ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

MODULE 3: SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After going through this module students will be able to:

(a) Define the various terms and parameters used in the flow of water through
soils.
(b) Describe laboratory and field tests for the determination of the coefficient of
permeability of soil.
(c) Calculate the average coefficient of permeability of soil for horizontal and
vertical flow in stratified soils.
(d) Draw the flow net for 2-dimensional flow through soil and determine the
quantity of seepage and the seepage pressure.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Permeability is a measure of how easily a fluid can flow through a porous medium. In
geotechnical engineering, the porous medium is soils and the fluid is water. Generally, the
coarser the soil grains, the larger are the voids and larger is the permeability. Therefore,
gravels and sands are more permeable than silts and clays.

Another term for permeability normally used in environmental engineering is hydraulic

conductivity.

Flow of water through soils is called seepage. Seepage takes place when there is difference
in water levels on the two sides of the structure such as seepage into a cofferdam or
seepage through earth dam or embankment. Whenever there is seepage, it is often
necessary to estimate the quantity of seepage and the seepage pressure acting on the
structure. The soil permeability is the main parameter required in the calculation.

seepage

seepage
seepage Impermeable rock layer

(b)
(a)

Seepage (a) into cofferdam and (b) through earth dam

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

2.0 FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

Pore spaces between soil particles are all interconnected so that water is free to flow within
the soil mass. Water will flow from zones of higher to lower pore-water pressure. In
considering flow of water, the pressure is normally express in terms of pressure head or
head measured in metres of water.

The Total Head (h) causing a water flow is given by Bernoulli’s equation;

u v2
h  hz  
w 2g

Where hz = elevation head

u
= pressure head due to pore-water pressure, u
w
v2
= velocity head with the velocity of flow is v
2g
The velocity of flow in soil is normally quite small due to the resistance to flow through the
granular structure of the soil and can be neglected. Therefore the total head reduced to:

u
h  hz 
w

The one-dimensional flow of water through saturated soil is governed by Darcy’s law, which
states that the velocity of flow, v, is proportional to the hydraulic gradient, i,

v  i or v  ki

Where k = coefficient of permeability and

h
i = hydraulic gradient = =
L

Area, A

1 q
hz1
2 hz2

One-dimensional flow in soil

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

The quantity of seepage or volume of flow per unit time, q

q  Av  Aki

Where A is the cross-sectional area of flow

3.0 COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY

The coefficient of permeability, k, may be defined as the flow velocity produced by a

hydraulic gradient of unity. It is a measure of the resistance to flow offered by the soil.
Permeability is effected by:

(a) The porosity of the soil.

(b) The particle size distribution.
(c) The shape and orientation of soil particles.
(d) The degree of saturation or the present of air.
(e) The type of ion and thickness of adsorbed layers of clay minerals.
(f) The viscosity of the soil water which varies with temperature.

Table below shows the range of coefficient of permeability of main soil types and their
drainage characteristics.
PERMEABILITY AND DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF MAIN SOIL TYPES
coefficient of permeability in m/s
k= 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12

Drainage Characteristics GOOD POOR PRACTICALLY IMPERVIOUS

Permeability Classification HIGH MEDIUM LOW VERY LOW PRACTICALY IMPERMEABLE

FISSURED AND
CLEAN WEATHERED CLAYS
General Soil Type GRAVELS INTACT CLAYS
SANDS VERY FINE OR
SILTY SANDS
Large Constant- Standard Constant- FH in
Direct Falling Head (FH) Cell
Head cell Head cell Oedometer
Test Methods
Determine from
Indirect Computation from PSD
Consolidation test data

Approximation of k – Hazen’s Formula

The most widely used approximation of k is one suggested by Hazen for filter sands:

(mm/s)

Where Ck = experimental coefficient dependent on the nature of soil

D10 = effective size (mm)

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

4.0 DETERMINATION OF k IN THE LABORATORY

4.1 The Constant-head Permeameter Test

The constant head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of coarse-
grained soils ( k > 10-4 m/s)

The coefficient of permeability is calculated as;

QL
H1 k 
h1 Aht
H2 h3
h2 Where:
H3
Q = quantity of water collected in time, t
L = distance between manometer tapping points
A = cross-sectional area of soil sample
h = the difference in the manometer level
L2
t = time taken to collect Q
L3
L1 Q

QL
k
Aht

Constant-head Permeameter set-up

Worked Example:
During a test using a constant-head permeameter, the following data were collected.
Determine the average value of the coefficient of permeability of the soil.
Diameter of sample = 100 mm
Distance between manometer tapping points = 150 mm
Quantity collected in 2 min (ml) 541 503 509 474
Difference in manometer levels (mm) 76 72 68 65

Solution:

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

4.2 The Falling-head Permeameter Test

The falling head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of fine-grained soils
such as fine sands, silts and clays.

The coefficient of permeability of soil tested in the

falling-head permeameter is determines as;

standpipe aL  h1 
k ln  
At  h2 
h1
h2
aL h 
valve k  2.3 log10  1 
At  h2 

Where;
soil a = cross-sectional area of standpipe
L sample A = cross-sectional area of soil sample
h1 = initial height of water in standpipe
h2 = final height of water in standpipe
aL h 
k  ln  1  t = time taken for water to drop from h1 to h2
At  h2 

Falling-head Permeameter set-up

Worked Example:
During a test using falling-head permeameter the following data were recorded. Determine
the average value of k.
Diameter of sample = 100 mm
Length of sample = 150 mm
Recorded Data:
Standpipe diameter Level in standpipe (mm) Time Interval
(mm) Initial Final (s)
5.00 1200 800 82
800 400 149
9.00 1200 900 177
900 700 169
700 400 368
12.50 1200 800 485
800 400 908

Solution:

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

5.0 FIELD PERMEABILITY – STEADY STATE PUMPING TEST

Field methods should be used when permeability values are of significant importance. Field
pumping test can be very expensive to carry out, but offer a high level of reliability as
compared to laboratory tests on just soil samples. Field pumping test can be economically
done in boreholes during site investigation, provided the pumping and the observation
sequences are carefully planned and controlled.

Pumping tests involve the measurement of pumped quantity from a well, together with
observation in other wells of the resulting drawdown of the groundwater level. A steady
state is achieved when, at a constant rate of pumping, the levels in the observation wells
also remain constant.

The analysis of results of pumping test depends on whether the aquifer (the water bearing
soil or rock layer) “ ” “u ”.

Definitions of Confined and Unconfined Aquifers

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

5.1 Pumping Test in an Unconfined Aquifer

Observation wells

d1 d2

hO

Pumping Test in an Unconfined Aquifer

The coefficient of permeability, k, at steady state is calculated as:

q r 
k ln  2 

 h  h1
2
2
2
  r1 

Or

2.302q r 
k log  2 

 h2  h1
2 2
  r1 

Where q = the rate of pumping

r = the radial distance to the observation well from the pumping well
h = the observed water level in the observation well.
h = hO - d
d = observed drawdown
hO = initial saturated height of the aquifer

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

5.2 Pumping Test in a Confined Aquifer

d1 d2

Observation
wells

Pumping Test in a Confined Aquifer

The coefficient of permeability, k, at steady state is calculated as;

q r 
k ln  2 
2  D h2  h1   r1 

Or

1.15q r 
k log  2 
 D h2  h1   r1 

Where D = thickness of the aquifer

q = rate of pumping
r = radial distance to the observation well from the pumping well

h = observed water level in the observation well.

h = hO – d
hO = initial saturated height of the aquifer
d = observed drawdown

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

6.0 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL FLOW IN STRATIFIED SOILS

Where soil consists of a number of soil layers of different soil types each with different
coefficients of permeability in the horizontal (x) and vertical (z) directions, the average or
equivalent horizontal and vertical coefficients of permeability will be different.

x
Soil 1
D1 kx1, kz1
z
kH Soil 2
D2 kx2, kz2

Soil 3
D3 kx3, kz3
kV

kxn, kzn Soil n

Dn

Horizontal and Vertical flow in stratified soil

The average or equivalent horizontal coefficient of permeability, kH:

D1 k x1  D2 k x 2  D3 k x 3    Dn k xn
kH 
D1  D2  D 3    Dn

The average or equivalent vertical coefficient of permeability, kV:

D1  D2  D3    Dn
kH 
D1 D2 D 3 D
   n
k z1 k z 2 k z 3 k zn

Where D = thickness of each soil layer

kx = coefficient of permeability in horizontal direction
kz = coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction
n = number of soil layers

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

7.0 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

The seepage taking place in soil around sheet piling, dams, under water-retaining structures
and through embankments and earth dams are two-dimensional.

Consider a two-dimensional flow underneath a dam;

seepage
A

Consider a soil element A of

dimensions dx x dz

dx
dz

7.1 General Flow Equation

Assuming water to be incompressible and no volume change in the soil skeleton;

Quantity of flow into the soil element = Quantity of flow out of the element

( ) ( )

Therefore

<--- This equation is known as flow continuity equation.

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

F D y’ : - and -

Let - and -

Substitute into flow continuity equation, we will get two Laplace equations;

- the potential function such that  = -kh

- the stream function

7.2 Flow Net

The Laplace equations describe two sets of orthogonal curves: those of constant  called
equipotential lines and those of constant  called flow lines.

h
h

b l 
q
 
q




A graphical representation of equipotential lines and flow lines to form a flow net

A graphical construction of equipotential lines and flow lines is called a flow net. Once a
flow net has been drawn its graphical properties may be used in the solution of seepage
problems, example in the determination of seepage quantity and seepage pressures.

The interval between adjacent equipontential lines represents a difference in head, h and
the interval between adjacent flow lines represents a flow quantity of q.

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

F D y’ L :

Therefore

If the areas bounded by equipotential lines and flow lines are made equilinear squares, then
the width, b equal to the length, l

Then

For a flow net;

The total head loss, therefore

Total Seepage Flow, therefore

Substitute into above equation,

Therefore

Where Nd = total number of potential drops

and Nf = total number of flow channels.

Flow Nets - Construction Rules and Boundary Conditions

(a) The areas bounded by equipotential lines and flow lines must be as near
square as possible (square fields)
(b) The intersection of an equipotential line and flow line must be at right angle
(90O).
(c) An impermeable boundary represents a flow line since no flow takes place
across an impermeable boundary.
(d) A submerged permeable boundary along which the head is constant will be an
equipontential line.
(e) A phreatic surface where pore water pressure u = 0 represents a flow line
(f) A seepage surface which occurs where phreatic surface intersects tangentially
with the ground surface has the same boundary properties as the phreatic
surface.

To construct a flow net, a scaled cross-section is first drawn defining all the
boundaries due to the site, structure, etc. Then , following the rules given above,
a few trial flow lines and equipotential lines are drawn in pencil. A series of
successive trials is necessary before an acceptable flow net can be drawn.

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

7.3 Examples of Flow Net Constructions

(b)
(a)

(c)

Examples of Flow Net Constructions: (a) Seepage around a sheet pile

(b) Seepage underneath a dam (c) Seepage through and earth dam

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

Example Problem:
A dam made of compacted soil (assuming isotropic and homogeneous) was constructed
on an impermeable ground with horizontal drainage on the downstream as shown in the
figure below. The average permeability of the earth dam is 5.2 x 10-6 m/s Draw a flow
net through the earth dam and determine the quantity of seepage.

Solution:

Total head loss, h = 35 m

From the flow net, Nf = 4 and Nd = 14

The quantity of seepage, = ( )( )( )

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

7.4 SEEPAGE PRESSURE

The work done by water during seepage results in a seepage force, J being exerted on the
soil particles.

Area, A

hs
A A
h
B B
soil

L
flow
C C

Flow of water in a Column of soil

In the above set-up, when the valve at level A-A is fully open, the flow through the soil will
be under the influence of the head of hs. An upward acting seepage force is exerted on the
soil particles between level C-C and B-B.

When the valve is fully closed , the water level will rise until it reaches the level O-O, the
same level as the water in the reservior (which is made constant). At this point there will
be no seepage, the seepage force has been balance by the additional weight of water
between level A-A and O-O.

Then seepage force,

Since the flow is constant the seepage force acting on the soil will also be constant between
level C-C and B-B.

Therefore the seepage force per unit volume,

= hydraulic gradient, i,

Then

The seepage force per unit volume (j) is usually referred to as the seepage pressure.

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

7.5 QUICK CONDITION AND CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

If the flow rate in the soil column is sufficiently high, the seepage pressure can cancelled
u v u “qu k” .I
no shear strength because the intergranular stress has been reduced to zero.

A “qu k” , the seepage force at C-C will be equal to and opposite to the stress
due the weight of soil and weight of water above the soil.

Equating forces at C-C

( ) ( )

Giving ( ) or ( )

The critical hydraulic gradient;

Since

Then

Example Problem:
An excavation is proposed for a site consisting of homogeneous, isotropic layer of silty Clay,
12.24 m thick overlain a deep deposit of Sand. The groundwater is 2 m below ground
surface. The void ratio of the silty clay is 0.62 and its specific gravity is 2.70. What is the
limiting depth of the excavation to avoid soil “heave”.
Solution:

Heaving will occur if hydraulic

2m gradient i = ic

Silty Total head difference

12.24 m CLAY
h = 12.24 – h
h
Average hydraulic gradient in silty Soil
below the excavation:
Sand

Letting i = ic

solve for, h we get h = 5.97 m

Therefore D = (12.24 + 2) – 5.97 = 8.27 m

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

7.6 DESIGN OF SOIL FILTERS

Coarse-grained soils are used as filters or drainage blankets to control seepage. The
drainage blankets are placed at the downstream end of dams to avoid “piping” problems.
Terzaghi and Peck (1948) proposed the following set of criteria for an effective filter design,
based on work by Bertram (1940) at Harvard University;

(a) To prevent the filter soil from being washed out – Piping Criterion
( )
( )

(b) To ensure a high rate of flow of water – Permeability criterion

( )
( )

Where

D15 and D85 are the particle size at 15% and 85% passing.

EXERCISE : The figures below show the seepage through an earth dam with and without
drainage blanket. Discuss the conditions of both situations.

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

Exercise: Figure below shows a cross-section of a sheet piling penetrating 7m into a

layer of homogeneous, isotropic silty SAND overlying impermeable stiff CLAY. The
difference in head between the two sides of the sheet piling is 3 m and the
permeability of the silty SAND is 3.4 x 10-5 m/s. Sketch the cross-section to scale and
construct a flow net for seepage around the sheet piling. Determine the quantity of
seepage.

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

CP1
DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY OF SOIL
(Constant Head PermeameterTest)

Job no. Site BH/Pit no.

Project Sample no

Client Depth (m)

Soil descr Date

SOIL SAMPLE DATA

Diameter of sample , D cm
H1
2
Cross-sectional area of sample, A cm h1
H2 h3
Length of sample, L1 cm h2
H3
Length of sample, L2 cm

Length of sample, L3 cm

HEIGHT OF WATER IN TUBES AT STEADY STATE

L2
L3
Height of water in tube 1, H1 cm L1 Q
Height of water in tube 2, H2 cm

Height of water in tube 3, H3 cm QL

k
Aht
Quantity Time Headloss, Headloss, Headloss, Coefficient of Permeability, k (cm/sec)
of water,Q taken, t h1 h2 h3
(cm3) (sec) (cm) (cm) (cm) k1 k2 k3 Average

Overall average coefficient of permebaiblity of soil sample, k cm/sec

Remarks :

Tested by Checked by Bahardin Approved by

Soil Mechanics Laboratory, Universiti Teknologi MARA ©BBB2015

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ECG303: MODULE 3 SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE JANUARY 2015

CP2
DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY OF SOIL
(Falling Head Test)

Job no. Site BH/Pit no.

Project Sample no.

Client Depth(m)

Soil descr Date

SOIL SAMPLE DATA

Diameter of sample, D cm

Cross-sectional area of sample, A cm2 standpipe

Length of sample, L cm
h1
Mass of dry sample, Ms g h2
valve
Moisture content of sample, w %

Bulk density of sample, r Mg/cm3

STANDPIPES DATA soil

L sample
Standpipe no. 1 2 3

Diameter, d cm aL  h 
k  ln  1 
At  h2 
Area, a cm2

Test Standpipe a h1 h2 t A L k

no. no cm2 cm cm sec cm2 cm cm/sec

Overall average coefficient of permeability of soil sample, k (cm/sec)

Remarks :

Tested by Checked Approved

Soil Mechanics Laboratory, Universiti Teknologi MARA ©BBB2015

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