Chapter 1: Mythology and Folklore: Definition of Terms

Chapter 1: Mythology and Folklore
Definition of Terms:
Myth:
- A story, that is usually of unknown origin and at least partially traditional that
insensibly relates historical events, usually of such description as to serve to
explain some particular intent institution or natural phenomenon. (Webster)
- Myths are certain products of the imagination of a people which take the form of
stories. (H.J Rose in A Handbook of Greek Mythology)
- A myth is a story about Gods, other supernatural beings, or heroes of a long past
time. (M. Reinhold, Past and Present)
- Myth is a cognitive structure analogous to language through which primitive

people organize their experiences. (J.Peradotto, Classical Mythology)
- A myth is a symbolic form which is generated shaped, and transmitted by the

creative imagination of pre and extra-logical people as they respond to and
capsulate the wealth of experience. (R.J. Schork, Classical Mythology, The
Classic Journal)
- Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that are ostensibly historical

though often supernatural, explaining the origins of a cultural practice or natural
phenomenon. The word ―Myth‖ is derived from the Greek word mythos which
simply means ―story‖. Mythology can refer either to the study of myths or to a
body or collection of myth.
Mythology:
EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore
Ms. Oharrah Mae Bernardez
Officer-in-Charge, College of Education Page 1
- Refers variously to the collected myths of a group of people or study of such
myths.
- It is a myth that is dealing with the gods, demigods, and legendary heroes of a
particular people.
- Mythology is also defined as a set of legends, stories or beliefs, especially ones
that have a religious or cultural tradition.
- The collection of stories about ancient Greek gods is an example of mythology.
- The word mythología appears in Plato, but was used as a general term for fiction
or story-telling of any kind, combining mỹthos, narrative, fiction and logía ,
discourse, able to speak about. From Lydgate until the seventeenth or
eighteenth-century, mythology was similarly used to mean
a moral, fable, allegory or a parable. From its earliest use in reference to a
collection of traditional stories or beliefs, mythology implied the falsehood of the
stories being described.
Folklore:
- Is the expressive body culture shared by a particular group of people; it
encompasses the traditions common to the culture, subculture or group. These
include such tales, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, ranging
from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group.
- Traditions, customs, and stories of one culture or group of people.
- A folklore genre, myth is a feature of every culture. Many sources for myths have
been proposed, ranging from personification of nature or personification of
natural phenomena, to truthful or hyperbolic accounts of historical
events to explanations of existing rituals. A culture's collective mythology helps
convey belonging, shared and religious experiences, behavioural models,
and moral and practical lessons.
- Oral history that is preserved by the people of the culture, consisting of traditions
belonging to a specific culture. These traditions usually include music, stories,

history, legends, and myths. Folklore is passed down from generation to
generation and is kept active by the people in the culture.
Fairy tale:
- A make-believe story about fairies, wizards, giants, or other characters who
possess magical unusual powers.
- A fairy tale is a folklore genre that takes from the short story that typically
features entities such as dwarfs, dragons, elves, fairies, giants, gnomes, goblins,
griffins, mermaids, talking animals, trolls unicorns, or witches and usually magic
or enchantments.
- In less technical contexts, the term is also used to describe something blessed
with unusual happiness as in ―fairy tale ending‖ or happy ending.
- The term ―fairy‖ tale seems to refer more to the fantastic and magical setting or
magical influences within a story, rather than the presence of the character of a
fairy within that story. Fairy tales are often traditional; many were passed down
from story-teller to story-teller before being recorded in books.
- A story that differs from an oral folk tale, written by a single identifiable author,
which can be characterize as simple and anonymous, and exists in a mutable
and difficult to define genre with a close relationship to folktales
Supernatural:
- More than what is natural or normal; showing godlike or magical powers;
exhibiting superhuman strength.
- Supernatural is that which exists or claimed to be exists, yet cannot be explained
by the Law of Nature.
- Examples often includes characteristics of a relating to ghosts, angels, gods,
souls, and spirit, non material beings, or anything else considered beyond natural
like magic, miracles, or etc.

- Supernatural comes from the Latin word supernaturalis, meaning beyond nature.
The adjective form of supernatural describes anything that pertains to or is
caused by something that can't be explained by the laws of nature. It's interesting
to ask your friends what kind of supernatural power they would choose to have.
Most will probably wish for the ability to fly, though some will pick the
supernatural power of being invisible.
Fable:
- The word fable comes from the Latin word fābula, meaning ―a story or tale.‖ A
person who writes fables is called a fabulist.
- A succinct fictional story that features animals, legendary creatures, plants,
inanimate objects or forces of nature and that illustrates or lead to a particular
moral lesson.
- A fable is a moral tale that often features animal characters ―the Tortoise and the
Hare‖ is a well known fable whose moral is ―Slow and Steady wins the race‖
- A fable can also have other inanimate objects, mythical creatures, or forces of
nature as main characters. The distinguishing feature of a fable is
the anthropomorphism or personification involved that leads to a moral lesson
being taught. At times, this moral lesson is summed up at the end of the fable in
a short maxim.
Parable:
- A short allegorical story designed to illustrate or teach some truth, religious
principle or moral lesson.
- A statement or comment that conveys a meaning indirectly by the use of
compares, analogy or the like.
- It is a succinct didactic story in prose or verse that illustrates one or more
illustrative lesson or principles. It is also a short tale that illustrates a universal
truth, it is a simple narrative.

Legend:
- A story about the past that is considered to be true but is usually a combination
of both fact and tradition.
- A traditional story or group of stories told about a particular person or place.
Formerly the term legend meant a tale about a saint. Legends resemble folktales
in content; they may include supernatural beings, elements of mythology, or
explanations of natural phenomena, but they are associated with a particular
locality or person and are told as a matter of history.
- A legend is a larger-than-life story that gets passed down from one generation to
the next — like the legends of Beowulf, Robin Hood, or even Big Foot
legend comes from the Latin legere, "to read." The Latin word was originally
limited to written stories, but in English, legend lost that limitation. Often a legend
lives on in the stories that people tell each other. A person can be a legend too.
Anne Frank is a legend for keeping a diary of hidden life in war time, and a less
famous person, like a long-serving local teacher, can be a legend to
neighbourhood kids.

Chapter 2: Types of Myths and Folklore
1. Pure Myth or True Myth or Myth Proper
- Myth of this kind tends to be examples of primitive science or religion. They
explain natural phenomena or the origins of things, and they describe how
individuals should behave towards gods.
2. Saga or Legend
- Myths of this variety tend to be examples of primitive history; they contain a gem
or seed of historical fact and enlarge upon it with a great flourish. A good
example of a saga or a legend in the story of the war at Troy.
3. Folk-Tale or Fairy-Tale
- Myths of this species tend to be examples of primitive fiction. Tales of this sort
are told for pleasure and amusement. Frequently the stories contain supernatural
characters such as ghosts, elves, dwarfs, or demons; and they often include
elements of magic, e.g., spells, potions, and objects
Types of Mythology and Folklore

Aesop’s Fables
- A collection of fables under the name of Aesop over 2,000 years ago in Greece.
Aesop lived in the mid-sixth century and was a slave and that he was killed by
the people of Delphi, perhaps for seditious or sacrilegious beliefs
One Thousand and One Nights

- Also known as The Arabian Nights is a collection of stories and fables in Arabia,
Egypt, India, and Persia that were compiled from oral tales that had been passed
down through these cultures for generations. Some of well-known characters
include Aladdin, Ali Baba, and Sinbad the Sailor. Jinn are common figured in
these stories.
The Great Epics of the World

- Myths and legends are usually sourced from the existing epics of the different
cultures of the world. The Iliad and The Odyssey of the Greeks, The Aeneid of
the Romans, The Mahabharata and Ramayana of India, Beowulf of England, The
Song of Roland of France, El Cid of Mexico, Sha Naman of Persia, Gilgamesh of
the Babylonians.
The Panchatantra
- A collection of fables which was used to educate Indian princes into becoming
wise. It is supposed that Aesop’s Fables largely owed much from the
Panchatantra.
The Poems of Hesiod

- Theogony and Works and days. Hesiod is an early Greek poet who probably
published around 700 B.C. Much of Greek mythology came from his two
complete works.

Chapter 3: The Great Themes of Myth
Creation
- Creation myths set the stage for more particular myths supporting social
structure.
- The relation of human belongs to the natural world and questions of life and
death.
- A creator deity brings into being the sun, moon and stars, seas and mountains,
and so on, along with deities that personify them, then plant life, animals and
humans that populate the world.
Gods and Goddesses

- Universally, people believed in ideal beings leading them. Such deities possess
human characteristics; they have parents and offspring, and they belong to some
social grouping.
- An important role of mythology is to reinforce and justify relations of power and
leaderships.
Heroic Figures
- Heroes and heroines are semi-divine beings. In many mythologies they have
superhuman powers through divine parentage.
- They may have acquired divinity through deeds as men and women on sons with
the help of a deity, by use of magic weapon, or acquisition of magic powers
through ingenuity or trickery.

Monsters and Demons
- Monsters and demons are most familiar as the beings that the heroic figure
confronts and overcomes.
- They are divine order both in their appearance-typically but not invariably
deformed or hideous-and in their actions, such as attacking or capturing a human
or divine victim.
Animals
- They are featured as wild creatures-predator/beasts or the elusive prey of; or as
a helpful beings cared by humans, or as possessing powers.
- Deities may disguise themselves as animals; or they may have heads or other
features in token of the characteristics they supposed to have in common, or of a
fetish.
The Underworld
- Inevitably associations with the burial prompt tales of gloom ad terror of the
unknown yet inevitable. A dying mythic duality.
- Earth swallows up the dead but equally it produces food plants and harbours
and natural wealth.
Journeys, Quests, and Trials

- Quests and journeys bring mythological figures into numbers of situations where
they can prove their strength.
- In numerous myths loyalty to the dead initiates journeys to the underworld to try
to bring loved ones back to life.
The Afterlife

- The afterlife, some form of existence after death, takes as many different forms
of mythologies as the nature from which they are drawn. Some speak of paradise
where the pains of life on earth are left behind.
- After death comes judgement, a rigorous trial is conducted and torture awaits
those who are trial.
The Worlds Destroyed

- Creation may be seen in myth as chance events or something that occurred
despite opposing force, likewise an end to the world in its present form may be
inevitable or threatened, whether by divine will, as a result of attack by forces of
evil, or in punishments for human misdeeds.
Love
- Love appears throughout the Greek myths and often drives the narrative forward.
- However, different kinds of love emerge in the text with different implications. In
some instances, love is visceral and impulsive, caused by Cupid's arrow.
- This kind of love causes Alpheus chased Arethusa, Apollo to chase Daphne,
or Zeus to take Europaacross an ocean on his back. Such love is characterized
by intense feeling and frenzy. Alternatively, we see in the Greek myths a less
exciting but ultimately longer lasting kind of love.
- Ceyx and Alcyonebecome birds who fly together for eternity after they die.
Mulberry grows from the blood of Pyramus and Thisbe. And Baucis and
Philemon become intertwined trees when they die. In these instances, love exists
among mortals in an eternal realm, and it is perhaps the closest that most
humans can ever approach godliness in the myths.
Fate
- Throughout the myths, fate appears as a powerful force that no human or god
may contend with.
- Cronus received a prophecy that he would be overthrown by his son, as
did King Laius. Both men tried to prevent the outcome, and both failed.
- In this sense, mankind and gods share a similarly naive character when it comes
to reconciling themselves to fate. But these tales raise the question of who
controls fate, if not the gods.
- Is there an even higher power than those on Mount Olympus, if even the gods
cannot control fate? Or is fate just a way of characterizing the truth about what
will happen at a future time?
Sacrifice
- Sacrifices recur throughout the Greek myths, not just because physical sacrifice
was significant in ancient Greek societies.
- Antigone stands as the best example, for she sacrifices herself in order to bury
her brother.
- Pyramus and Thisbe sacrifice themselves for each other.
- Baucis and Philemon sacrifice their comfort in order to house two travellers in
their small house. In these and other cases, heroism becomes something not just
reserved for strong people (like Hercules) but a quality that any common person
can achieve.
- Through sacrifice, characters are rewarded by gods and stand as good
examples to the characters surrounding them.

Chapter 4: The Mythologies of the World
Mesopotamian Mythology
- The Assyro-Babylonian tradition had its core of mythology of the Sumerians. The
gods included Annu (sky), Enlil (storm), Enki (water), Ea (wisdom), Ishtar
(fertility) and Erishkigal (underworld).
Canaanite Mythology
- Canaan is here used in its Biblical sense: Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine. The
Canaanites include El (the creator), Baal (heavy rains).
Egyptian Mythology
- The dying and rising vegetation gods of both Mesopotamia and Canaan have
their counterpart in the Egyptian mythology, Osiris, Isis, Horus, and are the
deities.
Greek Mythology

- The major deities were associated with aspects of nature such as Zeus (sky and
thunder), or Poseidon (sea), and with abstract qualities, such as Athena
(wisdom), or Apollo (arts, healing, and prophecy).
- It is also the body of myths and teaching that belong to the ancient greek
concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world.
Roman Mythology
- It incorporated those of conquered peoples but was in many respects an
adaptation of the Greeks. Juno, originally an Etruscan deity of the moon,
protected the city of Rome. Quirinus, a war god, was assimilated to Romulus,
deified mythical founder of Rome.
- Roman Mythology is the body of traditional stories pertaining to ancient Rome’s
legendary origins and religious system, as represented in the literature and visual
arts of Rome
Celtic Mythology
- Celtic mythology is preserver in Wales and Ireland which Romans failed to
subdue.
- The druids and bards preserved the tradition of the people lead by a warrior elite
with spectacular achievements in terms of conquest and plunder but without the
organizational skills to consolidate an empire.
- Brigit (goddess of learning, healing, and metal working)
- Dagda (god of life and death),
- Danu (fertility goddess and mother of the Tuatha De Danaan),
- Epona (goddess associated with fertility, water, and death),
- Lug (god of the sun,war, and healing),
- Morrigan (goddess of war and death)
Norse Mythology

- Norse or Germanic mythology also glorifies battle but against harsher natural
background: life derives from ice and fire and is ultimately consumed by them.
- The individual self-sacrifice in the service of Odin (death and magic) who brings
the reward of unlimited food and drink-and more fighting-in Valhala. Other gods
are Thor, Frigg, and Balder.
- Aegir (Norse God of the sea)

- Syn (Goddess of the accused at trial)
- Thor (God of Sky, thunder and fertility, also known as the thunder god and
charioteer)
- Tyr (War god, Son of Odin who sacrificed his hand in the binding of Fenrir)
- Ull (God of archery and skiing)
- Var (Goddess of marriage oaths)
- Vor (Goddess who knows all)
- Odin (He is called Alfadir, Allfather, for he is indeed father of the gods).
Mexican and South American Mythologies

- The mythology of warlike Aztecs in Meso-America also intensified bloodshed,
though they adopted the practice of sacrifice for which they are so vilified from
the Tortecs, the first of many older civilizations that they overcame.
- The empire-builders of South America, the Incas, like the Aztecs, considered
themselves the elect of the gods, their ruler offspring of the sun. The heavens,
with astronomical observations and calendrics, dominated mythology.
Persian Mythology
- Reflected a life of warriors Initially, Persian mythology and of nomadic
pastoralists beginning to turn to agriculture in fertile pockets amid harsh
deserts and mountains.

- It supported a cult held in the open air, sometimes on mountaintops, with
the deities personifying beneficent and destructive forces of nature. Later
developments stressed this duality of good and evil, light and dark. In
constant battle.
Indian Mythology
- The Vedic mythology of India, derived from the Aryans, also has Indra, a
warrior sky god. Insuring fertilizing rain and dispatching earlier inhabitants
of a new homeland and demonizing them.
- Sacrifice and cult itself was defied developing an endless conflict of gods
and demons of Hinduism, together with cyclic creation, maintenance of the
balance of good and evil, and destruction to prepare the way for a new
creation.
- Brahma (the Creator)
- Vishnu (the Preserver)
- Shiva (the Destroyer)
- Saraswati (theGoddess of Learning)
- Indra (the King of Heaven and lord of the gods)
- Surya (the sun)
- Agni (the fire god).
Chinese Mythology
- Chinese mythology is rooted in its vast land, in venerations of its emperors,
whose blood rule bought prosperity and was a mark of heavenly approval, and in
reverence for ancestors, the links between humans and gods.
- Three philosophies shaped Chinese mythology:

1. Taoism taught that cosmic energy and all life is mystically compounded of
yin (the negative, female principle) and yang (the positive, male principle);
2. Confucianism uphold the leadership of emperor and with mythology
showing the benefits of learning and discipline; and
3. Buddhism brought the Indian thought of reincarnation, the conflict of good
and evil, and judgement.
Native Mythology
- Like in China, native mythology cantered on land, and the establishment of
dynasties was combined with Buddhist doctrine on death and the afterlife,
ultimately from India to Persian traditions, for example Yama Yima as the first
man and king/judge of the dead.
Kurdish mythology
- The collective term for the beliefs and practices of the culturally, ethnically or
linguistically related group of ancient peoples who inhabited
the Kurdistan Mountains of north-western Zagros, Northern Mesopotamia and
south-eastern Anatolia.
- This includes their Indo-European pagan religion prior to them converting
to Islam, as well the local myths, legends and folklore that they produced after
becoming Muslims.
Ossetian Mythology
- The mythology of the Ossetian people of the Caucasus region contains several
gods and supernatural beings.
- The religion itself is believed to be of Sarmatian origin, but contains many later
elements from Christianity, and the Ossetian gods are often identified with
Christian saints.
- The gods play a role in the famous stories about a race of semi-divine heroes
called the Narts
Finnish mythology
- A commonly applied description of the folklore of Finnish paganism, of which
a modern revival is practiced by a small percentage of the Finnish people.
- The world was believed to have been formed out of a pochard egg. The sky was
believed to be the upper cover of the egg; alternately it was seen as a tent, which
was supported by a column at the North Pole, below the North Star.
- Ukko's (old man") was a god of the sky, weapon was a hammer, axe or sword,
by which he struck lightning.
- His wife Akka ("old woman") mated, there was a thunderstorm. He created
thunderstorms also by driving with his chariot in clouds.
Japanese mythology
- Japanese mythology embraces Shinto and Buddhist traditions as well as

agriculturally- based folk religion.
- The Shinto pantheon comprises innumerable kami (Japanese for god(s) or
spirits).Japanese myths, as generally recognized in the mainstream today, are
based on the Kojiki, the Nihon Shoki, and some complementary books.
The Kojiki, or "Record of Ancient Matters", is the oldest surviving account of
Japan's myths, legends and history.
- Amaterasu (goddess of the sun and fertility)
- Hachiman (god warriors)
- Inari (god associated with rice and merchants)
- Izanagi (creator god)
- Izanami (creator goddess)
- Kagutsuchi (god of fire)
- Susano-o (violent god associated with storms and the sea)
- Tsuki-yomi (moon god,Amaterasu’s brother).

Chapter 5: The Greek and Roman Gods
Greek culture existed before the Roman culture. When the Romans decided to develop
a mythology, they adopted the gods of Greek mythology and changed their names.
The Greek and Roman Gods and Goddesses:
Greek Roman Title
Aphrodite Venus Goddess of love and beauty
Apollo Apollo God of music, poetry, and the sun
Ares Mars God of war
Artemis Diana Goddess of the moon
Aesculapius Aesculapius God of medicine

Athena Minerva Goddess of wisdom
Cronus Saturn God of the sky and agriculture
Demeter Ceres Goddess of fertility and crops
Dionysus Bacchus God of wine, ecstasy
Eros Cupid God of love
Gaea Terra Mother Earth
Hades Pluto God of the underworld
Hephaestus Vulcan God of fire, craftsman for the gods
Hera Juno Queen of the gods, goddess of marriage
Hermes Mercury Messenger of the gods, travel
Persephone Proserpine Queen of the underworld
Poseidon Neptune God of the sea
Zeus Jupiter Ruler of the gods
Zeus the King

- He is acknowledging as the leader of the new generations of gods. He
consistently identified as the sky-god. Many of his attributes and titles are
attributed to his functions (the god of the sky, e.g. Rainier, Thunderer, Cloud
Gatherer, Lightning of god, Sender of Fair Winds).
Mission of Authority
- Zeus and his brothers determine the spheres of their authority. Zeus won the
sky; Poseidon the sea; and Hades the underworld. The surface of the Earth and
Mt. Olympus are neutral territories.
Hera
- She is wife of Zeus. Hera is considered as the queen of the Olympians
- Her name is originally a title which meant ―Our Lady or Great Lady‖. She became
greatly associated with the earth chiefly with marriage and childbirth

- Her Roman name is Juno.
- Due to her husband’s tendency to womanize, Hera is pictured a wife who was
troubled by her husband’s apparent infidelities. Since she could not directly
punish king of the gods, she takes vengeance on his mistresses or even on the
children produced from these deviances.
Poseidon
- Poseidon is primarily the god of the sea but he is also associated with
earthquakes and horses.
- His Roman equivalent name is Neptune.
- Like the sea, Poseidon is unpredictable and easily aroused to anger. He is
consequently pictured with trident, a three-pronged spear which is used by
fishermen.
Hestia
- Hestia is the goddess of the family hearth and its fire. By extension, she came
to be regarded as the guardian of the home, the local community and the
state as the whole.
- Vesta is her Roman name.
The Vestal Virgins
- The rites of Vesta were performed by priestesses who were called the Vestal
Virgins; each of whom took vow of virginity in honor of the goddess they
served.
Demeter

- Demeter is the goddess of the grain and the Earth’s fertility in general. Her
Roman equivalent was Ceres, Demeter’s marriage to Zeus produced a
daughter names Persephone (Roman: Proserpina).
- Demeter and Persephone represent essentially the same thing: the fertility of
the Earth.
- When a distinction was made, Persephone represented the seed and
Demeter, blossoming grain.
Artemis
- The birth of Artemis marks the second generation of the gods of Olympus.
Diana is the Roman equivalent to Artemis.
- Artemis is the goddess of wild nature and of the animals who lived there. She
is a woman portrayed as the huntress with the bow and arrow, but she also
carefully protects the animals in her domain.
- She could be unpredictable, like the open country. She could be benevolent
and merciful but also harsh and deadly.
Apollo
- Apollo is a good said to be complex and mysterious as Zeus.

- He is the god of reason and moderation, and giver of laws and thus, rewarder
of the right action and the punisher of the wrong.
- He is, along with his sister Artemis, a god of archery and could send disease
or cure to humans with his arrow.
- He was the god of the sun as Artemis is the moon. He is also the god of
poetry and music, and in what perhaps his best-known attribute of prophecy.
Athena
- Athena is a virgin goddess of domestic arts and crafts of wisdom and of war.
- She is the patroness of Athens and the protector of the cities, in general.
- She is known to the Roman as Minerva. According to stories, an early
goddess of wisdom, Metis became pregnant by Zeus.
- It is foretold that her child would produce a son who will overthrow Zeus.
- To keep the prophecy from being fulfilled Zeus allowed Metis as she was
about to give birth. Athena, their child, burst forth from his head.
- Zeus now comes both the mother and the father of the child and has avoided
the consequences of the prophecy.
Ares
- Ares is the son of Zeus and Hera and is considered the god of war.
- He represents the uncontrollable frenzy battle and all the destruction and
horrors of war.
- Due to his uncontrollable rage, he is disliked by most seeks and some way,
even by his father, Zeus.
- Despite this, his womanizing seems to have been taken from his father
despite its secrecy.
- Their most famous affair was with Aphrodite, the goddess of love. Their affair
produces four children Roman called their god of war, Mars.
- Unlike Ares, he is well loved by the Roman and his power is regarded as
second to Jupiter.
- He is considered the protector of the city.
Aphrodite
- Aphrodite is the goddess of physical love and passionate desire.

- Her Roman equivalent is Venus. Some say, she is a daughter of Zeus and
Dione, a daughter of Oceanus.
- Other claims posit that she is born from the mating of ―aphros‖ which means
foam of the sea. She is married to Hephaestus, but largely due to her nature,
she has many affairs.
- Her mating with Hermes, for one, results to the birth of their son.
Hermaphrodite.

- As the handsome Hermaphrodite is bathing in a spring, a nymph tells in love
with him and leaps upon him and prays to the gods they may never be
separated.
- Gods answer her prayer and their bodies become one. From that time on a
creature which combines both male and female characteristics has been
called a Hermaphrodite.
Hephaestus
- He is the master craftsman and metal worker of the gods.

- His forge is always a place of much activity as a design and produces
ingenious and artistic creations.
- His masterpieces include the places of the gods, Zeus throne and scepter,
the chariot of Helios the arrows of Apollo and Artemis, the sickle of Demeter
and the weapons of Athena.
- He is also created the arrows of great heroes like Achilles and Aeneas.
Hermes
- While is the youngest of the Gods, he had very primitive origins. He is the
messenger of Zeus, as herald of the gods, the guide for traveler, the leader of
spirits of the underworld, giver of fertility and the patron of orators, writers,
businessmen, thieves and athletes.
- His Roman name is Mercury.
- He is a messenger and herald of the gods, he is pictured wearing a broad –
rimmed hat and with winged shoes or sandals.
Hades
- Hades is the god of the underworld; his name means the ―unseen one‖.
- The Greeks hesitated a lot to mention his name, so they often called him
Pluto, which means “rich or wealthy‖ to refer to both the member of the spirits
under his authority and to the fact that all crops grow from beneath the earth.

- The Romans borrowed the name Pluto from the Greeks to refer to their god of
the underworld. Although they also call him dis.
- His wife is Persephone.
Dionysus
- He is the god of wine and by extension, ―everything associated with it‖.

- Dionysus was from the beginning named with the fertility of the grape vine
and gradually this function expanded to include fertility in (crop, animal,
human).
- He is in this regard, the male counterpart of Demeter. Frequently, portrayed
symbols of Dionysus are
1) A staff twined with a grape vine and ivy leaves with coned placed on top
2) A wreath of ivy grape vine
3) Wine cup
- Some Greeks also called him Bacchus was borrowed by the Roman to name
their god of wine.
Chapter 6: Interesting Characters from Mythology

Dragons
- Stories of fire-breathing dragons vary throughout different cultures.
- In mythology, dragons are of many different types.
- Most of them are known to be both generous and wise.
- Some represent good luck.
- The spiritual Azure Dragon which controls weather is the most powerful Chinese
dragon.
Unicorn
- The unicorn is a mystical animal that is found in the mythologies of many
different cultures throughout the world.
- Representing beauty, goodness, and strength, this legendary creature appears in
art folklore and literature.
- During the middle Ages the unicorn was a symbol of love and purity.
Troll
- According to Scandinavian folklore trolls are creatures that live inside dark caves
in the mountains.
- They are keepers of buried treasures such as silver and gold and are known for
their pointed ears, long noses, and large teeth.
- They can live for 500 years and are impossible to kill for they have the ability to
regenerate or regrow a lost or severed body part in a matter of days.
Jinni
- A jinni is a spirit from Arab and Muslim folklore that inhabits the earth and can
assume human or animal form.
- Jinnis have many supernatural powers, such as the ability to cast spells on
people and grant them wishes.
- There are five tribes of jinn. These are, according to their power, the Marid, the
Efrit, the Shaitan, the Jinn, and the Jann.

Hydra
- The nine-headed serpent Hydra is one of the most hideous and ghastly monsters
of Greek mythology.
- Slayed by Hercules, Hydra was almost indestructible because two crude heads
would spring up to replace each head that a slayer would sever.
- Hydra was a child of the terrible monster Typhoon, who has 100 heads and 200
evil eyes that oozed venom.
Chimera
- The chimera is a huge fire-breathing monster that has the head of a lion, the
body of a dragon, and the hind legs of a goat.
- According to Greek Mythology, the chimera ravaged the Greek city of Lydia until
it was slayed by the prince of Corinth, Bellerophon with the help of Pegasus.
Centaur
- Wisdom. The centaurs are group of monsters that lived in the mountains near the
city of Arcadia in Greece.
- From waist up, their bodies are human, and their lower bodies and legs are in
form of the horse. The centaurs lived without regard to order and do not honour
the gods or respect humans. One good centaur however is Chiron.
- The son of Cronus, who is an immortal known for his kindness.
Fenrir
- Fenrir is a large ferocious wolf with fierce yellow eyes and tremendous jaw.
- When it was just a pup, the Norse god captured it and locked it in a cage
because they feared the wolf might one day responsible for the destruction of the
world.
Oni
- The oni are giant horned demons.
- They are said to have come to Japan from China with the arrival of Buddhism,
and Buddhist priest perform annual rites to expel them.
- The oni can be a variety of colors and have three fingers, three toes and
sometimes three eyes.
- Cruel and lecherous, they can sweep down from the sky to steal the souls of
dying people.
Nagas
- According to South-east Asian mythology, nagas are supernatural beings who
take the form of serpents.
- The king of the serpent deities Mucilinda sheltered the Buddha with the
outspread hoods of his seven heads during a downpour that lasted for seven
days.
- When the sun returns, the serpent is transformed into young prince who paid
homage to Buddha.
Guei or Kuei
- In Chinese mythology, guei are spirits formed from their yin, or negative essence
of people’s soul.
- These spirits of emanations are always feared because they are said to take
their revenge on those people who ill-treated them when they were alive.
- They can be identified because they wear clothes which have no hems and their
bodies cast non shadows.
Kappa
- In Japanese mythology, the kappa is a race of monkey-like demons.
- They lived in ponds and rivers and lure human beings as well as other creatures
down into the depths of the water where they then feed on them.
- As well as being particularly fond of blood, the also like cucumbers.
- They have monkey-like faces, webbed hands and feet and yellow-green skin.
- They wear shells like tortoises.
Akhkhazu
- Is a female demon from the Akkadic mythology, her Sumerian name is Dimme-
kur.

- She is also called the seizer.She brings fever and plagues and is a member of a
trio of female demons (Labasu, Labartu, Akhkhazu).
- Despite the fact the word Akhkhazu has a male gender, Akhkazu is often
described as having a female nature.
Scorpion men
- Are featured in several Akkadian language myths including the Enûma
Elishaand the Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh.
- They were also known as aqrabuamelu or girtablilu.
- The Scorpion Men are described to have the head, torso, and arms of a man
and the body of a scorpion.
Namahage
- Japanese ogres, who, legend says, once terrorized the countryside if they
weren't placated with bribes of food and, once a year, a young woman.
- he legend survives in a ritual that takes place in Japan on New Year's Eve,
when people dressed in masks as Namahage go door-to-door, threatening
the lazy, and scaring children into hard work and good behavior

Chapter 7: Mythological Monsters
Greek myth includes many monstrous beings:
Centaur (male) or Centauride (female)
- A head and torso of a human with the legs and behind of a horse.
Centaur or Hippocentaur
- Was usually been born of Ixion and Nephele (the cloud made in the image of
Hera). Centaurs are best known for their fight with the Lapiths, which was caused
by their attempt to carry off Hippodamia and rest of the Lapith women on the day
of Happodamia’s marriage to Pirithous King of the Lapithae , himself the son of
Ixion.
Centauride or Centauresses
- Are female centaurs, first encountered in Greek mythology as members of the

tribe of the Centauroi.
 Asbolus
- In Greek mythology, Asbolus was a centaur. He was a Seer, or an auger. He was
a diviner who read omens in the flight of birds. The foresaw the centaurs’ battle
against the Lapiths at Pirithous wedding and unsuccessfully attempted to prevent
them from attending.
 Chariclo
- Wife of the centaur Chiron. Chariclo was a nymph of mount pelion in magnesia
(Northern Greece) who was the wife of the wise centaur Kheiron(Chiron). She
was the foster of many of the great heroes of myth including Peleus, Achilles,
Aristaeus and Asclepius.

Khariklo’sname means ―Graceful Spinner‖ from the Greek word Kharis ―grace‖
and klosis ―to spin‖. In the vase painting she accompanies Leto, mother of the
god Apollon, in the wedding procession of Peleus and Thetis.
 Chiron
- The eldest and wisest of the Centaurs. The ancient Trainer of Heroes. Chiron
was notable throughout Greek mythology for youth – nurturing nature.
- His personal skills tend to match those of Apollo, his foster father medicine,
music, archery, hunting, gymnastics and the art of prophecy.
- Chiron was known for his knowledge and skill with medicine and thus, was
credited with the discovery of botany and pharmacy the science of herbs and
medicine.
 Nessus
- Famous centaur, known for being killed by Hercules and whose fainted blood in
turn killed Heracles.he was the son of Centauros.
- He fought in the battle with the Lapiths and became a ferryman on the river,
Euenos. Nessus was known for his role in the story of Tunic of Nessus. After
carrying Deianeira, wife of Heracles across the river, he attempted to force
himself upon her.
 Onocentaur
- Head and torso of a human with the legs behind of a donkey. Onocentaur was an
animal from medieval bestiaries.
- There are certain creatures which they call Onokentaura (Onocentaur – Donkey
– Cenataur) and anybody who has seen have doubted the race of Kentauroi
(Centaurs) ones.
Cerberus
- The three – headed, giant hound that guarded that gates of the Underworld. The
most dangerous labor of all was the twelfth and final one. Eurystheus ordered

Hercules to go to the Underworld and kidnap the beast called Cerberus.
Cerberus was a vicious beast that guarded the entrance to Hades and kept the
living from entering the world of the dead.
Charybdis
- A sea monster whose inhalations formed a deadly whirlpool or a huge water

mouth. In Greek mythology, which dwelt in the strait of Messina. It was later
rationalized as a whirlpool. It was believed that Charybdis lived under a rock on
one side of the strait.
Chimera
- a two – headed monster with one head of lion, and other of a goat, lion claws in
front and goat legs behind, and long snake tail.
- According to Greek mythology, a monstrous fire – breathing hybrid creature of
Lyca in Asia Minor composed of the parts of more than one animal. It is usually
depicted as a lion with the head of a goat arising from its back and a tail that
might end with a snake’s head and was one of the offspring of Typhon and
Echidna and a sibling of such monsters as Cerberus and the Lemean Hydra
Wood Nymphs
- Beautiful minor goddess women who lived in the forest, they were often chased
by heroes, gods and satyrs.
- Wood Nymph was another term for a dryad in Ancient Greek mythology.
Empousai
- Seductive female vampire demons with a leg of bronze and a donkey’s foot.
They are especially good at killing men with their beauty.

Gorgon
- Monstrous women depicted as having snakes on the head instead of hair.

- Sometimes snake body after torso.Gorgon was a female creature her name was
derived from the ancient Greek word gorgo’s which means dreadful and appears
to come from the same root as the Sanskrit word garg which was defined as a
guttural sound similar to the growling of a beast, thus possibly originating as an
onomatopoeia.
 Medusa
- Was a monster, one of the Gorgon sister and daughter of Phorkys (Phorcys) and
Keto ( Ceto), the children of Gaea (Earth) and Oceanus (Ocean). She had the
face of an ugly woman with snakes instead of hair, anyone who looked into her
eyes was immediately turn to stone. Her sisters were Stheno and Euryale, but
Medusa was the only mortal of the three.
 Steno
- Was the eldest of the Gorgons vicious female monsters with brasshands, sharp
fangs and hair made of living venomous snakes.
- The daughter of Phorcys and Ceto, Stheno was born in the Caverns beneath
Mount Olympus. She and her sister Euryale were both immortal. Of the three
Gorgons, she was known to be most independent and ferocious, having killed
more men than both of her sister.
 Euryale
- Was personified the dangers of the sea. She had an ability to turn anyone to
stone with her gaze.
Graeae
- Were three sisters in Greek mythology, who shared one eye and one tooth
among them?
- Their names were Deinowas the dread, Persis or Perso was the horror and
Pemphredo was the alarm. They were the daughters of the sea gods Phorcys

and Ceto and the sister of the Gorgons. They took turns using their eye and their
tooth.
Harpies
- Creature with torso, head and arms of women, talons, tall and wings (mixed with
the arms) of bird.
- Harpies are best known for tormenting King Phineus who was rescued by
Argonauts. They stole the king (most food) but were driven away and lived on
Stophades Island Aello, Ocypete and Celaeno.
Hippocampi
- Sea creatures with the fore – parts of horses and the tails of fish and fins instead
of hooves. Hippocampi often called a sea – horse in English, a mythological
creature shared by Phoenician and Greek mythology, though the name by which
it is recognized is purely Greek.
Hippalectryon
- A creature with fore – parts of a rooster and the body of a horse.It is a type of
fantastic hybrid creature of Ancient Greek folklore, half – horse (front) and half –
rooster (hind), including the tail wings and hind legs. Its colour varies between
yellow and reddish.
Ichthyocentaurs
- Ichthyocentaurs were raced of centaurine sea – gods with the upper body of
human, the lower front horse, the tail of fish and lobster – claw horns on their
heads.
- The best known members of this race were Aphros and Bythos two – brothers
of the wise centaur Chiron and the sons of the Titan Cronus and Nymph Phyllra.
Ipotane

- A race of half – horse, half- human, the original version of the satyr. The typical
Ipotane looked overall human, but had the legs, hindquarters, tail, and ears of a
horse. However, some had humanlike rather than horselike legs.
Kobalos/ Kobalol
- a species of mischievous creatures, fond of tricking or frightening humans. Greek

myths depict the kobaloi as ―imprudent thieving, droll, idle, mischievous, gnome -
dwarfs‖ and as ―funny, little trisky elves of a phallic nature.
Manticore
- A mythological Greek beast was a fearsome sight with the body of a lion and the
mane to match the Manticore had a humanoid head, which was teamed with the
tail from the deadly scorpion.
Merpeople
- Human with fish tail after torso (Mermaid as female, Merman as male), they lure
adventures to drown them.
Minotaur
- A monster with the head of a bull and the body of a man; slain by Theseus. It had
been born to Mino’s wife Pasiphae as a punishment from gods Minos had been
challenged to prove that he was of divine parentage, so he called the sea god
Poseidon to send him a sign Minotaur.
Mormo
- A vampiric creature who bit bad children. Mormo was a female spirit in Greek
folklore whose name was invoked by mothers and nurses to frighten children to
keep them misbehaving.
Lamia

- A vampire demon which prayed on children. In ancient commentaries on
Aristophanes Peace say she was a queen of Libya who was beloved by Zeus.
When Hera robbed her of her children from this union, Lamia killed every child
she could get into her power.
Hydra
- Also known as King Hydra, a many – headed, serpent – like creature that
guarded an Underworld entrance beneath Lake Lerna. It was destroyed by
Heracles, in his second Labour. Son of Typhon and Echdina.
Lycanthrope
- Or Werewolf, men that was cursed into an anthropomorphic wolf, the first men to
be cursed into a werewolf was Lycaon, king of Arcadia by offering Zeus human
flesh.
Furies
- The three goddesses of pain. Worked for Hades in the Underworld to punish evil
souls. Created from the blood of Ouranos. In Greek mythology Furies was called
Erinyes and Eumenides they were probably personified curses, but possibly they
were originally conceived of as ghost of the murdered. According to the poet
Hesiod, they were the daughters of Gaea (Earth) and sprang from blood of her
mutilated spouse Uranus.
Charon
- The ferryman of Hades who carries souls of the newly deceased across the
rivers Styx and Acheron that divided the world of the living from the world of the
dead. Charon is the son of Erebus.
Ophiotaurus

- A creature part bull and part serpent. In short Ophiotaurus is a Serpent Bull and
an ancient monster that could bring down the gods if it was slain and its entrails
burnt. It was a half – cow, half – serpent creature.
Orthrus
- A two – headed dog, brother of Cerberus, slain by Heracles. Orthrus and his
master Eurytion were charged with guarding the three – headed of three- bodied
giant Geryon’s herd of red cattle in the sunset land of Erytheia an island in the
west of the Mediterranean.
Panes
- A tribe of nature – spirits which had heads and torsos of men, the legs and tails
of goats – horns.
Pholus
- A wise centaur and friend of Heracles who lived in a cave on or near Mount
Pelion. Like Chiron, Pholus was civilized and indeed in art sometimes shared the
human – centaur form in which Chiron was usually depicted.

Chapter 8: Mythical Animals
These animals possess some fantastic attribute:
Arion
- The immortal horse of Adrastus who could run at fantastic speed. In the epic
cycle Arion was mounted most notably by Adrastus king of Argos.
Balius and Xanthus
- The immortal horses of Achilles.Poseidon gave the two horses to king Peleus of
Phthia as a wedding gift when Peleus married the Ocean goddess Thetis, Peleus
later gave the horses to his son Achilles who took them to draw his chariot during
Trojan War.
Calydonian Boar
- A gigantic boar sent by Artemis to ravage Calydon and slain in the Calydonian
Boar Hunt. It is one of the monsters of Greek mythology that had to be overcome
by heroes of the Olympian age.sent by Artemis to ravage the region of Calydon

in Aetolia because its king failed to honour her in his rites to the gods.it was in
the Calydonian Hunt in which male heroes took part, but also a powerful wome.
Ceryneian Hind
- An enormous deer which was sacred to Artemis; Heracles was sent to retrieve it
as one of his labours. In Greek mythology, Ceryneian Hind was a huge female
deer which lived in the region of Keryneia. It was a sacred animal to the goddess
of the Hunt Artemis.
Griffin
- Or gryphon, a creature that combines the body of a lion and the head and wings
of an eagle. Griffin is a legendary creature with the body tail and black legs of a
lion the head and wings of an eagle and an eagle’s talons as its front feet.
Because the lion was traditionally considered the king of the beast and the eagle
the king of the bird, the griffin was thought to be an especially powerful and
majestic creature.
- Griffin are known for guarding treasure and priceless possessions.
 Hippogriff
- Head, wings and front body of eagle, and black of horse, they are born by union
of a male gryphon and a mare, or a couple of hippogriff.
Golden Fleece
- From a golden – haired ram, which was held in Colchis. The fleece is a symbol of
authority and kingship.
Erymanthian Boar
- A gigantic boar which Heracles was sent to retrieve as one of his labours. It was
a monstrous wild boar remembered in connection with The Twelve Labours in
which Heracles the (reconciled) enemy of Hera visited in turn all the other sites of
the Goddess throughout the world to conquer every conceivable monster of
nature.
Karkinos
- A giant crab which fought Heracles alongside the Lernaean Hydra. During
Heracles second labor (slaying the Hydra) Hera sent the crab in attempt to
distract Heracles and thus give the Hydra the upper hand Karkinos however
failed and one swift kick from Heracles cracked the shell and killed Karkinos.
Laelaps
- A female dog destined always to catch its prey. Laelaps was a gift Zeus gave to
Europa the dog was later given to King Minos Cephalus who was Procris
husband decided to use Laelaps in order to catch the Teumessian fox which
could never be caught.
Mares of Diomedes
- Mares of Diomedes also called as Mares of Thrace, were a quartet of man –

eating horses in Greek mythology. Magnificent, wild and uncontrollable, they
belonged to Diomedes, King of Thrace, son of Ares and Cyrene who lived on the
shores of the Black Sea.
Nemean Lion
- A gigantic lion whose skin was impervious to weapons; it was strangled by

Heracles. It was a vicious monster in Greek mythology that lived at Nemea. It
was eventually killed by Heracles. It could not be killed with mortal’s weapons
because its golden fur was impervious to attack. It claws were sharper than
mortals and could cut through any armour.
Winged Horse
- Or Pterippi, winged pure white horses.

 Pegasus
- a divine stallion that is pure white, son of Medusa and Poseidon, brother of
Chrysaor and father of winged horses.
Phoenix
- A golden – red fire bird of which only one could live at a time but would burst into
flames to rebirth from ashes as a new phoenix.
Sphinx
- Has the haunches of alion, the wings of a great bird, and the face of awoman.
Sphinx was the daughter of Orthus and either Echidna or Chimera. Apart from
the human head and body of the lion, she also had the wings of an eagle and the
tail of a serpent.
Stymphalian Birds
- Man – eating birds with beaks of bronze and sharp metallic feathers they could
launch at their victims. These birds were pets of Artemis the Goddess of the hunt
or have been bought up by Ares.
Unicorn
- A beautiful horse – like creature with magical horn on its forehead.
Teumessian fox
- A gigantic fox destined never to be caught. It was said it had been sent by the
gods to prey upon the children of Thebes as a punishment for a national crime.
Winged unicorn

- Or Alicorn, different and rarer than unicorns due to the fact that they have
beautiful wings like Winged Horses. Alicorn was a Latin word for the horn of a
unicorn.
Chapter 9: Giants
Enormous and monstrous human – like creatures.
Agrius and Oreius
- When a woman was cursed by Aphrodite to fall in love with a bear, the twin’s
giants were born, they look half- man, half- bear.
- Agrius or Argos was a hundred eyed giant in Greek mythology.
- He was a giant, the son of the Arestor whose name ―Penoptes‖ meant the all –
seeing one. He was a servant of Hera one of the task that were given to him was
to stay the fearsome monster Echidna, wife of Typhon which he successfully
completed.

Aloadae
- In Greek mythology the Aloadae were Otus and Ephialtes, sons of Iphimedia,
wife of Aloeus by Poseidon whom she induced to make her pregnant by going to
the seashore and disporting herself in the surf or scooping seawater into her
bosom.
- They were strong and aggressive giants, growing by nine fingers every month,
nine fathorns tall at age nine, and only outshone in beauty by Orion.
Alops
- A Sicilian giant, slain by Dionysus.
Anax
- A Lydian giant.
Antaeus
- A Libyan giant who gained strength from constant contact with the earth and
wrestled to death all visions to his realm until slain by Heracles.
Argus Penoptes
- A hundred – eyed giant tasked with guarding over to Chrysaor, a son of Medusa
and Poseidon, sometimes said to be giant, he was born alongside Pegasus by
Perseus slashing their mother’s head.
Cyclopes (Elder)
three one – eyed giants who forged Zeus thunderbolt, Hades’ cap of invisibility,
and Poseidon’s storm – raising trident, they and the hekatoncheires were of
Gaea and Ouranos horrified with his son, banished them to the tartarus. Later
rescued by gods at titans war. The cyclopes (Elder) were:
 Arges

 Brontes
 Steropes
Cyclopes (younger)
- One – eyed giants, they are the sons of Poseidon and very skilled blacksmith,
but not so much as elder ones.
Polyphemus
- a cyclops who briefly captured Odysseus and his men, only to be overcome and
blinded by the hero. For this reason, he is blind to this day.
Cyclops (Northern)
- They are cannibalistic one -eyed from the north, they skilled blacksmith like the
young ones, but stronger warriors.
Gegenees
- a tribe of six – armed giants fought by the Argonauts on Bear Mountain in Mysia.
Echdina
- A giant monstrous woman with upper body of a beautiful nymph, while the lower
is a giant serpent, she is the wife of Typhon.
Geryon
- a three – bodied giant who dwelt on the red island of Erytheia, son of Chrysaor
and the oceanid Calirrhoe.
Gigantes
- They are offspring of Gaia and Tartarus to replace the gods.

Hyperborean Giants
- Giants who lived at Hyperborea, they are usually a peaceful tribe.
Hekatoncheires
- The Hundred – Handed Ones, giants with fifty heads of violent storms and
hurricanes, they defeated the titans at a war after the gods rescuing them from
tartarus alongside their brothers, the cyclopes are:
 Briareus or Aigaion - the Vigorous
 Cottus – the Furious
 Gigges - the Big – Limbed
Laestryonians
- a tribe of man – eating giants encountered by Odysseus on his travels.
Tityos
- A giant slain by Apollo and Artemis when he attempted to violate their mother
Leto.
Typhon
- A monstrous immortal storm giant who was defeated and imprisoned by Zeus in
the pit of Tartarus. He is the husband of Echdina and with her they are known as
the ―Parents of all Monsters‖.
Chapter 10: Theories Related to the Study of Mythology
Ancient Theories:
Rationalism
- According to this theory, myths represent an early form of logical thinking; they all
have a logical base. For example, the myth of Pegasus, the flying horse can
be best explained by imagining the reaction of the first Greek to see a horse.
- Compared to other animals they know, the horse must have seem to fly as it
gallops fast and leaps over high obstacles.
Etymological Theory
- This theory states that all myths derive from and can be traced back to certain
words in the language.
- Sources of most mythological characters have their origins from the languages of
the world. Hades, for example, originally meant ―unseen‖ but came eventually to
be the name for the god of the dead.
Allegorical Theory
- In the allegorical explanation, all myths contain hidden meanings which the
narrative deliberately conceals or encodes. Example: story of king Midas and his
golden touch.
- Allegorists offered this simple reason why stories were used in the first place
rather than a simple statement of ideas they represented: they interested people
who might not listen to emotionless concepts but who could be attracted by
imaginative narratives.
Euhemerism
- Euhemerus, a Greek who lived from 325-275 BC, maintained that all myths arise
from historical events which were merely exaggerated.
Modern Theories:
Naturalism
- In this hypothesis, all myths are thought to arise from an attempt to explain
natural phenomena.
- People who believe in this theory narrow the myths by tracing their origins from
the worship of the sun or the moon.
Ritualism

- According to this theory, all myths are invented to accompany and explain
religious ritual; they describe the significant events which have resulted in a
particular ceremony.
Diffusionism
- The diffusionists maintain that all myths arose from a major cultural centers and
spread throughout the world.
Evolutionism
- Myth making occurs at a certain stage in the evolution of the human mind. Myths,
are therefore, an essential part of all developing societies and the similarities
from one culture to the can be explained by the relatively limited number of
experiences open to such communities when myths arise.
Freudianism
- When Sigmund Freud, the founder of modern psychology, interpreted the
dreams of his patients, he found great similarities between them and the ancient
myths.
- Freud believes that certain infantile are repressed, i.e. they are eliminated from
the conscious mind but continues in the individual in some other form.
Sometimes these feelings emerge into consciousness under various disguises,
one of which is the myth
Jungian Archetypes
- Carl Jung was a prominent psychologist who, while he accepted Freud’s theory
about the origin of myths, did not believe that it went far in explaining the striking
similarities between the motifs found in ancient stories and those of his patients.
- He postulated that each of us possesses a collective unconscious which inherits
genetically.

- It contains very general ideas, themes, or motifs which are passed along from
one generation to another and are retained as part of our human inheritance.
Structuralism
- This theory is a fairly recent development and is closely allied with the research
of linguists.
- According to this theory all human behavior, the way we eat, dress, speak, is
patterned into myths which have the characteristics of language.
- To understand the real meaning of myth, therefore, we must analyze it
linguistically.
Historical- critical Theory

- This theory maintains that there are multitudes of factors which influence the
origin and development of myths and that no single explanation will suffice.
- We must examine each story individually to see how it began and evolved.
Evolution Myths
Assyro-Babylonian
- Inert chaos was embodied in Apsu, the sweet water in which floated the earth
and which fed its lands and consort, the salt sea waters, known as Mother
Tiamat.
- From their union came monstrous beasts, then the male and female principles
(the worlds of heaven and earth) and the great deities-the sky god Anu, the god
of controlled water Enki, and the resourceful god of wisdom Ea.
- Led by Anu, these gods wished creation to proceed, but Apsu resented their
agitation and ordered killing his own offspring. Tiamat resisted this plan, but
when Ea killed Apsu by magic she spelled monstrous forces to confront the Court
of Heaven in battle.

- Ea’s son Marduk was appointed to preserve creation. In epic combat Tiamak
opened her mouth to consume Marduk, but he shed an evil wind which entered
her stomach, distanding her so he could rip her apart.
- Half of her became the sky resting on the mountains that surround the earth the
other half of her body.In completing creation Marduk assigned the great gods to
their abodes set stars and moon in places and created time.
- From the blood of Kingu, leader of forces of chaos Marduk created mankind to
serve gods.
Borneo
- At the beginning of time, all creation was enclosed in the mouth of gigantic
snake. Eventually, a gold mountain arose and became home to the supreme god
of the upper region, while a jewel mountain arose and became home to the
supreme god of the lower region.
- The two mountains collided together on numerous occasions, each time creating
part of the universe.
- This period has become known as the first epoch of the creation, when the
clouds the sky, the mountains, the cliffs, the sun and moon were made.
- Afterwards the ―Hawk of Heaven‖ and the great fish Llai llai Langit were brought
into being, followed by two fabulous creatures: Didis Mahendera who had eyes
made of jewels, and Rowang Riwo, who had golden saliva. Finally, the
golden headdress of the god Mahatala appeared.
- In the second epoch of creation, Jata, the divine maiden, created the land. Soon
afterwards, hills and rivers were formed.
- In the third epoch of creation, the tree of life appeared and united the upper and
lower worlds.
Celtic Myth of the Holy Grail

- King Arthur’s magic ship sailed three times round the island of the dead. It was
guarded by 6,000 warriors, who slaughtered all but seven of Arthur’s men;
nevertheless Arthur won the ever replenished cauldron from which only the
valiant and noble could eat.
- Another myth relates that in search for it, King Arthur journeyed to the realm of
the dead; at its entrance he killed a sorceress by cutting her in half like two
bowls. Because of their moral failing’s knights such as Lancelot were denied a
vision of the Holy Grail, interpreted as the cup used at the last supper.
- It was finally secured by Galahad. Among Arthur’s knight, Lancelot son Sir
Galahad, who had the strength of ten men, was pure enough to see it.
- He carried it from Britain to Sarras, a Mediterranean island where he became
King, dying after a year in answer to his own prayer that his soul be released to
eternal life.
- Upon his death the Grail rose to heaven, never to be seen again.


Chapter 1: Mythology and Folklore: Definition of Terms

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Chapter 1: Mythology and Folklore: Definition of Terms

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Chapter 1: Mythology and Folklore

- Myth is a cognitive structure analogous to language through which primitive

- A myth is a symbolic form which is generated shaped, and transmitted by the

- Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that are ostensibly historical

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

Types of Mythology and Folklore

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

The Great Epics of the World

The Poems of Hesiod

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

Gods and Goddesses

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

Journeys, Quests, and Trials

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

The Worlds Destroyed

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

- Dagda (god of life and death),

- Danu (fertility goddess and mother of the Tuatha De Danaan),

- Epona (goddess associated with fertility, water, and death),

- Lug (god of the sun,war, and healing),

- Morrigan (goddess of war and death)

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

- Aegir (Norse God of the sea)

Mexican and South American Mythologies

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

- Vishnu (the Preserver)

- Shiva (the Destroyer)

- Saraswati (theGoddess of Learning)

- Indra (the King of Heaven and lord of the gods)

- Surya (the sun)

- Agni (the fire god).

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

- Japanese mythology embraces Shinto and Buddhist traditions as well as

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

Zeus the King

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

The Vestal Virgins

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

- Apollo is a good said to be complex and mysterious as Zeus.

- Aphrodite is the goddess of physical love and passionate desire.

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

- He is the master craftsman and metal worker of the gods.

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

- He is the god of wine and by extension, ―everything associated with it‖.

Chapter 6: Interesting Characters from Mythology

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

Centaur (male) or Centauride (female)

- Are female centaurs, first encountered in Greek mythology as members of the

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

- A sea monster whose inhalations formed a deadly whirlpool or a huge water

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore

- Monstrous women depicted as having snakes on the head instead of hair.

EDSENG12: Mythology and Folklore