FUNDAMENTALS OF GAME DESIGN

Dr. Richard Teach

Scheller College of Business
Georgia Institute of Technology
richard.teach@scheller.gatech.edu

Dr. Joan K Teach

Community Resource Center
Atlanta, GA 30345
joankteach@bellsouth.net

ABSTRACT

The methods of almost all games include the use of stochastic events or chance to
partially determine outcomes. The first part of this paper describes standard playing
cards or dice to incorporate chance in games and game design. In most games, chance
is introduced by using symmetric probability distributions. However, sometimes gamers
may wish to give some players an unfair chance in order to demonstrate a specific social
phenomenon. The methodologies discussed use simple games to demonstrate various
points. The second part of this paper includes some games that emphasize the role that
sense and perception portray in gaming. As individuals we bring a multitude of
experiences to the game, and a multiplicity of learning styles. Therefore game design
becomes as complex as the individuals for whom the game was designed.

THE USE OF CHANCE IN GAMING BY A DECK OF CARDS

It is often useful to begin the discussion of game design by using simple examples in
order to lay a solid foundation before addressing more complex structures. This makes
sense as an architect does not begin by building a one-hundred story structure, nor does
an engineer start by building a rocket ship. Each starts by examining the basic
fundamental of the science. The study of games begins with simple examples, such as
card games. What is pictured in Exhibit 1?
Obviously it is a deck of cards. To a gamer, it is
much more, it is a probability distribution.
More specifically it represents a discrete
probability distribution without replacement.
What this means is that as a game is played with a
deck of cards, the probabilities of guessing
the next card to be dealt Exhibit 1: A deck of cards
changes with each card
displayed. In addition a deck of playing cards
contains 4 uniform distributions, one for each unique suit. The odds can be easily
changed simply by using multiple decks, as used in a casino when playing the game of
“BLACK JACK.” This game uses six decks of cards to reduce the possibility of a player
counting the cards and thus have knowledge of the probabilities of the cards remaining in
the dealer’s deck. Not all card games use the standard deck of 52 cards that consists of 4

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suites with each suit having 13 cards. Game designers use many versions of card decks
from a simple variety of only colors to cards with 2 dimensions (colors and numbers) and
in a few cases with 3 or 4 dimensions configured in one deck, depending upon the degree
of complexity designated in the game design.

The game of OBSERVATION is an example of a highly complex card game that

starts by using only a single deck of the common 52 card deck of playing cards. This
game can be played by 3 to 5 players. Let us illustrate it by showing a five-sided table
with 4 players plus the dealer, each sitting at a side. The game table at the start of the
game is shown in Exhibit 2. The dealer
deals each player 5 cards, then turns the
next card face-up, and places it in the
middle of the table. The remaining
cards are placed face down, in the middle
of the table, next to the face-up card.

The dealer instructs the players,

“This game is played starting from my
right, one player at a time. When it is
your turn show me one card Exhibit 2. The initial gaming from the
hand of cards that you are holding table and I will
respond by saying, ‘I accept that card’ or ‘I reject
that card.” If I accept the card, place it face-up on the face-up card already on the table.
If I reject the card, place it in the space in front of me as the dealer. After you dispose of
the accepted or rejected card, you are to draw a card from the set of face down cards in
the middle of the table. The purpose of this simple game is to determine how quickly
you, as a team, are able to determine the decision rule that is being used to either accept
or reject the offered card.

Exhibit 3 shows the playing table after a few rounds. The dealer then remarks that
since this is a binary decision rule, maybe the cards
in the “Rejected” pile contain as much information
as the stack of “Accepted” cards. As a result of this
comment, the players attempt to re-order the
discarded pile of cards, but they rarely agree as to
which card was played in what order. Since it went
to the reject pile, no one paid much attention. The
players either agree to the sequence of the rejected
cards or they agree to only order the yet-to-be
played rejected card in the order that they will be
Exhibit 3. The gaming table after a few rounds played.

Exhibit 4 shows the gaming table after this

consultation. The
dealer makes the
following
observation, “All
four of you are
holding your cards

Exhibit 4. The gaming table

after the first consultation 2
 the second consultation

in a way that the other players cannot see them.” “Why?” You were told at the
beginning that the objective of the game was to determine how long it would take the
team to determine the decision rule. There is no advantage to the group when you hide
your cards from your fellow players. In fact, there is a distinct disadvantage to this
method of play. (The reason players hold the cards so no one else can see them is
simply; that this is the way card games are played.) Exhibit 5 shows the gaming table
after the second consultation and the gaming table does not change after this last
consultation. Thus, the structure of the game is contrary to what is normally expected.
This is an advantageous trick when used in designing games.

At this point, all the factors of the game are discovered or revealed and the game
continues. In playing this game, we have had players, after seeing all the players’ hands,
offer to buy or trade for another player’s card, in order to confirm or deny a hypothesis
about the decision rules. Here again, the assumed card game rules forbid the playing of
another player’s cards, but this assumed rule does not apply to this game. Usually, this
game appears to end when there are no more cards, this occurs when all 52 cards have
been played or are in the hands of the players. However, at this point the dealer picks up
a new deck, shuffles the new cards and places the new deck on the table. Typically the
solution to the decision rule is not found. This game has been played many times and
only once was the answer found within a reasonable amount of time. It has also been
observed that the higher the education level of the players, the harder it is to find and
agree on a solution. This game is useful as it demonstrates that finding something
obvious does not mean it is easy to be found. An example of this problem is confirmed
whenever someone says, “Look around and you will know it when you see it, it will be
obvious!” The game table now looks as shown in the diagram, Exhibit 5. The solution is
obvious, although most do not recognize it because the solution is in two dimensions, not
one. If you would like help in recognizing the solution, please email us at either of the
addresses listed at the beginning of this paper and we will send you the answer.

DICE

The next most commonly used component of a game is the die. It is also a discrete
uniform probability distribution and comes with many sides, but let’s discuss the most
common 6-sided die with the number of dots on each side
ranging from 1 to 6. Most
games use two dice, as shown
in Exhibit 6, but one is
common in young children’s
games and a few games use
more than two dice. In the
usual 2 dice game, the sum of Exhibit 6. A pair of 6-
the 2 dice is the number of sided dice
spaces a player moves the
playing piece on a path of the board game, such as the
one shown here in Exhibit 7. But, the choice of the
number of sides of the dice and the number of the dice
Exhibit 7. A child’s board game
to be used, creates some of the constraints of the game.

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For example, if one adds the number of dots on the 2 dice in the exhibit, the number of
spaces the player moves his or her piece is 10 spaces. If one moves 10 spaces on the
game board as shown in Exhibit 7, the player wins. As a result this game could use only
one six sided die and one may limit the number of spots on the die to 1, 2 and 3 and use
each number twice.

Why do you add the number of dots

Exhibit 8. The absolute values of the
difference in 2 six sided dice together? The sum of two randomly selected
elements from a uniform distribution of integers
12
ranging from 1 to 6 resulting in a distribution
10
with a single mode of 7 and a range from 2 to
Frequency

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12. If one desires the players move more
6
slowly, ending on more board positions per
4
round, the absolute value of the difference of the
2
dice values could be used. The distribution of
0
the absolute values has a single mode, but is not
0 1 2
Values
3 4 5 symmetric. This distribution is shown in Exhibit
8.

As an example, one of the authors built a board game called THE ASSASSIN, where
one player with a small number of pieces (the cops) was to move according to the
absolute value of the difference of the values on the dice plus 1. The opponent (the
assassin) had many characters to move and played by moving his or her characters by the
sum of the values on the dice minus 1.

One could also use the product of the 2 values shown on the dice. This is a highly
skewed series and many values are not present. It could, however, be used to provide a
skewed distribution of money for the players participating in a game.

Another method to determine the number of spaces to move on a board-like game

could be to use 3 dice, 2 white and 1 red, as shown in Exhibit 9. One could add the
white dice and subtract the red one. This configuration would allow a minimum number
of minus 4 and a maximum number of 11. Thus, a game using this configuration of dice
must be able to have the playing pieces move in both
directions. The combination of 2 white and 1 red
die is used in a game called ROSES AND PETALS.
The red die is used as a distractor. Using a distractor
is a common device in many games, as it looks like it is
important but, in fact, it has no impact upon the game at
all. In ROSES AND PETALS the gamer throws 3
dice. He (she) then announces that there are N
number of roses and M number of petals and then
rolls the 3 dice again, repeating the announcement of
the number of roses and the number of Exhibit 9. Three Dice, petals every time
the dice are thrown. The on-lookers are 2 white and 1 red to determine what
makes up the roses and what makes up the petals. The
answer is: a dot in the center of a die determines a rose and all the dots on the dice with a
center dot (all odd numbers) count as roses and when a dot is not in the center (all even
numbers) all dots count as petals. A simple but difficult task to determine by

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observation, especially if the gamer rolls the dice rapidly. It is difficult to remember the
values of each dice when you do not know the decision rule.

GAMING STRATEGIES COMBINING

SHORT TERM AND LONG TERM DECISIONS

A fast playing business game demonstrates that short-term tactics may have
unintended consequences in the long term. MIRROR – MIRROR, named after the mirror
used by the wicked queen in the Snow White fairy tale, is a very simple game that uses a
hand of playing cards as a decision making factor to create results in a simulation of a
business strategy. This game has often been played by senior level managers from an
assortment of firms. It was designed in the 1980s, by Clive Lovelock, an ISAGA
member. It is a two part game; Part 1 is based on attempting to shore-up performance
measures resulting from one year’s operations and Part 2 is a longer term strategic
planning issue.
In Part 1, the team-based game begins with a simple income statement and a
balance sheet of a manufacturing firm at the end of year N and each participating team
receives identical game playing spreadsheets.

Table 1. MIRROR MIRROR game playing spreadsheet

Term used to describe the data End of Year value % Change in Value Result in Year N + 1
Industry Sales 80.000.000
Firm Sales 38.000.000
Firm Assets 22.000.000
Number of Employees 2.000
Firm Total Costs 27.000.000
Performance Measures
Profit 11.000.000
Market Share 47,50%
Profit as a % of Sales 28,95%
Profit per Employee 5,500
Profit as a % of Assets 50%

The game administrator shuffles a deck of playing cards and deals one card to each team.
The value of that card represents the annual percentage change from the prior year’s
accounting value of the firm’s financial statements as shown in Table 1. (An Ace equals
1%, and all face cards equal 10%. Red cards indicate a percentage of decrease and a
black card indicates the percentage of increase). This first card represents the change in
the value of industry-wide sales for the year. The second card dealt to each team
represents the change in company sales during the year. The third card dealt represents
the change in the amount of assets controlled by the firm. The fourth card represents the
changes in the number of employees of the firm and the fifth card dealt represents the
change in the total costs incurred by the firm during the year. The teams are then asked,
“Who won in the year N+1?”

This simple question often results in a heated discussion within each team as to how
to best present their financial results in a way that would show them in a winning
position. By now no firm is exactly equal to any other team and no one wants to lose.
The result is an excellent discussion of how should a firm’s short term financial
performance be compared with other firms, with unequal financial structures.

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 In Part 2, each team is ask to rearrange the cards they were dealt into any order that
will increase their firm’s financial performance. Recall that originally each card was
specifically assigned to a single outcome; this specificity is now relaxed. This change in
the rules results in a great deal of team discussion within the teams. When all of the
teams have completed this task, the game’s administrator asks each team how they
altered the order of the cards that they were dealt. And as each team responds, the
administrator explains the long-range strategic consequences of each change. Decreasing
industry sales to increase the year’s market share reduces the viability of the industry.
Decreasing the number of employees to increase profit per employee increases hiring and
training costs in the future. Most changes have explicit long-term strategic impacts or
unintended outcomes.

Therefore, there are many approaches to game development containing cards, dice,
boards and forecasting strategies, but there is another facet of gaming, that factor of what
the individual brings to the game from his or her own background.

WHAT IS THE SENSE OF GAMING?

In gaming we provide an opportunity that may make sense, may portray a

perception, involve the many senses we utilize, enhance our operational style and
definitely effect learning. Each player is different as we all have variations in our styles
of learning. We all come from a variety of backgrounds, have a wide and varied set of
experiences and come with pre-formed judgments. Often those participating in a game
have definite notions as to what is right, wrong, or how a function must work. The astute
gamer considers all of these issues as they consider the process inherent in the game.
For, if a game is to be successful, the game designer must not only define what the
learner is to learn, but also consider how that learner learns.

DRIVE - ALIVE
Let’s begin exploring the senses and how different prompts create different
responses in each unique individual. If you are going to address the learner’s style
of learning, you must address the variation of the individuals collected to play the
game. One strategy is to present the material that is to be learned in a wide variety
of sensory modalities in order to reach a wider variety of learners and their
operational styles. DRIVE ALIVE is a game designed to prepare teens and young
adults with learning difficulties a chance to learn the rules of driving with a more
hands on approach than the usual ritual of read the manual, memorize it and take
the test. Analyzing the task at hand, it was determined that there were both facts
that had to have meaning, situations that had to be interpreted as well as the actual
driving consequences that needed to be addressed. In designing the game DRIVE
ALIVE, each fact, situation, and consequence was addressed in several learning
modalities. The acronym DRIVE then is an acronym for:

D Demonstrate
The player will nonverbally role-play the
situation presented on a card. Other players may
be called upon to assist so the situation can play
out successfully. A collection of hats, scarves,
and sunglasses enhanced the ability to role-play,
Exhibit 10. The variety of
accessories available for players
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 portraying the mood of the event. Exhibit 10 shows the variety of accessories that
are possible to use.

Learning Modality: Active Movement

R Rapid Recall
The player will identify and describe the A triangle sign means yield. You
meaning of as many road sign, shapes and signals must slow down to a speed that is
reasonable for existing conditions

as possible in 2 minutes. and stop if necessary. If you must

stop, do so at a marked stop line, if
it exists. After slowing or stopping,
Three by five index cards were designed you must yield the right-of-way to
other vehicles in the intersection

with a street sign, shape or traffic sign on one

or approaching closely on another
roadway or auxiliary road leading
into a major highway.
side and its appropriate label and description on
the other. With the timer set to two minutes, the player labels and
describes as many signs as
Exhibit 11. An example of
Possible before the buzzer sounds. Exhibit 11 street sign with definition
indicates one of the signs that is included.

Learning Modality: Visualize, Identify

I Illustrate
The player will draw and illustrate specific
driving rules and regulations outlined on the card.
Printed icons, stickers and other aids will be available
so that those with grapho-motor difficulties will be
able to be successful. Exhibit 12. shows readily
available materials that can be used to demonstrate
knowledge of a driving rule.

Learning Modality: Tactile Kinesthetic Exhibit 12. An example of the

assortment of materials used to
illustrate
V Visualize
Using printed street plots, the player will demonstrate the situation presented
on the card. Some situations will relate to rules
of the road, others will relate to common
courtesies needed to be a good driver. Blocks
will represent cars, school busses, police cars,
fire trucks, etc. Street signs on posts, people,
and other items such as bushes that obstruct
your view, are all made with magnet bases and
can be placed on the cookie sheet to
demonstrate and enhance the proper Exhibit 13. Driving
explanation. Exhibit 13 shows actual scenes imagery
that were used on roads that the driver would
travel such as curves in the road, solid yellow lines, and no passing zones.

Learning Modality: Visual-Kinesthetic

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E Explain
The player will examine a scenario and determine whether or not the situation
was legal, proper for a driver to have done, or if some
part of the event needed to be done differently. Clear and
concise understanding of good driving habits should be
used as well as indication that the player understands the
implication these social situations have to driving. These
scenarios enhance the understanding that being pulled
over after drinking can have immediate consequences as in
Exhibit 14.
Exhibit 14.
Consequential learning
Learning Modality: Verbal Analytical

Instruction cards are drawn for each play. The color and icon on the card
indicates the type of activity requested. Materials necessary for play are in boxes, sorted
by the type of play.

Actual road scenes, cars, school buses, railroad crossings were captured from
Google Images to assist in demonstration. It was determined that the closer to reality the
visuals became, the more realistic the image reinforcement, the more serious the output.
Exhibit 13 shows a typical driving scene. For consequential learning and enhanced
decisionary factors, scenes from automobile accidents and other serious outcome images
were used.

PERSONALITY-OPERATIONAL STYLE CONNECTION

Along with the varied operational styles of a learner, one must also address the
emotional impact the subject matter, or scenario has on the individual. Some players will
have an intense sense of right. How they view an issue is absolutely the only way it
should be addressed. This creates emotional breaks for some. Some are reticent to play
due to a fear of failure. Others have a quest for total control, and like a four year old are
devastated if the “roll of the dice” is not in their favor. In today’s society we are all
attuned to success, and because of this are often emotionally vulnerable. Events of chance
impact both learning and emotional outcome. Behavioral responses due to these factors
often are shown as passivity, those who refuse to participate, or only do so under a great
restraint. Some players have trouble focusing, staying on task and need frequent prompts,
are easily distracted and their impatience makes them jump to conclusions. Others are
overwhelmed by the amount of data, rules, and instructions and are definitely out of their
comfort zone. This person may even go so far as to sabotage the game by playing
outlandish moves, or implementing bizarre strategies. This often comes from the fear of
failure, being criticized, or confusion. Therefore, the astute gamer understands the
emotional vulnerability of the players.

SHOP ‘TIL U DROP

Another example of multisensory

learning is imbedded into the game SHOP ‘TIL
U DROP. The board for this game is shown in
Exhibit 15 and was developed to address the

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insecurities of young females who are immature, and apprehensive to go shopping in a
mall where other more mature teens excel. The design of this board game is to provide
a chance to play- act the mall experience in a safe environment. It has a multi-level
group of activities that range from the simplistic act of learning how to manage money,
how to budget what you spend, or being able to follow a directive from the family as to
what is to be purchased. Other issues addressed include using dice as a strategy system.
The mall is designed as a cross of four corridors with a food court in the middle.

This design was created to be more life-like, eliminating the usual strategy of the
Monopoly board that wraps around, giving a certain amount of money whenever you pass
GO. Instead, as in today’s economy, a person could stop by a bank and withdraw money,
if there was still cash in the account, or if she had a card to do so. She can also negotiate
to borrow money from a friend. Another could have unrestricted access to money by
being given a credit card to use for whatever she wished to buy. Accounting sheets were
used to keep track of money and penalties given for certain breaches in spending.

PERSONALITY TYPES

In reflection of personality styles, the girls played out their own approaches to
experiential learning as observed when the shy gal spent nothing and went home empty-
handed. She observed and wandered the corridors, almost as if she wasn’t there, a
symbol of her own internal insecurity. Others spent meticulously, purchasing only what
they were requested to spend, and never touched any of their own “mad money.” Some
ventured further, but often after purchasing cosmetics or trinkets, spent the rest on food,
which is a normal teen-like behavior. Another was the impulsive spender who bought
everything in sight. She was down to her last dollar, and compulsively bought a sugar
cone for that dollar, even though she didn’t have enough to buy the ice cream to go with
it! Our behaviors so often align with our own personality types, and games bring these
out in all of us.

THE USE OF DICE IN SHOP TIL U DROP

The corridor design of the mall was

blocked into three columns. Therefore, if you
wanted to go into a store, you had to move the
correct number of spaces to get into that store.
This established the need to have a choice of
movement options that could be controlled by the
player. Yes, the game uses two dice as movement
decision makers, but the usual rules were changed.
The player rolls the dice, but has a choice as to Exhibit 16. Mall corridors were
how many moves she wants to take. She can accept the arranged in, three channels
usual addition of the two numbers on the dice, or she can encouraging multidirectional
also choose to subtract the numbers on the dice, or she movement.
can also pick to use either number. With a three-column
corridor you may need to move across the hall in a strategy to reach your chosen store.
In this way the pawn can be moved anywhere on the corridor, forward, backward, or
sideways. This again breaches the expected interplay of dice and pawn on a normal
board as is shown in Exhibit 16.
EXAMINING CONSEQUENCES

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 As seen in many malls, the food court was placed at the confluence of the
corridors. This enabled the gamer to develop a
social emotional component to address this
population’s specific difficulty. When a player
moved through the food court area to get from one
corridor to the other, a situational consequence
card was drawn from a deck placed on the food
court. Situations related to realistic events that
may happen in any mall. Discussion among the
players analyzed the situation and each player had
a chance to have input as to how she would
handle the situation. Ample time was given to
prompt discussion among the players. Exhibit 17 shows Exhibit 17: Food Court
the outline of the Food Court.

Once again, personality styles greatly influenced how players responded to the
situational prompts. Considering the group
dynamic, several positive as well as negative
responses occurred. Teens often responded
in keeping with their unique cultural
backgrounds and understanding. Some
became more engaged as the trust factor
increased and they realized they could offer
their own opinion, and that it did not have to
agree with others. They learned that
opinions are just that and that they were not
right or nor wrong and that different
situations had many answers and that there
were many ways to look at an event. This
area of the game requires an astute
facilitator to Exhibit 18: Consequence Cards
be entirely successful.

Exhibit 18 shows samples of some of the situations used.

Therefore, this is a game that breaks the traditional rules of play. It is on a board
that has unlimited movement potential, uses dice in different decision-making modes,
includes consumer math in reality form, and imbeds social-emotional consequences.
Deliberately it approaches personality styles and embraces these differences.

Gaming to Learn
Our job as gamers is to represent the issue, not to absolutely replicate it.
Considering that our players come from varied backgrounds, from all walks of life, and
all cultural backgrounds, games must approach each learning situation from many view
points as possible. Given the individuality of the players, stochastic events can be
deliberately skewed and the symmetry of the probability distribution enhanced.
Therefore, addressing the form: be it dice, pawn or card, and imbedding rules that
determine how they are used, enhances the game and enriches the total playing field.
However, if the issues brought out by the unique factors of the learner are ignored, the

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game becomes severely limited and the success and charm of truly thinking outside of the
box or of producing an inspired and new sense of learning is impaired. Our challenge to
you is to explore the many fundamentals of gaming so you too can design a game that is
truly unique with its own set of decisionary factors, yes, a Game with a capital G!

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