
1999 lAWQ
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PII: S0273-1223(99)00221-8
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AN APPROACH
AN APPROACH TO SIMULATION
SIMULATION OF
DUAL DRAINAGE
DUAL DRAINAGE
Y
S. Djordjevic*,
S. DjordjeviC*, D. Prodanovic* and C. Maksimovic**
ProdanoviC* and MaksimoviC**
*Faculty ofCivil
'Faculty of Civil Engineering.
Engineering, University
Universi(y ofBelgrade.
of Belgrade, Bulevar
Bukvar revolucije
revolucije 73.
73,
P. 0. Box
P.D. Box 895.
895. 11000
II000 Belgrade.
Belgrade, Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
**Department ofCivil
"Department of Civil &
& Environmental
Environmental Engineering.
Engineering, Imperial
Imperial College
College ofScience,
of Science,
Technology && Medicine.
Technology Medicine, Imperial
Imperial College
College Road,
Road, London
London SW7
SW7 2BU,
2BlJ, UK
UK

ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT
The paper
The paper presents
presents thethe development
development in in the
the field
field of of urban drainage modelling
urban drainage modelling known known as as dual
dual drainage
drainage -- an an
approach to
approach rainfall runoff
to rainfall runoff simulation
simulation in in which
which thethe numerical
numerical model takes into
model takes into account
account notnot only
only thethe flow
flow
through the
through sewer system,
the sewer system, butbut also
also the
the flow
flow onou the surface. The
the surface. The steps
steps in model development
in model development are are described,
described,
and necessary
and necessary data,data, assumptions
assumptions used used and operations to
and operations to be
be performed
performed using using GIS GIS areare discussed.
discussed. The The
numerical
numerical model simultaneously handles
model simultaneously handles the the full dynamic equations
full dynamic equations ofof flow
flow through
through thethe sewer
sewer system
system and and
simplified
simplified equations
equations of of the
the surface
surface flow. The surface
flow. The surface excess water (due
excess water (due to the limited
to the limited capacity
capacity of of inlets
inlets or
or toto
the hydraulic head in the sewer system reaching the ground level) is routed to the neighbour subcatchment
the hydraulic head in the sewer system reaching the ground level) is routed to the neighbour subcatchment
(not
(not necessarily
necessarily the the one attached to
one attached to the
the downstream
downstream network node), using
network node), using surface
surface retentions,
retentions, ifif any.
any. 0© 1999
1999
IAWQ Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
IAWQ Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

KEYWORDS
KEYWORDS
Storm
Storm sewer
sewer systems;
systems; dual
dual drainage;
drainage; GE.
GIS.
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The development of high end numerical models that simulate the real world processes has been boosted up
The development of high end numerical models that simulate the real world processes has been boosted up
by the use of Geographic Information Systems (GE). Yesterday’s lumping and averaging skills have been
by the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Yesterday's lumping and averaging skills have been
changed owing to the ability to understand and simulate the physical processes at a finer scale. The
changed owing to the ability to understand and simulate the physical processes at a finer scale. The
simulation of rainfall-runoff consequences in urbanized areas has reached the point where highly accurate
simulation of rainfall-runoff consequences in urbanized areas has reached the point where highly accurate
models of sewer pipe flow are available, while the surface flow component, being much more complicated,
models of sewer pipe flow are available, while the surface flow component, being much more complicated,
still needs improvement of conceptual abstraction and numerical solution techniques.
still needs improvement of conceptual abstraction and numerical solution techniques.
A detailed description of further development in the field of urban drainage modelling known as dual
A detailed description of further development in the field of urban drainage modelling known as dual
drainage is presented in this paper. It is an approach to urban rainfall-runoff simulation in which the
drainage is presented in this paper. It is an approach to urban rainfall-runoff simulation in which the
numerical model takes into account not only the flow through the sewer system, but also the flow along the
numerical model takes into account not only the flow through the sewer system, but also the flow along the
streets under certain conditions. The GIS with its powerful analytical capabilities is to be used to cope with a
streets under certain conditions. The GIS with its powerful analytical capabilities is to be used to cope with a
vast amount of new information about the surface.
vast amount of new information about the surface.
The dual drainage model has two interactive parts, or two networks. The underground part consists of a
The dual
sewer drainage
system, with model
known has two interactive
manholes, inlets andparts, or two
control networks.
structures. TheThe underground
surface part consists
part is made of a
of channels,
sewer system, with known manholes, inlets and control structures. The surface part is made
natural flow paths, retention basins in local depressions or artificial control structures (brinks, ponds). The of channels,
natural flow
topology paths,
of the sewerretention
network basins in local
is defined depressions
a priori, whereasor the
artificial
surfacecontrol structures
flow paths depend(brinks,
on theponds).
terrain The
and
topology of the sewer network is defined a
on water levels themselves. The GIS is used to perform a set of terrain analyses, mainly in order toterrain
priori, whereas the surface flow paths depend on the create and
the
on water levels themselves. The GIS is used to perform a set of terrain analyses, mainly in order to create the
95
96
96 S.S. DJORDJEVIC
DJORDJEVIe et at.
et al.

surface
surface flow
flow pattern,
pattern, extract
extract information
information about
about natural
natural ponds
ponds and
and link
link them
them with
with retention
retention basins,
basins, create
create the
the
subcatchment
subcatchment forfor each
each sewer
sewer manhole
manhole and
and link
link those
those subcatchments
subcatchments toto aa surface
surface flow
flow network
network (Maksimovic
(MaksimoviC
et al., 1994).
et 1994).

The results
The results of
of the
the dual
dual drainage
drainage simulation
simulation are the
the standard
standard sewer
sewer output
output hydrograph,
hydrograph, the
the hydrograph
hydrograph and and
volume of
the volume of water
water that left
left the
the system
system or that stayed
stayed inin ponds,
ponds, and
and levels
levels in
in flooded
flooded areas. The
The GIS
GIS isis used
used
to
to read
read those
those data
data and to
to create the time
time series
series of
of flood
flood maps.
maps. For
For aa selected
selected time
time frame,
frame, the
the GIS
GIS can
can assess
assess
of damage
the costs of damage caused
caused by flooding.
flooding.

MODEL ABSTRACTION
MODEL ABSTRACTION

The real
The real world
world of of urban
urban catchment
catchment and processes
processes involved
involved in rainfall
rainfall to runoff
runoff transformation
transformation are too
complex to be simulated
complex simulated in detail
detail by any
any numerical
numerical model.
model. InIn order
order to create
create aa usable
usable simulation
simulation tool,
tool, some
some
kind of
kind of simplification
simplification has to be done,done, either
either without
without taking
taking into
into account
account thethe physical
physical processes,
processes, oror by
simplifying some
simplifying some of of them.
them.

The very
The very first
first approach
approach in in urban
urban drainage
drainage modeling
modeling waswas to
to establish
establish the
the link
link between
between rainfall
rainfail and
and observed
observed
out flow,
flow, using
using a number
number of of different
different nonphysical
nonphysical parameters.
parameters. The
The improvement
improvement of of the first
first models
models was
when they were
when they were applied
applied to smaller
smaller parts
parts of
of catchment
catchment down
down to the level
level of
of one
one subcatchment.
subcatchment. AfterAfter careful
careful
calibration of
calibration of such
such aa model
model onon aa single
single catchment
catchment on on the
the basis
basis of
of measured
measured rainfall
rainfall and
and out
out flows,
flows, itit was
was
possible
possible to to estimate
estimate thethe sewer
sewer system
system response
response toto aa certain
certain range
range ofof storms.
storms. However,
However, the the model
model accuracy
accuracy
for heavy
for storms was
heavy storms was questionable. Another drawback
questionable. Another drawback of of these
these models
models was was their
their lack
lack ofof nonphysical
nonphysical
parameters,
parameters, so that the
so that the model
model created
created without
without calibration
calibration waswas rather
rather aa fancy
fancy hydrograph
hydrograph generator
generator than
than aa
serious
serious simulation tool.
simulation tool.

To
To overcome
overcome the the dubiousness
dubiousness of nonphysical urban
of nonphysical urban drainage
drainage models,
models, the the simulation
simulation of of some
some physical
physical
processes in the rainfall to runoff transformation was introduced. The entire
processes in the rainfall to runoff transformation was introduced. The entire process was divided into two process was divided into two
main phases: the
main phases: the first
first one deals with
one deals with the
the rainfall
rainfall and and itsits conversion
conversion into the effective
into the effective runoff
runoff from
from each
each
subcatchment
subcatchment (taking
(taking into account soil
into account soil infiltration, retention capacities
infiltration, retention capacities of the surface,
of the surface, different
different types
types ofof areas
areas
on the surface, flow along the subcatchment, etc.- as input to the second
on the surface, flow along the subcatchment, etc.- as input to the second one - flow in the sewer systemone - flow in the sewer system
network
network of of pipes,
pipes, manholes
manholes and and control structures. The
control structures. The linklink between those two
between those two parts
parts isis unidirectional:
unidirectional: the the
role of the first part was only to create the input for the second one. Many
role of the first part was only to create the input for the second one. Many current commercial drainage current commercial drainage
models
models belong
belong to to this
this type
type of abstraction.
of abstraction.

The
The two
two weakest
weakest points
points of
of today’s
today's models are coarse
models are coarse surface
surface description
description and
and lack of interaction
lack of between
interaction between
surface and underground flow components. The first problem has been attacked by the distributed
surface and underground flow components. The first problem has been attacked by the distributed parameter parameter
grid based models (e.g. Abbott, 1993). They divide the surface into small homogeneous patches and apply
grid based models (e.g. Abbott, 1993). They divide the surface into small homogeneous patches and apply
full water balance and 2D dynamic equations for each of them. The physical processes on the surface have
full water balance and 2D dynamic equations for each of them. The physical processes on the surface have
been simulated fairly well, but it is too complex for urban drainage. Adding interaction with underground
been simulated fairly well, but it is too complex for urban drainage. Adding interaction with underground
system would make it even worse. The balance between the amount of entered data, computation time and
system would make it even worse. The balance between the amount of entered data, computation time and
accuracy of the output must be maintained.
accuracy of the output must be maintained.
The model presented in the paper tries to solve the probiem of full interaction between two components, It is
The model presented in the paper tries to solve the problem of full interaction between two components. It is
basically the extension of the existing physical models, with somewhat improved surface flow component
basically the extension of the existing physical models, with somewhat improved surface flow component
(still the non-homogeneous subcatchment area is used, but now it reflects the existing flow conditions much
(still the non-homogeneous subcatchment area is used, but now it reflects the existing flow conditions much
closer) and full interaction between surface and underground flow components (Fig. 1). As these two
closer) and full interaction between surface and underground flow components (Fig. I). As these two
components are linked and the water can be drained using either of the two, the term dual drainage is used.
components are linked and the water can be drained using either of the two, the term dual drainage is used.
Three assumptions are fundamental in the presented model.
Three assumptions are fundamental in the presented model.
Firstly, due to a limited inlet capacity, the sewer system will not necessarily be able to drain all runoff.
Firstly, due to a limited inlet capacity, the sewer system will not necessarily be able to drain all runoff.
Secondly, when a part of the system is pressurized, water can go out of the system. Thirdly, surface water
Secondly, when a part of the system is pressurized, water can go out of the system. Thirdly, surface water
that cannot be drained by a sewer system is to be routed further downstream. The direction of surface flow
that cannotfrom
can differ be drained by aflow
that of the sewer
in system is to be
sewer pipes - itrouted
has to further
follow downstream. The paths.
the surface flow direction of surface
If the flow
ponds exist,
can differ from that of the flow in sewer pipes - it has to follow the surface flow paths.
they are to be taken into account as well. The surface flow can be captured by some downstream inlet If the ponds exist,
they are of
manhole to the
be taken
sewer into account
system, or can as be
well. The out
routed surface
of theflow can be
current capturedThe
catchment. by proposed
some downstream
model hasinlet
its
background in some earlier investigations on GIS usage in data preparation for physically model
manhole of the sewer system, or can be routed out of the current catchment. The proposed based has
urbanits
background in some earlier investigations on GIS usage in data preparation for physically based urban
 An
An approach
approach to simulation of
to simulation of dual
dual drainage
drainage 91
97
drainage models (Elgy
drainage models (Elgy et al., 1993). AA similar,
al., 1993). similar, although
although somewhat simpler approach
somewhat simpler approach can
can be found in
be found in works
works
of
of Kinouchi
Kinouchi et
et al. (1995) and
al. (1995) and Mark
Mark et
et al.
al. (1997).
(1997).

legend:
~
~subcatchment {!.- rainfall
"<...4L/ ... pipeflow
• pond '" pond outflow
~ "===::> surface flow
~ flooded area ~surface runoff
Figure 1. Model with dual drainage possibility
Figure I. Model with dual drainage possibility.

GIS ASSISTED MODEL CREATION

GIS ASSISTED MODEL CREATION
Description of the model is given by the steps that a modeller has to go through. In order to avoid confusion
Description
in naming some of the model isingiven
functions differentby the steps packages,
existing that a modellerthe metahas GIS
to gosystem
through. will Inbeorder to avoid confusion
considered.
in naming some functions in different existing packages, the meta GIS system will be considered.
Initial chase
Initial phase
Each urban drainage project starts with data gathering and verification processes. Data about the surface,
Each
existingurban sewer drainage
networkproject
(if any),starts with data
historical gathering
rainfalls, soil and verification
types, processes.
etc. are obtained fromData
anyabout the surface,
available source
existing sewer network
and in a variety of forms (if(papers,
any), historical
strip charts,rainfalls, soil types,
films, digital etc. are obtained
unstructured or in GISfrom form).anyAfter
available
carefulsource
data
and in a variety
inspection, the of formsnetwork
sewer (papers,can stripbecharts,
createdfilms, digitalby
(mostly unstructured
digitizing orpaper in GIS form).and
maps) After careful data
accompanying
inspection, tiles
parameter the (manually,
sewer network filling can somebe tables
created or (mostly
dialog boxes, by digitizing
manually paper draftingmaps) and accompanying
subcatchment boundary
parameter files (manually,
lines and calculating fillingofsome
percentages tables
different or dialog
types of areasboxes,
inside manually drafting subcatchment boundary
the subcatchment).
lines and calculating percentages of different types of areas inside the subcatchment).
The proposed urban drainage model assumes that the GIS will be used from the beginning of the model
creation.
The proposedInsteadurbanof drainage
typing inmodel some assumes
coordinates that ofthe manholes
GIS will be in used
a CAD-like
from theenvironment,
beginning ofthe the highly
model
structured Instead
creation. GIS inputof oftyping
the sewer in somesystemcoordinates
should be used. The GIS inshould
of manholes take care environment,
a CAD-like of network connectivity,
the highly
naming of GIS
structured pipesinput
and of manholes,
the sewercheck system of should
diameters, etc. The
be used. It should also automatically
GIS should generate connectivity,
take care of network most of the
data needed
naming of pipesby the
and model,
manholes, based on of
check entered data. etc.
diameters, Finally, the basic
It should GIS functions generate
also automatically such asmost coordinate
of the
correction
data needed andbywarping will ensure
the model, based the on improved
entered data. positional
Finally,accuracy
the basic of entered data.
GIS functions such as coordinate
correction and warping will ensure the improved positional accuracy of entered data.
The GIS terrain creation functions should be used to enter elevation data of measured spot heights and/or
heights
The GISofterrain manholecreation
tops and to createshould
functions the Digital
be used Elevation
to enterModelelevation(DEM). data Which
of measuredtechnique
spotisheights
to be applied
and/or
for DEMof creation
heights manhole depends
tops and on the usertheand
to create on the
Digital GIS used,
Elevation Modelbut (DEM).
the Triangular Irregular Network
Which technique (TIN)
is to be applied
model is strongly suggested. Conversion from TIN to grid based model
for DEM creation depends on the user and on the GIS used, but the Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) is to be done as most of the surface
spatial
model is analyses,
stronglywhich are to Conversion
suggested. be used in later fromsteps,
TIN are morebased
to grid efficient
model in isa grid
to besystem.
done asThe most selection of grid
of the surface
size
spatial is analyses,
crucial, sincewhichtooarefine
to bea used
grid might
in laterleadsteps,to are
unacceptably
more efficient longincomputation
a grid system.time, The and coarserof grid
selection grid
might
size is filter out some
crucial, since important
too fine a surface
grid mightcharacteristics. As a rule oflong
lead to unacceptably thumb, grid size oftime,
computation 1 to and
2 metres
coarser should
grid
be
mightusedfilter
for out
urban
some areas, and thousand-million
important rule for As
surface characteristics. rural areas
a rule - total number
of thumb, grid sizeofofusedI to 2cells,
metres or pixels,
should
should
be usedbeforaround urbana areas,
million and(Maidment, 1996). rule for rural areas - total number of used cells, or pixels,
thousand-million
should be around a million (Maidment, 1996).
98
98 S. DJORDJEVIC
S. DJORDJEVIC et at.
et al.

Apart
Apart from DEM, data
from DEM, data about surface
surface objects are to be entered into the GIS. Streets, big paved areas, houses,
large garages and hangars, large walls,
walls, green areas and other types of of urban elements that can
can influence the
surface flow
flow and that have different
different infiltration characteristics, are to be
infiltration characteristics, be digitized and structured
structured using an
an
appropriate layer scheme.
scheme. All
All those structured
structured data are
are called cover data, or cover image
cover data, image (when
(when exported
into the grid system).
system). The creation ofof a detailed cover
cover image is time consuming, and can overload the project
project
budget. Nevertheless, good DEM
Nevertheless, good DEM and cover
cover images are
are essential
essential for
for the
the dual
dual drainage model.
model. Time
Time spent
spent in
in
data preparation is longer than
than in the classic
classic approach, but it would
would payoff
payoff in later phases,
phases, through automatic
generation of
of most
most files needed
needed by the model.

Creation of sewer
Creation of sewer network
network

Once
Once the sewer network
the sewer network isis entered
entered into the GIS,
into the GIS, the user can
the user can easily
easily manage
manage it, it, edit
edit some
some pipes,
pipes, add
add or
or delete
delete
some
some reaches, change parameters
reaches, change parameters of control structures
of control structures and
and export
export toto the
the file
file format
format understood
understood byby the
the
simulation
simulation model.
model. The
The GIS will keep
GIS will keep aa link
link between objects in
between objects in the
the sewer
sewer system
system and
and the accompanying
the accompanying
database that holds
database that holds all
all necessary
necessary attributes
attributes (textual
(textual and
and numerical information) such
numerical information) such as
as type
type of
of pipe,
pipe,
diameter,
diameter, shape,
shape, roughness,
roughness, year of construction,
year of date of
construction, date of last
last inspection, etc.
inspection, etc.

A
A very important role
very important of GIS
role of GIS is
is to
to assist
assist in
in aa detailed data inspection.
detailed data inspection. The
The GIS can check
GIS can for disconnected
check for disconnected
parts of the
parts of the system,
system, extreme pipe slopes
extreme pipe slopes (compared
(compared withwith DEM
DEM slopes along the
slopes along the same
same path), reduction of
path), reduction the
of the
pipe
pipe diameter
diameter in
in downstream direction, the
downstream direction, total length
the total of the
length of system or
the system or length
length between
between certain
certain points.
points.
System
System simplification
simplification can
can also
also be
be done
done by GIS, by
by GIS, automatic deletion
by automatic and substitution
deletion and substitution of pipes that
of pipes that fall
fall out
out
of
of the
the selected
selected criteria,
criteria, without losing the
without losing the connectivity
connectivity ofof the
the system.
system.

Surface flow
Surface flow analysis
analysis
The goal of
The goal of this
this step
step is
is to
to get familiarized with
get familiarized the general
with the surface characteristics,
general surface characteristics, such such as
as possible directions
possible directions
of the surface flow, the existence of ponds or retention basins, and the automatic
of the surface flow, the existence of ponds or retention basins, and the automatic creation of the surface creation of the surface
drainage
drainage network
network (applicable
(applicable for for less urbanized parts
less urbanized parts of
of the catchment, generally
the catchment, generally upstream parts without
upstream parts without thethe
underground
underground sewer drainage system).
sewer drainage system). Input files are
Input files are DEM
DEM and cover images,
and cover images, in in raster
raster fonn.
form. ItIt is
is necessary
necessary
to
to know
know the
the way
way larger
larger ponds
ponds and
and retention
retention basins
basins were entered into
were entered into the
the DEM:DEM: either
either with
with true
true ground
ground
elevations
elevations oror as at surface with maximum elevation, while the cover image holds
as at surface with maximum elevation, while the cover image holds the description of the description of it.
it. Also,
Also,
the
the modeller
modeller should know if
should know if DEM
DEM was was created
created by by taking into account
taking into account the heights of
the heights of all
all man
man made objects
made objects
(streets with gutter
(streets with gutter and centre line,
and centre line, tops of houses
tops of houses and and walls, etc.), or
walls, etc.), if itit was
or if was interpolated
interpolated using
using ground
ground
points only. In the latter case (which is more often), DEM can be corrected using information from the cover
points only. In the latter case (which is more often), DEM can be corrected using information from the cover
image,
image, byby artificially raising and
artificially raising lowering pixels
and lowering pixels forfor some
some pre-defined height. This
pre-defined height. operation is
This operation is called
called height
height
correction of DEM. It produces DEM that is valid only for slope
correction ofDEM. It produces DEM that is valid only for slope and aspect analyses.and aspect analyses.

The GIS routine that will find all depressions within DEM should be invoked. It will create information
The GIS routine that will find all depressions within DEM should be invoked. It will create information
about all found ponds, their lowest point, volume-stage relationship, maximal height and coordinates of exit
about all found ponds, their lowest point, volume-stage relationship, maximal height and coordinates of exit
point. The routine should discard all ponds whose volume is lower than some threshold value, by filling
point. The routine should discard all ponds whose volume is lower than some threshold value, by filling
them (like filtering of noise). Since computation is done in a raster system, it is possible to vectofize the
them (like filtering of noise). Since computation is done in a raster system, it is possible to vectorize the
delineated ponds and import them in to the GIS system. In order to link the ponds and create the till surface
delineated ponds and import them in to the GIS system. In order to link the ponds and create the full surface
network system, flow path analysis function of the GIS system is needed. It will first create the flow
network system, flow path analysis function of the GIS system is needed. It will first create the flow
accumulation image from DEM, the image where each pixel holds the volume of water that will pass over it
accumulation image from DEM, the image where each pixel holds the volume of water that will pass over it
during the surface flow process. By removing pixels with value smaller than some (user defined) threshold,
during the surface flow process. By removing pixels with value smaller than some (user defined) threshold,
the image of surface network is obtained. It needs some post-processing, mainly line thinning, to prepare it
the image of surface network is obtained. It needs some post-processing, mainly line thinning, to prepare it
for vectorization. The image of flow paths can be used only for visual network presentation. To make a
for vectorization. The image of flow paths can be used only for visual network presentation. To make a
surface flow network, it has to be vectorized, and ordered in an appropriate manner (from upstream to
surface flow network, it has to be vectorized, and ordered in an appropriate manner (from upstream to
downstream node), taking into account that loops might exist. So the smart vectorization routine able to
downstream node), taking into account that loops might exist. So the smart vectorization routine able to
create the full network topology has to exist in the GIS software. An example of automatically generated
create the
surface flowfullnetwork
network
is topology
shown in Fig. 2. exist in the GIS software. An example of automatically generated
has to
surface flow network is shown in Fig. 2.
 An
An approach
approach to
to simulation
simulation of dual drainage
of dual drainage 99
99

I •
'''i'

"

Figure 2. Surface flow network paths - after 2 x 2 kernel (left) and f%orn flow accumulation image(right).
Figure 2. Surface flow network paths - after 2 x 2 kernel (left) and from flow accumulation image (right).

Results of the surface analysis are: removal of some errors found in DEM, detection of all surface ponds and
Results of the surface analysis are: removal of some errors found in DEM, detection of all surface ponds and
extraction of their parameters, assistance in making the decision about what ponds are to be used as retention
extraction of their parameters, assistance in making the decision about what ponds are to be used as retention
basins and with what strategy, creation of possible surface flow pattern as if there were no underground
basins and with what strategy, creation of possible surface flow pattern as if there were no underground
sewer system so that it can help during the design process of a new sewer system or in the reconstruction of
sewer
the systemone.
existing so that
The itgenerated
can help network
during the
willdesign
not beprocess
used inofthe
a new sewer
future system
model or inwhere
in areas the reconstruction
a sewer systemof
the existing
exists, but it one. The generated
is needed network
in semi rural will not
and rural partsbeofused
the in the futurewith
catchment model in areassystem
no sewer wherewhere
a sewer system
rainfall is
exists, but
drained by ittheis surface
needednetwork.
in semi rural and rural parts of the catchment with no sewer system where rainfall is
drained by the surface network.
Cover image analvsis
Cover image analysis
Cover image, if created during the initial phase of the project, has a dual function: one is in height correction
Cover
of DEMimage, if created during
(as mentioned), the initial
and another is aphase of the project,
link between hasand
graphical a dual function:
attribute one is in
databases, height
where correction
a number of
ofDEM (as
attributes arementioned), and another
stored for each kind of iscover
a linkobject
between graphical
(such are typeand
of attribute
area, its databases, where
permeability, a number
surface of
storage
attributes are stored for each kind of cover object (such are type of area, its permeability,
retention, connectivity with sewer system, number of storeys and/or population density, property value for surface storage
retention,
flood damageconnectivity with
assessment, sewer system, number of storeys andlor population density, property value for
etc.).
flood damage assessment, etc.).
If a complete set of structured cover data is not available in GIS form, most drainage projects could not
If a complete
afford enteringset
of of structured
such data fromcover data Inis such
scratch. not available in aGIS
a situation, form, most
simplified coverdrainage
image canprojects could that
be created not
only
affordcomprises thesuch
entering of few data
most from
significant In suchstreets
scratch.objects, and clearly
a situation, delineated
a simplified areas
cover of the
image cansame cover type
be created that
(areas of similarthe
only comprises housing, large
few most paved or objects,
significant green areas, etc.).
streets andFor everydelineated
clearly such zone, the of
areas user
thehas to specify
same the
cover type
percentages of pervious
(areas of similar housing,and impervious
large paved orareas,
greenroofs
areas,directly connected
etc.). For to sewer
every such zone,system andhas
the user those with some
to specify the
sort of sourceofcontrol,
percentages perviousetc.,
andi.e. parameters
impervious thatroofs
areas, are used by aconnected
directly surface component of the and
to sewer system model in rainfall-to-
those with some
runoff
sort ofconversion.
source control, etc., i.e. parameters that are used by a surface component of the model in rainfall-to-
runoff conversion.
The GIS classification tools could be applied over aerial photographs to speed up the calculation of
percentages of different areas
The GIS classification tools within
could selected coverover
be applied types, but photographs
aerial this techniquetois speed
still useless
up theforcalculation
the detection
of
of main cover
percentages of areas, streets,
different areashouses, etc. Thecover
within selected result types,
of classification can have
but this technique plenty
is still of small
useless unclassified
for the detection
pixels
of mainwithin
covera street,
areas, for example,
streets, andetc.
houses, thatThe
will result
influence the surface flow
of classification can path
have analysis
plenty of programs.
small unclassified
pixels within a street, for example, and that will influence the surface flow path analysis programs.
Subcatchment creation
Subcatchment creation
Automatic subcatchment creation (delineation) is the process of partitioning the surface into smaller areas
that are drained
Automatic by particular
subcatchment network
creation nodes. is
(delineation) Thetheprocedure
process ofshould take into
partitioning account into
the surface DEMsmaller
and cover
areas
images,
that are and should
drained by create the subcatchments
particular network nodes.thatThefollow the surface
procedure should flow
take patterns. A well
into account DEM designed GIS
and cover
routine
images, will
andsave timecreate
should in thethe
model creation by avoiding
subcatchments thethe
that follow slowsurface
processflow
of manual delineation.
patterns. A well designed GIS
routine will save time in the model creation by avoiding the slow process of manual delineation.
Input data for the subcatchment creation procedure are the coordinates of manholes that will receive the
surface water
Input data for (transit pipes and nodes
the subcatchment in sewer
creation systemareshould
procedure not be considered),
the coordinates DEMthatand
of manholes cover
will images,
receive the
and certain command files that are used to interact with the delineation procedure. In partly urbanized
surface water (transit pipes and nodes in sewer system should not be considered), DEM and cover images, areas
without an underground sewer system, the generated surface network is used for delineation of
and certain command files that are used to interact with the delineation procedure. In partly urbanized areas
subcatchments.
without an underground sewer system, the generated surface network is used for delineation of
subcatchments.
100
100 S. DJORDJEVIC
S. DJORDJEVIC et al.
et al.
Subcatchment
Subcatchment delineation
delineation is
is carried
carried out
out mostly
mostly in
in aa raster
raster system
system and
and the
the result
result isis aa total
total catchment
catchment area
area
classified into subcatchments
subcatchments and
and into
into non-drained
non-drained area.
area. Using
Using vectorization
vectorization GIS
GIS routine,
routine, the
the subcatchment
subcatchment
are imported into
polygons are into GIS
GIS system
system and
and linked
linked with
with appropriate
appropriate manholes
manholes or or surface
surface channels.
channels.

Figure 3.
Figure Dualdrainage
3. Dual drainagemodel parameters.
model parameters.

The
The GIS
GIS can
can compute
compute the
the parameters needed by
parameters needed by the
the model
model for each delineated
for each delineated subcatchment:
subcatchment: its
its area,
area,
average
average or
or weighted slope, percentages
weighted slope, percentages of different cover
of different cover areas
areas within
within the subcatchment, shape,
the subcatchment, shape, centre
centre of
of
gravity,
gravity, etc.
etc. Some
Some additional
additional parameters for each
parameters for each subcatchment
subcatchment are
are required
required for
for the
the dual
dual drainage model (see
drainage model (see
Fig. 3):
Fig. 3): “I
The
The subcatchment
subcatchment stage-volume
stage"volume function, VS =
function, Vs j(Z), assumingthat the boundaryis a vertical wall. This
=: f{Z), assuming that the boundary is a vertical wall. This
hmction
function will be used to calculate the flooded level in
will be used to calculate the flooded level in subcatchment.
subcatchment.

The
The area
area of
of subcatchment
subcatchment reduced
reduced by the area
by the area of
of directly connectedroofs,
directly connected roofs, as
as aa function of stage,
function of stage,As
As ==fo =
f{Z) =
1 - RoofedPart (Z)) x &,uBc&). In fact, As is the arealeft after flooding the downstream
I - RoofedPart (2» x AsuBcAT(Z). In fact, As is the area left after flooding the downstream part of the part of the
subcatchment
subcatchment upup to
to the level Z.
the level It is
Z. It is used
used in
in rainfall
rainfall to
to runoff
runoff conversion whenpart
conversion when of the
part of subcatchment
the subcatchment is
is
flooded.
flooded.
Coordinates of gravity centre,asa ftmction of stage,G =fTZ), computedfor floodedareaof subcatchment
Coordinates of gravity centre, as a function of stage, G = f{Z), computed for flooded area of subcatchment
exclusiveof directly connectedroofs.Centreof gravity of floodedareais usedfor computationof lengthof
exclusive of directly connected roofs. Centre of gravity of flooded area is used for computation of length of
surface flow if downstreamrecipientis anothersubcatchment; or elseit is computedfrom the surfaceflow
surface flow if downstream recipient is another subcatchment; or else it is computed from the surface flow
pathto the next subcatchment or to the downstream pond.
path to the next subcatchment or to the downstream pond.
List of neighboursubcatchments (thosethat sharepart of the sameboundary).The list is usedin the process
List of neighbour subcatchments (those that share part of the same boundary). The list is used in the process
of surfacenetworkcreation,to makea systemof equations.
of surface network creation, to make a system of equations.
The lengthof boundaryline betweentwo neighbours,againasa function of stage,B! =flZ). The boundary
The length of boundary line between two neighbours, again as a function of stage, B1 = f{Z). The boundary
line lengthis usedfor flow computation,andcareshouldbe takenthat the boundaryline doesnot include
line length is used for flow computation, and care should be taken that the boundary line does not include
the crossedhouseor wall.
the crossed house or wall.
For partsof subcatchment boundarythat arewithout neighbouringsubcatchment, the checkfor surfaceflow
For parts
path of subcatchment
network shouldbe done.boundary
If therethat
is aare without
flow neighbouring
path, the link to thatsubcatchment,
pathshouldbethe checktogether
created, for surface
withflow
the
path networkofshould
coordinates be done.
exit point fromIf
thethere is a flow path,
subcatchment. Thisthe link to is
situation that pathto
likely should
occurbe created,
when together with has
the subcatchment the
coordinates
no of exit
downstream point from the subcatchment. This situation is likely to occur when the subcatchment has
neighbour.
no downstream neighbour.
 approach to
An approach
An simulation of
to simulation of dual
dual drainage
drainage 101
101

Creation of surface network

The
The surface network consists
surface network consists of
of two
two parts.
parts.

First,
First, in the area
in the area where
where thethe underground sewer system
underground sewer system exists, the network
exists, the network is is created using links
created using links toto all
all
neighbours
neighbours of of each
each subcatchment,
subcatchment, plusplus the surface flow
the surface path, if
flow path, if existing.
existing. There is no
There is no preferred
preferred direction
direction of
of
flow from subcatchment,
flow from subcatchment, so so the
the network might be
network might highly looped.
be highly looped. Network parameters, such
Network parameters, such as
as length and
length and
width
width of of flow
flow path, are to
path, are be computed
to be computed at at each
each time
time step,
step, since
since they
they depend
depend on on flooded
flooded area.
area. The
The storage
storage
ponds
ponds are included in the surface network, the same as retention basins with natural over flow or controlled
are included in the surface network, the same as retention basins with natural over flow or controlled
outlet. This network,
outlet. This network, together
together with
with underground system, forms
underground system, forms the dual drainage
the dual drainage model.
model.
Second, in
Second, in the areas without
the areas without underground system, the
underground system, surface network
the surface network is
is the
the same as the
same as one created
the one created in
in the
the
surface flow analysis step. However, the result of automatic procedure needs some checking by the
surface flow analysis step. However, the result of automatic procedure needs some checking by the user and, user and,
possibly, some editing. The cross-sections of natural channels could be found from DEM, but it can also be
possibly, some editing. The cross-sections of natural channels could be found from DEM, but it can also be
assumed that width is some empirical function of the channel rank.
assumed that width is some empirical function of the channel rank.
There is no need to treat both parts within the same model. The second network can be computed separately
There is no need to treat both parts within the same model. The second network can be computed separately
from the first one. If it is situated upstream, the result of the simulation can just be applied as the input to the
from the first one. If it is situated upstream, the result of the simulation can just be applied as the input to the
first system, the dual drainage one. For a downstream located surface channel network, the result of the dual
first system,
drainage modelthe isdual
useddrainage one. For a downstream located surface channel network, the result of the dual
as its inppt.
drainage model is used as its inppt.
DUAL DRAINAGE SIMULATION PROCEDURE
DUAL DRAINAGE SIMULAnON PROCEDURE
The simulation of the surface runoff is done by the appropriate module of BEMUS program (MaksimoviC et
The 1995).
al., simulation of the
In short, it surface runoff isbased
is a physically donemodel
by theinappropriate
which the module of BEMUS
transformation programrainfall
of effective (Maksimovic
to runoffet
al., 1995). In isshort,
hydrographs doneit byis asolving
physicallythe based model inequations.
kinetic-wave which the These,
transformation
together of witheffective
other rainfall
possible toinflows
runoff
hydrographs is done by solving the kinetic-wave equations. These,
(waste water, pipe infiltration etc.), create the input to the underground sewer system. together with other possible inflows
(waste water, pipe infiltration etc.), create the input to the underground sewer system.
Prior to the calculation of the pipe flow, the node matrix is compressed using the row-indexed sparse storage
Prior
scheme.to the calculation
In doing so, notofonly
the pipe flow,between
the links the nodethematrix
nodesisby compressed using pumps
pipes, culverts, the row-indexed
and weirs sparse storage
are taken into
scheme. In
account, butdoing so, notthat
also those only the links
might be thebetween
result ofthe nodesflooding.
surface by pipes, culverts, pumps and weirs are taken into
account, but also those that might be the result of surface flooding.
As long as the heads in all the manholes are below the appropriate ground levels, the simulation runs in a
As long as
standard the heads
manner. in all the ofmanholes
Elimination the internalare below the appropriate
variables along each pipeground levels,
(using thethePreissmann
simulationfour-point
runs in a
standardmethod),
implicit manner. together
Elimination with of the internal
Bernoulli variables
equations alongends
for pipes’ eachandpipe (using the
manholes, Preissmann
enables dischargesfour-point
at each
pipe end method),
implicit to be expressed
togetherinwith terms of waterequations
Bernoulli levels atfor thepipes'
corresponding nodes. These
ends and manholes, createdischarges
enables the inflowsat each
and
outflows
pipe end to at be
a node (see in
expressed Fig.terms
4), of
at water
which levelsthen the
at thecontinuity equationnodes.
corresponding is solved by a modified
These create the inflows Euler-
and
trapezoidal atmethod.
outflows a node The (see matrix
Fig. 4), system is solved
at which thenbythethecontinuity
conjugate equation
gradient method.
is solvedOnce by athemodified
water levels
Euler-at
the nodes are
trapezoidal calculated,
method. Saint-Venant
The matrix system isequations
solved byalong each pipegradient
the conjugate are solved.
method.Clearly,
Once this is an levels
the water iterativeat
procedure.
the nodes are Surcharged
calculated,flowSaint-Venant
is handled equations
by the improved
along each open
pipeslot
are technique and supercritical
solved. Clearly, flow is
this is an iterative
simulated bySurcharged
procedure. reducing theflow convective
is handledtermsbyand theupstream
improved centering.
open slot technique and supercritical flow is
simulated by reducing the convective terms and upstream centering.

Figure 4. Node inflows and outflows.

Figure 4. Node inflows and outflows.
As from the start of flooding, track is kept of surface water levels. The excess of water is stored in that
subcatchment,
As the of
from the start stage-volume function
flooding, track is used
is kept to compute
of surface waterthe water The
levels. level. Then,offor
excess computed
water level,
is stored the
in that
reduced subcatchment area is computed as well as the centre of gravity for the flooded part (see Fig. 3).
subcatchment, the stage-volume function is used to compute the water level. Then, for computed level, the
Using the list of neighbours, the check is done for possible outflows, and for each one the boundary width is
reduced subcatchment area is computed as well as the centre of gravity for the flooded part (see Fig. 3).
found.
Using the list of neighbours, the check is done for possible outflows, and for each one the boundary width is
found.
102
102 S. DJORDJEVI6
S, DJORDJEVIC et
et al
ai,
Also, for
Also, all neighbours
for all neighbours that that will
will receive
receive thethe water, the flow
water, the flow length
length as
as the
the distance
distance between
between appropriate
appropriate
centres
centres ofof gravity
gravity isis computed.
computed. The The check
check forfor surface flow paths
surface flow paths atat the computed flooding
the computed flooding level
level is
is then
then
performed.
performed. If If there
there is
is any,
any, the length of
the length flow together
of flow together with
with downstream conditions is
downstream conditions is taken
taken Tom
from aa prepared
prepared
surface
surface flow
flow path
path network. There is
network. There is aa possibility
possibility toto have
have aa pond
pond between
between twotwo subcatchments
subcatchments or or inside
inside the
the
current one
current one (see
(see Fig.
Fig. 3).
3). Those
Those ponds
ponds will
will receive
receive the
the water
water when
when flooding level reaches
flooding level reaches the height of
the height of their
their
input point.
input point. The continuity equation
The continuity takes the
equation takes the stored
stored volume
volume of of water
water into account, and
into account, also the
and also possibility to
the possibility to
have
have the controlled out
the controlled out flow
flow from
from certain
certain retention
retention basins.
basins.

The model
The model now
now routes
routes the
the surface
surface component
component of flow. This
of flow. This is
is done
done by solving the
by solving the set of momentum
set of momentum andand
continuity equations (applied to individual subcatchment) in a way similar to the one applied by Kinouchi
continuity equations (applied to individual subcatchment) in a way similar to the one applied by Kinouchi et
et
al. (1995). However, possible flow directions are not predetermined. Instead, they depend on water
al. (1995), However, possible flow directions are not predetermined. Instead, they depend on water levels, levels,
and may alternate during one event. Also, distances and boundary widths are not constant - they depend on
and may alternate during one event. Also, distances and boundary widths are not constant - they depend on
water stages. Finally, the simulation of two flow components is fully interactive in terms that
water stages. Finally, the simulation of two flow components is fully interactive in tenns that
inflows/outflows from one to another are adjusted at each time step, and because the surface runoff
inflows/outflows from one to another are adjusted at each time step, and because the surface runoff
hydrographs are not calculated prior to the sewer system simulation, but rather by considering possible
hydrographs are not calculated prior to the sewer system simulation, but rather by considering possible
flooding of part of the subcatchment.
flooding of part of the subcatchment.
The latter is illustrated in Fig. 5, where runoff is simulated from twenty-minutes of rainfall of constant
The latteronis the
intensity illustrated in Fig.
impervious 5, where runoff
subcatchment havingis area
simulated from
of 1 ha andtwenty-minutes
squared root of of slope
rainfall
overofManning
constant
intensity on the impervious subcatchment having area of 1 ha and squared root
coefficient equal to 5. Line A is a ‘regular’ hydrograph calculated wit&out taking flooding effect into of slope over Manning
coefficient
account. equal to starts
If flooding 5. Line
at t A is min,
= 10 a 'regular'
and thehydrograph calculatedis wit.\lout
entire subcatchment flooded at taking
t = 15flooding
min, theneffect
line Binto
is
account. If = 10 min, and the entire subcatchment is flooded at t = 15 min, then line B is
obtained byflooding
summingstarts at tgraphs:
up two the first one is a hydrogmph calculated as runoff from a portion of the
obtained by applied
hyetograph summing up on
only twothe
graphs: the firstpart
non-flooded one ofis athe
hydrograph calculated
subcatchment (dottedas line),
runoffandfromthea second
portion one
of the
is
hyetograph applied
instantaneous only on the
transformation non-flooded
of the portion ofpart of the subcatchment
hyetograph applied to the(dotted
floodedline),
partand the subcatchment.
of the second one is
instantaneous
Clearly, this istransformation of the
still not an exact portioncomputation,
hydraulic of hyetograph butapplied to attempt
rather an the flooded part ofprecipitation
to include the subcatcbrnent.
in the
Clearly, this is still not an exact hydraulic computation, but
flooded area into the continuity equation in a timely more logical manner. rather an attempt to include precipitation in the
flooded area into the continuity equation in a timely more logical manner.

t min

of flooding)

of flooding
~1-----j~~~~4L,L,.l~~--+-----l

10 20 30 t(min)
Figure 5. Influence of flooding on effective runoff.
Figure 5. Influence of flooding on effective runoff.
Such a model generates the data about flooded areas and surface water velocities, dynamically, allowing
Such a damage
further assessments.
model generates Most about
the data of described
flooded dual
areas drainage model
and surface has velocities,
water been developed, and fewallowing
dynamically, details
still need
further to be worked
damage out. It Most
assessments. is hoped that the results
of described dual of the model
drainage application
model has beentodeveloped,
real problems
andwill
fewsoon be
details
ready for publishing.
still need to be worked out. It is hoped that the results of the model application to real problems will soon be
ready for publishing.
 An approach
An approach to
to simulation of dual
simulation of dual drainage
drainage 103
103

CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION

One of
One of the
the possible
possible approaches
approaches to dual
dual drainage simulation is presented
drainage simulation presented in
in the paper.
paper.

Apart
Apart from
from automatic
automatic data creation for
data creation for classical
classical physically based models,
physically based models, the GIS
GIS forms
forms the core
core in
in dual
dual
drainage modelling, where
drainage modelling, where georeferenced
georeferenced data about the
data about the surface needed. Using
surface is needed. Using standard
standard and specially
specially
developed GIS functions,
developed GIS functions, the surface
surface component
component of of numerical model is created
numerical model created and
and linked
linked to thethe
underground sewer system.
underground sewer

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