FLEXIBLE ALTERNATING CURRENT

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Prepared by
Sasmita choudhury
Lecturer in Electrical
GCE Keonjhar
FACTS concept & general system consideration
Increased demand on transmission, absence of long term planning and the need to provide
open access to generating companies and customer all together have created a less security
and reduced quantity of supply. Facts technology is essential to alleviate some but not all of
these difficulties by enhancing grid reliabilities.

Flexibility of Electric Power system-The ability to accommodate changes in the electric

transmission system or operating conditions while maintaining sufficient steady state and
transient margins.

Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)-Alternating current transmission system

incorporating power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance controllability
and increase power transfer capability.

Opportunities for facts

The current through the line can be controlled at a reasonable cost enabling a large
potential of existing lines by using Facts controller to control power flow at normal and
contingency condition. The controller used to control the interrelated parameters as series
impedance, shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle and damping of frequency
below rated f.

It enables the line to carry current (power) closer to its thermal capabilities added with
mechanical switches, along with rapid response power electronic devices.

Facts are a collection of controllers which can be applied individually or in coordination with
others.

A planner can inter mix Facts controller and mechanical switches to achieve the objective in
an appropriate, staged investment scenario.

Electrical system is a self regulating system. If generation is less than load, v and f drops and
hence load equal to generation minus transmission losses. If voltage is propped with
reactive power then load will be up simultaneously f will drop and the system will collapse.
Inadequate reactive power will also drop voltage.

Active power flow from surplus generation area to deficit generation is inversely
proportional to impedance of line.
Two parallel paths where HVDC transmission is also used to convey loads supported with
power electronic devices .It is highly expensive and hence suitable for long transmission
system.

Through facts controller by using variable impedance and variable phase angle or series
injection of appropriate voltage a FACTS controller can control power flow as required.
 Power flow is strictly decreased by impedance of the interconnected line. So adding of
series capacitor somehow manipulates the amount of power flow.

Besides this another complication may arises called SUB SYNCHROUS RESONNANCE (10-50
Hz) which occurs when mechanical resonance of a multiple turbine generator units
coincides with 60 Hz minus electrical resonance f of the capacitor with inductive impedance
of line. If resonance persists, damage the shaft, loosing synchronism prompting system
collapse.

This problem can be overcome by using some thyristor controlled capacitor which rapidly
damp any sub synchronous resonance and allowing transmission safely from one steady
state condition to another without damaging generator shaft and system collapse.
Also instead of capacitor a thyristor controlled phase angle regulator can be installed
regulating the phase angle difference along the line.

Also another option is to inject voltage variable in magnitude in to the line through FACTS
controller. Limiting factors of loading capability are

a. Thermal
b. Dielectric
c. Stability

i. Thermal- The overhead lines have thermal capability depending upon

a) Ambient temp.
b) Wind condition
c) Condition of conductor
d) Ground clearance

ii. Dielectric-From insulation point of view voltages can be varied +10% than nominal voltage
rating. Modern gapless arrestor, line insulators or thyristor controlled over voltage
suppressor at the substation can increase the voltage capability.

iii. Stability-There are a number of stability issues that controls transmission capability which
are
a) Transient stability
b) Dynamic stability
c) Steady state stability
d) Frequency collapse
e) Voltage stability
f) Sub synchronous resonance.
Dynamic stability

|E1|, |E2|=bus voltages with ∂1, ∂2 angles

X=inductance of line, ignoring R and C

I=EL/X, lag 90⁰to EL

Current can be controlled by controlling EL, X or ∂

Fig

Active component of current at E1 and E2

IP1=E2sin∂/X
IP2=E1sin∂/x
Reactive component of current at E1 and E2
Iq1= (E1-E2cos∂)/X
Iq2= (E2-E1cos∂)/X

Hence
P1=E1. (E2sin∂)/X
Q1=E1. (E1-E2cos∂)/X
P2=E2. (E1sin∂)/X
Q2=E2. (E2-E1cos∂)/X
 P1= P2
Fig

By changing the magnitude of the E1 and E2 phase angle changes ultimately changes the
reactive power flow. Injecting a voltage in quadrature with current or in phase with voltage
affects the active power flow.

Hence by changing the magnitude and phase angle of injected voltage active and reactive
power can be controlled directly.

Important notes of controllable parameter-

Control of line impedance X can provide a powerful means of current control. Control of X
or angle substantially provide the control of active power. Injecting a voltage in series with
line perpendicular to line current, which is 90⁰, lagging the driving voltage provides a
powerful means of controlling line current and active power.
Injecting a voltage in series with line having variable phase angle controls both active and
reactive power.

By controlling the magnitude of voltage of one or other line voltages can be a very cost
effective means of controlling reactive power flow through the inter connection.
Series controller controls line impedance and shunt controller controls voltage regulation
where as combing both can control active and reactive power.

Basic types of FACTS controller-

Generally facts controllers are in to four categories

 i. Series controller
ii. Shunt controller
iii. Series Series controller
iv. Series Shunt controller

a) Series controller-It injects a voltage in series with line having phase angle of 90 degree or
variable. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current the series
controller can supplies or absorb variable reactive power. Any other phase angle can vary
the active power .Basically these are variable impedance capacitor and reactor of any power
electronic based variable sources. It controls current, power and damping oscillation.

b) Shunt controller-It injects current at the point of connection. When injected current is in
phase quadrature with voltage, reactive power is controlled otherwise active power is
controlled. Basically a variable source, variable impedance or a combination of this is used
as such. It controls the voltage and damping of oscillation.

c) Series Series controller-It is nothing but a combination of separate series controller

working in co ordination with multiline system. Separate series controller to lines for
controlling separate reactive power is installed still some active power used to flow via dc
power link which referred to Interline power flow controller (IPFC)balancing both active and
reactive power.
d) Series Shunt controller-It is a controller combining shunt and series controller where
shunt controller injects current in to the system and series controller injects voltage in series
with line .It is called Unified power flow controller (UPFC) when both controller are unified
to exchange real power between the dc links.

SERIES CONTROLLER
1) It injects voltages in series with the line.
2) It controls current/power and damping oscillation.
3) MVA size of series controller is smaller as compared to shunt.
4) It controls power flow in line.
5) Capacitor, reactor and power electronic devices based variable sources are used.

SHUNT CONTROLLER
1) It injects current at the point of connection.
2) It controls voltage and damping voltage oscillation.
3) Its MVA size is larger than series controller.
4) It at any case not providing power flow control in line.
5) It can be a variable source, variable impedance or a combination of these.

SHUNT CONNECTED CONTROLLER-

Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)

A static synchronous generator operated as a shunt connected static var compensator
whose capacitive and inductive output current can be controlled independent of ac system
voltage.
STATCOM is divided in to two parts 1) voltage sourced converter
2) Current sourced converter

In voltage sourced converter capacitor is acting as source whose value is automatically

adjusted for required reactive current flow. Also act as active filter to absorb system
harmonics.

STATIC SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR (SSG)-

A static self commutated switching power converters supplied from an appropriate electric
energy sources and operated to produce a set of adjustable multiple set of output voltages,
which may be coupled to an ac power system for the purpose of exchanging independently
controllable real &reactive power.

SSG=STATCOM + Energy sources

Whereas energy sources are such as battery, fly wheels, superconducting material, and dc
storage capacitor.

One of the SSG is Battery Energy Storage system (BESS)-

A chemical based energy storage system using shunt connected, voltage source converter
capable of rapidly adjusting the amount of energy which is supplied to or absorbed from an
ac system.
Its storage unit is small in size. The converter simultaneously absorbs and delivers both
active and reactive power. The converter is used to charge the battery when not supplying
active power.

Super conducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)

A super conducting electromagnetic energy storage device is containing electronic converter
that rapidly injects and/or absorb real/reactive power. It also dynamically controls power
flow in ac system.

Static var compensator (SVC)

A shunt connected static var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to exchange
capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific parameter of power
system.

It includes thyristor controlled or switched reactor for absorbing reactive power and
thyristor switched capacitor for supplying reactive power.
Fig

Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR)

A shunt connected thyristor controlled inductor whose effective reactance is varied in a
continuous manner by partial conduction control of thyristor valve, where current in reactor
is controlled through firing angle control.

Thyristor switched reactor (TSR)

A shunt connected thyristor switched inductor whose effective reactance is varied in a
stepwise manner by full or zero conduction operation of the valve. Here thyristor switches
are controlled without firing angle control which is very much cost effective.

Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)

A shunt connected thyristor switched capacitor whose effective reactance is varied in a
stepwise manner by full or zero conduction operation of the thyristor valve. Here thyristor
switches are on and off without firing angle control in order to achieve the required step
change in reactive power supplied.

Static var generator or absorber (SVG)

A static electrical device, equipment or system that is capable of drawing controlled
capacitive and/or inductive current from an electrical system and thereby generating or
absorbing reactive power. Generally considered to consist of shunt connected, thyristor
controlled reactor and/or thyristor switched capacitor.

Static var system (SVS)

A combination of different static and mechanically switched var compensator whose
outputs are co-ordinated.
Thyristor controlled braking resistor (TCBR)
A shunt connected thyristor switched resistor which is controlled to aid stabilisation of a
power system or to minimise power acceleration of a generating unit during disturbances.

Series connected controllers

Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)

A static synchronous generator operates without an external electric energy source as a
series compensator. Whose output voltage is in quadrature with and controllable
independently of the line current for the purpose of increasing or decreasing the overall
reactive voltage drop across the line and thereby controlling the transmitted electric power.
It may be supported with storage system for enhancing the dynamic stability by additional
temporary real power compensation to increase or decrease momentarily, the real voltage
drop across the line.

Fig
Interline power flow controller (IPFC)
It is nothing but the combination of two or more SSSC which are coupled through common
dc link to facilitate bidirectional flow of real power between the ac terminals of the SSSC and
are controlled to provide independent reactive power compensation for the adjustment of
real power in each line.

Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC)

A capacitive reactance compensator which provides smoothly variable series capacitive
reactance by bank of series capacitor shunted by thyristor controlled reactor.

Fig

When the thyristor controlled reactor has firing angle of 180⁰, it becomes none conducting
and capacitor has its normal capacitive impedance. When firing angle is less than 180⁰,
capacitive impedance increases. When TCR firing angle is 90⁰, reactor is fully conducting
making total impedance of inductive as the reactive impedance<capacitive impedance. Also
it limits the fault current.

Thyristor controlled reactor, shunting series capacitor provides a stepwise control of series
capacitive reactance is called Thyristor switched series capacitor (TSSC).

Thyristor controlled series reactor (TCSR).

An inductive reactance compensator which consists of a series reactor shunted by a
thyristor controlled reactor in order to provide a smoothly variable series inductive
reactance.

Fig

TCR is no conducting for firing angle of 180⁰ and the uncontrolled reactor acts to limit the
fault current. When firing angle decreases from180⁰ to 90⁰, the net inductance decreases.

An inductive reactance compensator which consists of a series reactor shunted by a

thyristor controlled switched reactor in order to provide a stepwise control of series
inductive reactance is called TSSR.
Unified power flow controller (UPFC)
A combination of STATCOM and SSSC, coupled via a common dc link allowing a bidirectional
flow of real power between series output of SSSC and shunt output of STATCOM so as to
control real and reactive series power compensation without external energy source.

Fig

Thyristor controlled phase shifting transformer (TCPST)

A phase shifting transformer adjusted for thyristor switches to provide rapidly variable
angle.

Fig

Inter phase power oscillation (IPC)

A series connected controller of active and reactive power consisting of each phase of
inductive and capacitive branches subjected to separately phase shifted voltages. Both
active and reactive power can be controlled by adjusting phase shift and branch impedance
using mechanical and electrical switches.
Thyristor controlled voltage limiter (TCVL)
Thyristor switched metal oxide variastor (MOV) used to limit the voltage across its terminals
during transient.

Fig

Thyristor controlled voltage regulator (TCVR)

A thyristor controlled transformer which can provide variable in phase voltage with
continuous control .It is very much effective in controlling reactive power between ac
systems.
Static shunt compensation SVC &STATCOM

Objective of shunt compensation

The objective of shunt compensation is to increase the steady state transmittable power
and to control the voltage profile. Thus shunt connected fixed or mechanically coupled
switched reactor used to minimize over voltage during light load. Shunt connected fixed or
mechanically switched capacitor maintains voltage at heavy load. Steady state transmittable
power can be increased by improving steady state transmission characteristics as well as
stability.

Hence var compensation is used for voltage regulation at the midpoint to segment the
transmission line and at the end of the line to prevent the voltage instability, as well as for
dynamic voltage control to increase transient stability and damp power oscillation.

Midpoint voltage regulation for a line segment

Fig

Consider a two machine transmission model, where var compensation is shunt connected at
midpoint where sinusoidal ac voltage is injected

VS=VR=VM=V

Fig

The midpoint var compensation only controls the reactive power.

Fig

The midpoint is the suitable location for compensation because voltage sag is maxi mum in
the midpoint. The transmittable power could double with each doubling of the segments for
the same over all line length. The voltage variation decreases with increase of segments
approaching constant voltage profile.

Fig

The voltage at the midpoint normally would vary with load and load power factor.

Fig

Voltage stability limit decreases with inductive load and increases with capacitive load
.Shunt reactive compensation can effectively increases the voltage stability limit by
supplying the reactive load and regulating the terminal voltage. The best location for
compensation is the point where largest variation of voltage occurs.

Fig

Improvement of transient stability

The improvement of transient stability through shunt compensation can also be measured
through EQUAL AREA CRITERION.

Fig

 Assume a complete system of P versus δ curve (pre fault) condition where P1 is

transmitted with an angle of δ1.
 When fault occurs the transmitted power decreases while mechanical power
remains same accelerating the generator and transmission angle from δ1 to δ2.
  At δ2 the breaker disconnects the system and fault is cleared.
 The sending end generator absorbs the acceleration energy represented by A1curve
in P-δ curve.
 After fault cleared at an angle δ2 the transmitted power exceeds mechanical power
input P1 decelerating machine where as δ increases to δ3 due to kinetic energy
stored in it.
 Area covered in decelerating is A2.
 If A1=A2 i.e. acceleration area is equal to declaration area transient stability is
achieved at δ3.This is called EQUAL AREA CRITERION.
 Further increase in deceleration energy increases A2 which would not be equal to
A1.Ultimately the system will be unbalanced loosing synchronism.
 On the other hand if compensation of reactive power is provided this increases the
transmittable power without decreasing the margin.

Fig

By using compensated network the unused Amargin area is increased enhancing transient
stability.

Power oscillation damping

In a power system where rotationally oscillatory generator accelerates and angle δ increases
(dδ/dt>0), the electric power must be transmitted to compensate the mechanical input
power.

Also when the generator decelerates and angle δ decreases (dδ/dt<0), the electric power
must be decreased to balance the insufficient mechanical input power.
Fig

The reactive power output QP of shunt connected var compensator increases the midpoint
voltage and transmitted power when dδ/dt>0 and vice versa.

Static var generator (SVG)

SVG is a device whose output is varied so as to maintain specific parameters such as V, f. It is
a self sufficient device that draws controllable reactive current from an alternating power
source.SVG is a power amplifier which faithfully reproduces the reference signal at the
desired power level.

Static var compensator (SVC)

SVG becomes SVC when it is equipped with some external controller which derives some
necessary reference for its input.

Types of var generators are

 Thyristor controlled/switched reactor (TCS/TSR)

 Thyristor switched capacitor

I) TCR/TSR-
It consists of a reactor L with bidirectional thyristor valve switch .The current can be
controlled between maximum(thyristor valve closed) to zero(thyristor valve open).The
current in the reactor is
wt

IL (t) =1/L∫ v ( t ) dt
α

=V/wL (sin wt sinα)

Fig

When delay angle α=0, I will be maximum

α=π/2, I will be zero

If TCR switching is restricted to affixed delay angle usually α=0, then it becomes thyristor
switched reactor (TSR).

Fig

Operating V-I area of TCR (a) and of the TSR (b)

The non sinusoidal nature of current waveform in TCR is due to addition of odd harmonics in
to fundamental. In 3φ system, 3 1φ thyristor controlled reactor are used in delta
connection so that triple n harmonic current circulates in delta connection.

Another method which employs m (m≥2) parallel connected TCR each with 1/mth total
rating. Only one of the m reactor delay angle is controlled and remaining m-1 are either fully
on or off depending upon reactive power required.
In this way amplitude of every harmonic is reduced by factor m.

Fig

Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)

It consists of a capacitor, bidirectional valve of thyristor, a small surge current limiting
reactor. Reactor is used to limit surge current as well as to avoid resonance with ac system
impedance. When thyristor valve is closed and TSC is connected ac source I is

I (wt) =V (n2/n2-1) wc coswt

Where n=1/ √ (w2LC) = √ (XC/XL)

FIG

After disconnection capacitor stays at this voltage which varies across the non conducting
thyristor between zeros to peak to peak. Normally capacitor is discharged after
disconnection which has to reconnect at a voltage intermediate between zero and V (n 2/n2-
1).At transient disturbances when valve voltage is zero (making on) reconnection
established.

These transients may caused by nonzero dv/dt at the instant of switching, resulting an
instantaneous current IC=cdv/dt in the capacitor .The interaction between the capacitor and
current limiting reactor, with the damping resistor produces the oscillatory transients visible
in the voltage and current waveform.

Fig
 Condition for transient free operation
i. If the residual capacitor voltage is less than the peak ac voltage (V C<V) then the correct
instant of switching is when the instantaneous ac voltage is equal to the capacitor voltage.
ii. If the residual capacitor voltage is equal to or higher than the peak ac voltage (V C≥V) then
the correct switching is at the peak of the ac voltage at which the thyristor valve voltage is
minimum.

Fig

Fixed capacitor, thyristor controlled reactor (FC=TCR)

Fig
 In FC-TCR a permanently shunted capacitor is connected across the thyristor controlled
reactor .Where current in a reactor varies according to firing delay angle controller.
Capacitor is substituted by a fully or partially filter network that having the necessary
capacitive impedance at fundamental f and low impedance at selected f so as to shunt
dominant harmonics.

Capacitor var generation (QC) is opposed by variable var absorption (QL).

Q= QL-QC

When QC=max, at α=90° (reactor is off).

To decrease the capacitive output, the current in the reactor is increased by decreasing
delay angle α.At zero var output the capacitive and inductive current becomes equal and
thus the capacitive and inductive var cancels out. With further decrease of angle α inductive
current becomes larger than capacitive current resulting an in inductive var output.

The control of thyristor controlled reactor in FC-TCR need certain functions:

Fig

i) The function of synchronous timing is to run in synchronism with ac system voltage and
generate appropriate timing pulses with respect to peak voltage. Normally a phase locked
loop is used.

ii) The second function is the reactive current (or admittances) to firing angle conversion.
iii) The third function is the computation of the required fundamental reactor current I FL, from
the requested total output current IQ defined by the amplitude reference current I RefQ to
the var generator control. It is nothing but

IRefQ - IC

Where +ve IRefQ= inductive current

-ve IRefQ = capacitive current

The fourth function is thyristor firing pulse generation accomplished by firing pulse
generator producing necessary gate current pulses.

Gate drive circuit is normally at ground potential .If they are at high potential, in order to
provide high insulation between ground level control and gate circuit, the gating
information is usually transmitted by optical fibers.

Fig

There are different types of losses i.e.

i) Capacitor losses (relatively small)

ii) Reactor losses (proportional to I2)

iii) Thyristor losses (proportional to I)

Thus losses increases with increase in TCR current and decreases with increase in capacitive
var output.
Fig

[Loss versus var output characteristics of FC-TCR]

Thyristor switched capacitor, Thyristor controlled reactor type var generator

(TSC-TCR)
It is the dynamic compensation of power, intended for minimizing of losses, providing
increasing operating flexibility.

Fig
Here n no. of TSC and one TCR branch depending upon voltage current and var output is
connected. The output of var generator is controlled from 0 to Qcmax/n, where
Qcmax=rating of all TSC branches.

In this interval, one capacitor bank is switched in and simultaneously current in the TCR is
set by appropriate delay angle so that the sum of var output of TSC (negative) and that of
the TCR (positive) equals the capacitive output required.

In the second, third,…,nth intervals the output is controllable in the Qcmax/n to 2Qcmax/n,
….and (n-1)Qcmax to Qcmax range by switching in the second, third,…,nth capacitor bank
and using the TCR to absorb the surplus capacitive var.

The var rating of TCR is larger than TSC in order to provide enough overloads in switching in
and switching out var levels.

Fig

A functional control scheme for the TSC-TCR type var generator is shown in
Figure .It provides three major functions:

1. Determines the number of TSC branches needed to be switched in to approximate the

required capacitive output current (with a positive surplus), and computes the amplitude of
the inductive current needed to cancel the surplus capacitive current.

2. Controls the switching of the TSC branches in a "transient-free" manner.

3. Varies the current in the TCR by firing delay angle control.

Operating v-I area of the TSC-TCR type var generator with two
Thyristor-switched capacitor banks

Fig

Loss versus var output characteristic of the TSC-TCR type static var generator

Fig
The loss versus var output characteristic of the TSC-TCR type var generator follows from its
basic operating principle. At or slightly below zero var output, all capacitor banks are
switched out, the TCR current is zero or negligibly small, and consequently, the losses are
zero or almost zero. As the capacitive output is increased, an increasing number of TSC
banks are switched in with the TCR absorbing the surplus capacitive vars. Thus, with each
switched-in TSC bank. The losses increase by a fixed amount. To this fixed loss, there are the
added losses of the TCR, which vary from maximum to zero between successive switching of
the TSC banks, .Overall, the losses of the TSC-TCR type var generator

Vary, on the average, in proportion with the var output. This type of loss characteristic is
clearly advantageous in those applications in which the var generator is used for dynamic
compensation and is not required to provide high average var output for the normally
functioning power system.

In order to reduce the losses of the TSC-TCR type var generator at high capacitive output,
the replacement of the thyristor valves with mechanical breakers seems, at first sight,
plausible.

REACTIVE POWER GENERATION BY SYNCHRNOUS COMPENSATOR

In case of synchronous machine 3φ emf ea, eb, ec should be synchronised with system
voltages Va, Vb, Vc .The reactive current drawn will be depending upon the difference
between the system voltage and internal emf E w.r.t. Circuit reactance X

I= (V-E)/X

Reactive power (Q) = (1-E/V)/X *V2

If E>V, results in leading current, and

E<V, results in lagging current

Fig

Reactive power generation by rotating a voltage sourced switching converter

Fig

Capacitor acting as dc input voltage source is connected in series with ac system through tie
line reactance.

By varying the amplitude of output voltage the flow of current between converter and ac
system is determined. If output voltage is less than ac system voltage, reactive current flow
from ac system to converter whose nature of reactive power is inductive in nature and vice
versa for capacitive current. When output voltage is equal to the ac system voltage, no
reactive power flow is exchanged.
The 3φoutput voltage is generated by a voltage sourced dc to ac converter operated from
an energy storage capacitor.

Static var compensator & STATCOM

SVC and STATCOM are a type of SVG whose output is varied to maintain certain electrical
parameter. Since Static compensator cannot generate or absorb real power. Its power
transmission capability is increased by controlling voltage of system by necessary reactive
power compensation.

The basic compensation needs two things

I) Voltage support for facilitating increased power flow under heavy load.

II) Transient and dynamic stability improvement so as to increase stability

margin and provide effective oscillating damping.

Fig

Power system represented by a generator with varying angle δ, internal voltage V and
impedance Z. The terminal voltage of the power system is controlled by varying amplitude
VT and angular frequency w. The amplitude VT of the terminal voltage is measured and
compared with the reference voltage. Thus the produced error ∆V T is processed and
amplified by a PI controller to provide I Qref for var generation. If the ac power system
requires some specific variation in compensation, then V RC is derived from auxiliary inputs
summed to the fixed reference VRef to obtain a signal VRef*
Regulation slope
The terminal voltage is allowed to vary in proportion with compensating current as

1) Operating range of maximum capacitive and inductive rating can be extended if

regulation droop is allowed.

2) Perfect regulation could result in poorly defined operating point.

3) Regulation droop tends to enforce automatic load sharing between SVC and other
voltage regulating device.

Fig

In this case a signal proportional to the amplitude of the compensating current KI Q

Vref *= VRef +KIQ

Where slope is K=∆Vcmax/Icmax

=∆VLmax/ILmax

∆Vcmax=deviation of terminal voltage from nominal value at maximum capacitive current

=∆VLmax= deviation of terminal voltage from nominal value at maximum inductive current

ILmax, Icmax=are maximum inductive and capacitive current

Transfer function and dynamic performance
Fig

VT=V(1/1+G1G2HX)+Vref[ G1G2X/(1+G1G2HX)]

Let Vref=0

Then ∆ VT/∆V=1/(1+G1G2HX)=1/(1+GHX)

G1=(1/K)/(1+T1S)

G2=e-Tds

G =G1G2=(1/K)/(1+T1s)e-Tds

H = 1/ (1+T2s)

T1=Main time constant of PI controller

T2 =amplitude measuring circuit time constant

T d=Transport lag of var generation

K=regulation slope
 Transient stability enhancement and power oscillation damping
Transient stability indicates the capability of power system to recover from sever fault on
heavily loaded line resulting in decrease of transmitted electric power while generator
feeding the constant mechanical input. Transient stability at a given power level and fault
clearing time is determined by P/δ curve of post fault system.

Fig

The plot marked Vm=V represents P/δ curve obtained for ideal compensator holding the
midpoint voltage constant.SVC and STATCOM are acting as if ideal compensator up to
appoint δ=δi at which SVC becomes fixed capacitor and STATCOM a constant current
source. In the interval between δi to π the P/δ plots are those which corresponds to a fixed
midpoint capacitor and a constant reactive current source. Hence δ<δi line is
overcompensated and δ>δi line is under compensated. The over compensation capability
can be exploited to enhance the transient stability by increasing maximum var output during
post fault condition matching are of acceleration A1 to area of deceleration A2 with smaller
δcrit.

Power oscillation damping

Damping requires variation of voltage at the terminal of compensator in proportion to the
change of effective rotor angle.
Fig

Implementation of the transient stability enhancement concept by increasing the reference

voltage during the first swing of major disturbance.

Implementation of power oscillation damping of modulating of reference voltage according

to frequency or power flow variation.

Here in the functional control scheme the power oscillation damping is provided by
modulating the reference voltage according to frequency or power flow variation. A signal
corresponding to the variation of real power or that of system frequency is summed to the
fixed reference signal VRef. . This controls the output current of compensator so as to vary the
terminal voltage to aid damping.

When VT is increased ∆f=d (∆δ/dt) is +ve. In order to increase P, thereby opposes the
acceleration of generator.

When V T is decreased ∆f=d (∆δ/dt) is –ve, in order to decreased P, thereby oppose the
deceleration of generator.
Var reserve (operating point) control
Dynamic system condition such as transient stability and power oscillation damping in
addition of voltage regulation can be handled by static compensator. This has to have
sufficient var capacity to handle unpredictable dynamic disturbances. When the
disturbances results in a new operating point with a steady var output ,the var reserve
control effectively changes the voltage reference in order to bring back var output slowly to
the set reference value and thereby activating slow var sources and other compensating
means to pick up steady state var load.

The magnitude of output current of the compensator is measured and compared against
the reference IQ * .The error ∆IQ is processed and integrated through an integrator and
added to the fixed voltage reference Vref. This forces the input signal to the voltage
regulator to change until the difference between the actual output current of compensator
and current reference IQ * becomes equal.

Fig

Comparison between the STATCOM and SVC

STATCOM is basically a converter based var generators, functions as a shunt connected
synchronous voltage source. Whereas SVC is a thyristor controlled reactor and thyristor
switched capacitor functions as a shunt connected controlled reactive impedance.
STATCOM is superior and having better performance and greater application flexibility than
SVC. These are compared based upon certain characteristics i.e.
i) V-I and V-Q characteristics:
The maximum capacitive or inductive output current of the STATCOM can be maintained
independently of the ac system voltage, maximum var generation or absorption changes
linearly with ac system.

Whereas SVC being composed of thyristor switched capacitor and reactor, thus
compensating current of SVC decreases linearly with ac system voltage and maximum var
output decreases with the square of the voltage.

Fig

V – I characteristics of the STATCOM (a) and of (SVC)(b)

V – Q characteristics of the STATCOM (a) and of (SVC)(b)

ii) Transient stability;
STATCOM is more capable in maintain full capacitive output current at low system voltage
rather than SVC.

STATCOM is more stable towards transient problems as compared to SVC which can be
proved through Equal Area Criterion.

(iii)Response time:
The response time and bandwidth of the closed voltage regulation loop of the STATCOM are
better than SVC.

The transport lag in power circuit of STATCOM is smaller as compared to SVC.

For STATCOM it is less than 200µs to 350µs and

For SVC it is less than 2.5ms to 5ms.

(iv)Capability to exchange real power

STATCOM is capable of drawing controlled real power from an energy source at its dc
terminal and delivers to ac power system.

Also energy absorption from an ac system is to keep storage device charged which enhances
dynamic compensation improving power system efficiency.

Thus STATCOM with energy storage device of suitable capacity effectively controls
modulation of reactive and real power output.
v) Loss versus var output characteristics;
The loss contribution of power semiconductor and related components to the total
compensator losses is higher for the STATCOM rather than SVC. This is because

1. Power semiconductor devices with internal turn off capability have higher
conduction losses
2. Switching losses with forced current interruption involves more losses than natural
commutation.

3. Physical size and installation;

STATCOM is smaller in size as compared to SVC.

Static series compensator: GCSC, TSSC, TCSC, SSSC

Reactive shunt compensation helps in maintaining voltage profile and make it possible to
transmit power up to thermal limit of the line .However it is unable to control actual
transmitted power ,defined by transmitted voltages and determined by series line
impedances, angle etc. Hence series reactive compensation needs to cancel some portion of
reactive impedances increasing the power.

Concept of series capacitive compensation

As we know P=V2/X sin δ

Hence by decreasing reactance(x) , Power (P) will increase. If capacitor is connected in

series with line then series capacitive impedance cancels some portions of inductive
impedance.
Fig
Assume VS=VR=V
Xeff=X-XC
= (1-K) X, where K=XC/X
0≤K≤1
I=2V/ (1-K) X sinδ/2
P=VmI=V2/ (1-k) Xsinδ
Reactive power QC=I2XC=2V2/X×[ K/ (1-K)] 2(1-cosδ)

Voltage stability
Series capacitive compensation used to minimise the receiving end voltage variation and
voltage collapse .Both the shunt and series compensation can effectively increase the
voltage stability limit. Shunt compensation does it by supplying the reactive load demand
and regulating the terminal voltage. Whereas the series reactive compensation does it by
cancelling a portion of line reactance.
Series compensation is much more effective in maintaining the voltage stability of overhead
transmission system.

Fig

Improvement of transient stability

The EQUAL AREA CRITERION is investigated to measure the capability of series
compensation.
Fig

Equal area criterion to illustrate the transient stability margin for a simple two machine
system, (a) without compensation and (b) with a series capacitor.

Consider a simple system with and without series capacitive compensation transmits power
Pm subjected to same fault for the same period of time. Prior to fault both of them transmit
power Pm at angles δ1 and δs1respectively.

During the fault, the transmitted electric power becomes zero while the mechanical input
power to the generators remains constant Pm.

Hence sending end generator accelerates from steady state angles δ 1, δs1 to δ2,δs2 ,when the
fault clears representing area covered by A 1,AS1. After fault clear clearance the transmitted
power P increased more than Pm and hence decelerates. But the kinetic energy
accumulated enhances the angles from δ 2, δs2to δ3, δs3 making A2, AS2 (deceleration) equal
to A1,AS1 (acceleration). Whereas area between δ3to δcrit and δs2to δcrit represents margin of
transient stability Amargin and as margin. The increase of transient stability margin is
proportional to degree of series compensation.
Power oscillation damping
In order to minimise the power oscillation of rotationally oscillating generator, the electric
power must be increased .During acceleration when (dδ/dt>0) and decreasing during
deceleration when (dδ/dt<0) to balance the mechanical input (Pm).

Fig

The series capacitive compensation, K is maximum when dδ/dt>0 and it is zero when
dδ/dt<0.
When K is maximum, effective line impedance is minimum,
and K is minimum, effective line impedance is maximum
This type of control is most effective for damping large oscillation.

Sub synchronous oscillation damping

Sub synchronous resonance (SSR) is nothing but oscillation below the fundamental
frequency by series capacitive compensation. Capacitor in series with circuit forms a series
resonant circuit with natural frequency fe =1/2π√LC=f√XC/X
Since K=Xc/X, 25 to 75% range .Hence f e is less than f a sub harmonic frequency.
If electric circuit is brought in to oscillation then the sub harmonic component of line current
results in sub harmonic field in the machine which rotates backward relative to main field
,producing alternating torque on rotor on rotor at a difference in frequency of f-fe.
If this difference in frequency coincides with torsional resonance of turbine generator set,
then mechanically torsional oscillation is excited, which further excite the electrical
resonance leading to sub synchronous resonance γ.
Variable impedance type series compensator:

GTO thyristor controlled series capacitor (GCSC);

In GTO controlled series capacitor, a fixed capacitor is connected in parallel with GTO
thyristor valve that has the capability to turn on and off automatically.
Fig

The main objective is to control the ac voltage Vc across the capacitor at a given line current

i. When the GTO valve is closed the voltage across the capacitor is zero and when it is open
it is maximum. The closing and opening of valve is carried out in each half cycle is carried
out in synchronism with ac system frequency.GTO valve close automatically when ever
capacitor voltage crosses zero. However the turn off instant of the valve in each half cycle is
controlled by delay angle γ (0<γ<π/2)

Comparison between TCR & GCSC

TCR;
1) Thyristor controlled reactor.
2) TCR is a switch in series with reactor.
3) TCR is supplied from a voltage source.
4) TCR is controlled by turn on delay with respect to crest of the applied voltage.
5) TCR is stipulated at current zero.
6) TCR represents as if a variable reactive admittance.

GCSC;
1) GTO thyristor controlled series capacitor.
2) GCSC is a switch in shunt with a capacitor.
3) GCSC is supplied from a current source.
4) GCSC is controlled by a turn off delay with respect to peak off line current.
5) GCSC is stipulated at voltage zero.
6) GCSC represents as if a variable reactive impedance.

GCSC is used to be protected against variable voltage through MOV arrestor.

Thyristor switched series capacitor (TSSC)

It consists of a number of series capacitor which is shunted by appropriate bypassed valve of

reverse parallel connected thyristor. Degree of series compensation is controlled in step like
manner by increasing or decreasing the number of series capacitor inserted in it.

A capacitor is inserted by turning off, and it is bypassed by turning on the corresponding

thyristor valve. Normally thyristor valves commutates naturally at current zero. Since
insertion of capacitor takes place at current zero, capacitor is charged for a half cycle from
zero to maximum and in next half cycle discharging occurs from maximum to zero.
This high degree of TSSC compensation could cause subsynchronous resonance, which can
be modified by modulating thyristors.

Fig
The basic V-I characteristics of TSSC is shown below. The reactance of the capacitor banks is
chosen so as to produce, on the average the rated compensating voltage V Cmax =4XCImin with
decreasing line current in the interval Imin ≤ I ≤ Imax

For zero voltage injection all capacitors are by passed and for maintaining maximum rated
voltage injection capacitors are progressively by past.

Attainable V – I characteristics of the TSSC when operated in voltage control (a1) and
reactance control (b1) modes, and the associated loss vs line current characteristics (a2 and
b2, respectively)

Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC);

It consists of a series compensating capacitor shunted by a thyristor controlled reactor. The

basic idea behind the TCSC is to provide a continuously variable capacitor by means of
partially cancelling the effective compensating capacitance by the TCR.

XTCSC(α) =XC XL(α) /(XL(α) XC)

 Where XL(α)= XL [π/(π-2α-sinα)] ,

XL < XL (α) <∞

TCSC thus presents a tuneable parallel LC circuit to the line current that is substantially a
constant alternating current source.

Fig

As the impedance of the controlled reactor is varied from its maximum towards its
minimum the TCSC increases its minimum capacitive impedance until parallel resonance at
XC =XL(α)

TCSC has two operating ranges around its internal circuit resonance one is the α Clim<α<π/2,
where XTCSC(α) is capacitive, and the other is the 0<α<αLlim where XTCSC(α) is inductive.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Suppose sw is initially open and the prevailing line current i produces V CO across
capacitor .Say TCR is to be turned on at α measured from the negative peak of the capacitor
voltage .At the instant of turned on the capacitor voltage is negative ,line current is +ve and
thus charging the capacitor in the +ve direction.

At the instant of closing the sw , line current continues to charge the capacitor and also the
charge of the capacitor continue to discharge during the resonant half cycle of LC circuit.
This resonant charge reversal produces dc offset for the next half cycle.

The reversal of capacitor voltage is dependent upon XL /XC ratio.

If XL ≤XC , then reversal is almost instantaneous and the periodic reversal voltage produces
a square wave that is added to the sine wave produced by line current. The time duration
for the charge reversal is f=1/2π√LC.

However as XL is increased rather than X C the conduction period of TCR increases and the
zero crossing is dependent on line current.
The impedance of TCR reactor does not alter the physical operation of TCSC rather it is very
much small as compared to TCSC facilitating the desired control of series compensation .

Advantages of small reactor

i)provide well defined charge reversal
ii)to control the time period of compensating voltage
iii) Protective by pass for large surge current during fault.

Disadvantage
I) small XL increases current harmonics circulating through series capacitor.
ii)decreases the range of actual delay angle control leading to complicated regulation.
iii)produces large short duration current pulses in thyristor increasing current and voltage
rating.
The compensating voltage versus line current characteristics shown below

Sub synchronous characteristics

A series line compensation can cause sub subsynchronous resonance when the series
capacitor resonates with the total circuit inductance of the transmission line at a sub
synchronous frequency fe that is equal to the frequency difference between the power
frequency f and one of the torsional resonant frequency of the turbine generator fm. (I.e.
fe=f-fm)

NGH damper is used in TCSC to avoid subsynchronous resonance. Its basic principle is to
force the voltage of the series capacitor to zero at the end of each half period if it is exceeds
the value associated with the fundamental voltage component of the synchronous power
frequency.

Fig
 It is basically a thyristor controlled discharge resister in series with di / dt limiting reactor.

Fig

 NGH damper interferes with the process of synchronous oscillation built up since the
capacitor voltage can’t respond naturally to a subsynchronous line current.
 A series capacitor with NGH damper behaves rather, as if resistive than capacitive
impedance.

Basic operating control scheme GCSC, TSSC, TCSC

The internal control of compensator is to provide approximate gate drive for the thyristor
valve to produce compensating voltage defined by reference. Power circuit with internal
control is termed as if “Black Box”. Impedance amplifier, whose output can be varied from
the input with low power reference signal,

The static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)

Fig

The voltage sourced converter based series compensator called static synchronous series
compensator (SSSC) basic principle of operation is similar to series capacitive compensation.
Fig shows that at a given line current the voltage across the series capacitor forces the
opposite polarity voltage across the series line reactance to increase by the magnitude of
the capacitor voltage.

Fig

Vq = Vc = -jXc I = -jKXI

Where Vc =Injected compensating voltage phasor

I= line current

Xc=reactance of the series capacitor

The generalised expression of injected voltage is

Vq=±jVq (ζ) I/i

The series reactive compensation scheme, using a switching power converter as a

synchronous voltage source to produce a controllable voltage in quadrature with a line
current is termed as static synchronous series compensator (SSSC).

Static voltage and phase angle regulator (TCVR / TCPAR):-

Reactive shunt compensation is effective in maintaining desired voltage profile. Similarly by
controlling the phase angle active power flow can be controlled. Mechanical phase angle
regulator or phase shifting transformer is used to compensate for reactive and active power.

On load tap changers with in phase voltage injection control reactive power via voltage
adjustment and quadrature voltage injection controls real power via phase adjustment.

Voltage and phase angle regulator

Voltage regulation can be achieved by a synchronous in phase voltage source with
controllable amplitude + nv in series with the ac system and the regulated terminal. An
adjustable voltage is provided by menace of a tap changer from a three phase auto
transformer. Injected voltage +∆Va, +∆Vb, + ∆Vc are in phase with the line to neutral
voltages Va, Vb, Vc respectively.

Similarly phase angle can be controlled by injecting a voltage ∆V, having a +90° phase
relative to the system voltage v.

Fig.
For large angular adjustment, the magnitude of the system voltage is appreciably increase,
hence referred to as a quadrature booster transformer (QBT).

Power flow controlled by phase angle regulators

Phase angle regulator (PAR) is established between the transmissions line of different length
when the prevailing phase angle is not sufficient for the desired power flow.

Fig.

Phase angle regulator is placed between the sending end and receiving end voltage.
Whereas the effective sending end voltage Vseff be the sum of Vs and Vσ (provided by PAR)

Fig
With phase angle control effective phase angle between sending and receiving end becomes
( δ - √) hence

P= V2 sin (δ – σ)/ X

Q = V2 {1-cos (δ – σ)} / X

PAR does not increase the transmittable power of un compensated line rather keep in the
range of π/2 < δ < (π/2) + σ by shifting the P / δ curve to right.

P / δ curve can be shifted to the left by inserting the voltage of the angle regulator with an
opposite polarity.

Vseff = Vs + Vσ

|Vseff| = Vseff = √ (V2 + Vσ2)

For a quadrature booster type angle regulator

P=V2/X {sinδ+ (Vσ/V) Cos δ}

Fig

VA throughput of the angle regulator is

VA=|Vseff -Vs||I|=|Vσ||I|=VI
Real and reactive power flow control;
Fig

Vd =Id R +j IqX

Vq=Iq R +j Id X

V1d = (I1d + Icd) R1+ j (I1q+Icq) X1

V 1q= (I1q +Icq) R1+j (I1d +Icd) X1

V 2d= (I2d + Icd) R2+j (I2q-Icq) X2

V 2q= (I2q-Icq) R1+j (I2d-Icd) X2

Where Icd, Icq is the circulating current.

I1d , I2d & I1q, I2q are the direct axis and quadrature axis component of line current I.

Fig
If X1/R1=X2/R2 then Icd =Icq =0 and if

X1/R1 ≠ X2/R2 then Icd ≠0

When difference in quadrature voltage component exist

V1q -V2q ≠0

Then R1≤X1, R2 ≤ X2

Resulting an in phase circulating current Icd increasing real power in one line and decreasing
in other.

Fig

When V1d -V 2d≠0

Resulting in quadrature circulating current, changing the reactive power flow.

Fig
PAR injects quadrature voltage in series with circuit loop resulting in phase circulating
current. Voltage regulation introduces in series phase voltage resulting in quadrature
circulating current whose line impedance is reactive.

Improvement of transient stability;

Phase angle regulator used to maintain the maximum effective transmission angle during
the first swing can also be utilised effectively to increase the transient stability limit.

Fig

During the fault Pe=0 where=K(constant) .hence sending end generator accelerates δ1
,δa2.When the fault is cleared acceleration area A1 ,Aa1 is created.
After the clearance of fault, circuit breaker is closed resulting in Pe>Pm hence machine
decelerates, but kinetics energy stored in it balances the acceleration equal to deceleration
making an increase of angle by δ3 and δa3.

The interval defined by δ3 to δcrit and δa3 to δacrit respectively determines the margin of
transient stability.

The increase of transient stability margin is proportional to angular range and thereby
ultimately the VA rating of PAR.

Power oscillation damping

Power oscillation damping will be possible when

Pe is increased during dδ/dt>0

Pe is decreased during dδ/dt<0

Variation of angle σ produced by phase shifter helps in damping of oscillation as, when,
dδ/dt>0, angle σ is negative hence P/δ curve is shifted towards left, increasing angle and
power. (dδ/dt>0), angle σ is positive hence P/δ curve is shifted to words right decreasing
angle and power.

Thyristor controlled voltage and phase angle regulator(TCVRS TCPAR);

Normally thyristor based devices having natural zero is used to control current in reactive
impedances and the other that employs turn off (GTO) thyristor in switching power
converters to realize controllable synchronous voltage source.

The main difference between thyristor and GTO switching is that thyristor obtains the
insertion from appropriate taps of the regulating transformer and GTO based approach
generates this voltage from a dc power supply.

TCVR and TCPAR has advantages over mechanical on load tap changers are

i) Less maintenance

ii) High speed of operation

Thyristor tap changers are configured to provide continuous or discrete level control. Also
the harmonics produced by delay angle control could be avoided by discrete level control of
thyristor tap changer configuration, whose main constitute parts are transformer ,thyristor
valves together with heat sink ,snubber circuit and gate drive control.
The transformer windings are configured with ternary progression i.e. transformer winding
and voltage rating of thyristor valves are in relation with 1:3:9...

Where n= (3 l -1)/2 , l is the number of winding

Fig

For 3 winding n=(33 -1)/2=13 ,steps in each direction.

Continuously controllable thyristor tap changer;
Fig

This arrangement can provide continuous voltage magnitude control by initiating the onset
of thyristor valve conduction.

In this thyristor tap changer a purely resistive element is connected as load. The two
voltages obtainable at the upper and lower taps, v1 and v2 respectively.

When α=0.in case of resistive load the current crosses zero ,thus the previously conducting
valve turns off ,connecting load to the lower tap.

When α=α1, sw2 is on, commutating the current from previously conducting sw1,
connecting the load to the upper tap.

Valve sw2 conducts up to current zero.

Amplitude of fundamental voltage is

Vof=√ (a12 +b12), a1= (V2-V1)/2π(cos 2α-1)

Ψof=tan-1 (a1/b1) , b1=V1+ (V2-V1)/π (π-α+sin2α/2)

Fig

Fig shows power circuit of thyristor tap changer with fully inductive load where
unidirectional thyristor valves capable of conducting only +ve or –ve current. The +ve valve
at the lower tap labelled A, the –ve one labelled B, similarly at the upper tap +ve valve is
labelled C, and the –ve valve labelled D.

When α=0, inductive load current is –ve, valve D of the upper tap must be conducting.
 α=π/2, valve B is on, commutating the lower tap. Turning on valve C impose –ve voltage on
A to make it off, where as C stay in conduction. Similar sequence of operation happens for
other half cycle.

Thyristor tap changer with discrete level control

With discrete level control the tap changing function can be achieved without introducing
harmonic distortion or un desirable phase shift.

Thyristor tap changer can neither generate nor absorb reactive power.

Major problem in transformer tap changer is to dissect and isolate n small sections with 2n
leads coming from the winding.

In discrete level tap changers using equal and isolated winding sections will be
uneconomical except for very high voltage application.

Thyristors tap changer valve rating consideration

The number of thyristors required in tap changer is determined by operating voltage and
consequent transient voltage exposure of the valves and operating current and consequent
fault current exposure.

Whereas transient fault current determines the maximum steady state rating of thyristor.
 Thyristors are not so much efficient in fault interruption hence an electromechanical
breaker is used for fault clearing.

The voltage rating of thyristor is determined by transient voltage occurring during surges.

Hence voltage rating of thyristor is about 2.5 times the peak steady state voltage.

Switching converter based voltage and phase angle regulators

Synchronous voltage source is the voltage source converters producing sinusoidal output
voltage at the fundamental frequency with controllable amplitude and phase angle,
generates reactive power for the exchange of real power.

SVS connected in series with a reactive compensator to inject a controllable voltage in

quadrature with line current.

Fig

 Compensator with dc power can provide compensation for resistive voltage drop in
phase with line.
 SVS in contrast with thyristor tap changer has inherent capability to generate or
absorb the reactive power.
 Voltage regulation or phase angle control require either unidirectional or bi –
directional
 Real power flow.
 In unidirectional real power flow, real power could be supplied from the ac system
by line commutated ac-to-dc converter.
 If it requires bi directional power flow, the supply must be regenerative controlling in
and out of the dc supply.
 Voltage sourced converter to generate reactive power is advantageous in both
voltage and phase
THE UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER

The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) concept was proposed by Gyugyi in 1991. The
UPFC was devised for the real-time control and dynamic compensation of ac. transmission
systems, providing multifunctional flexibility required to solve many of the problems facing
the power delivery industry. Within the framework of traditional power transmission
concepts, the UPFC is able to control, simultaneously or selectively, all the parameters
affecting power flow in the transmission line (i.e., voltage, impedance, and phase angle),
and this unique capability is signified by the adjective "unified" in its name. Alternatively, it
can independently control both the real and reactive power flow in the line. The reader
should recall that, for all the Controllers discussed in the previous chapters, the control of
real power is associated with similar change in reactive power, i.e., increased real power
flow also resulted in increased reactive line power.

Basic Operating Principles

From the conceptual viewpoint, the UPFC is a generalized synchronous voltage source (SVS),
represented at the fundamental (power system) frequency by voltage phasor Growth
controllable magnitude V* (0 = Vpq 3 Vpq *) and angle p (0' p' 2n),in series with the
transmission line, as illustrated for the usual elementary two machine system (or for two
independent systems with a transmission link intertie) in Figure 8.3. In this functionally
unrestricted operation, which clearly includes voltage and angle regulation, the SVS
generally exchanges both reactive and real power with the transmission system. Since, as
established previously, an SVS is able to generate only the reactive power exchanged, the
real power must be supplied to it, or absorbed from it, by a suitable power supply or sink. In
the UPFC arrangement the real power exchanged is provided by one of the end buses (e.g.,
the sending-end bus), as indicated in Figure

In the presently used practical implementation, the UPFC consists of two voltage sourced
converters, as illustrated in Figure. These back-to-back converters, labeled
"Converter 1" and "Converter 2" in the figure are operated from a common dc link provided
by a dc storage capacitor. As indicated before, this arrangement functions as an ideal ac-to-
ac power converter in which the real power can freely flow in either direction between the
ac terminals of the two converters, and each converter can independently generate (or
absorb) reactive power at its own ac output terminal. Converter two provides the main
function of the UPFC by injecting a voltage V pq with controllable magnitude Vpq and phase
angle p in series with the line via an insertion transformer. This injected voltage acts
essentially as a synchronous ac voltage source. The transmission line current flows through
this voltage source resulting in reactive and real power exchange between it and the ac
system. The reactive power exchanged at the ac terminal (i.e., at the terminal of the series
insertion transformer) is generated internally by the converter. The real power exchanged at
the ac terminal is converted into dc power which appears at the dc link as a positive or
negative real power demand.

The basic function of Converter 1 is to supply or absorb the real power demanded by
Converter 2 at the common dc link to support the real power exchange resulting from the
series voltage injection. This dc link power demand of Converter 2 is converted back to ac by
Converter L and coupled to the transmission line bus via a shunt connected transformer. In
addition to the real power need of Converter 2, Converter 1 can also generate or absorb
controllable reactive power, if it is desired, and thereby provide independent shunt reactive
compensation for the line. It is important to note that whereas there is a closed direct path
for the real power negotiated by the action of series voltage injection through Converters I
and2 back to the line, the corresponding reactive power exchanged is supplied or absorbed
locally by Converter 2 and therefore does not have to be transmitted by the line. Thus,
Converter 1 can be operated at a unity power factor or be controlled to have a reactive
power exchange with the line independent of the reactive power exchanged by Converter 2.
Obviously, there can be no reactive power flow through the UPFC dc link.
Conventional Transmission Control Capabilities
Viewing the operation of the Unified Power Flow Controller from the standpoint of
traditional power transmission based on reactive shunt compensation, series compensation,
and phase angle regulation, the UPFC can fulfill all these functions and thereby meet
multiple control objectives by adding the injected voltage V pq, with appropriate amplitude
and phase angle, to the (sending-end) terminal voltage Vs". Using phasor representation the
basic UPFC power flow control functions are illustrated in figure.

Voltage regulation with continuously variable in-phase/anti-phase voltage injection, is

shown in Figure for voltage increments Vpq =± ∆v (ρ=0).
Multifunction power flow control, executed by simultaneous terminal voltage regulation,
series capacitive line compensation, and phase shifting, is shown in Figure where
Vpq= ∆v + Vq + v ρ ". This functional capability is unique to the UPFC.
No single conventional equipment has similar multifunctional capability.

The general power flow control capability of the UPFC, from the viewpoint of conventional
transmission control, can be illustrated best by the real and reactive power transmission
versus transmission angle characteristics of the simple two-machine system shown in
Figure. With reference to this figure, the transmitted power P and the reactive power -jQ,
supplied by the receiving end, can be expressed as follows:

(a) Voltage regulation

(b) Line impedance compensation
(c) Phase shifting
(d) Simultaneous control of voltage, impedance, and angle
Are the real and reactive powers characterizing the power transmission of the
uncompensated system at a given angle δ. Since angle ρ is freely variable between 0 and2π
at any given transmission angle δ' (0 ≤ δ ≤ π
The Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC)

The Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) concept proposed in this paper addresses the
problem of compensating a number of transmission lines at a given substation.
Conventionally, series capacitive compensation (fixed, thyristor-controlled or SSSC based) is
employed to increase the transmittable real power over a given line and also to balance the
loading of a normally encountered multi-line transmission system. However, independent of
their implementation, series reactive compensators are unable to control the reactive
power flow in, and thus the proper load balancing of, the lines. This problem becomes
particularly evident in those cases where the ratio of reactive to resistive line impedance
(Xm) is relatively low. Series reactive compensation reduces only the effective reactive
impedance X and, thus, significantly decreases the effective X/R ratio and thereby increases
the reactive power flow and losses in the line. The IPFC scheme proposed provides, together
with independently controllable reactive series compensation of each individual line, a
capability to directly transfer real power between the compensated lines. This capability
makes it possible to: equalize both real and reactive power flow between the lines; transfer
power demand from overloaded to under loaded lines; compensate against resistive line
voltage drops and the corresponding reactive power demand; increase The Interline Power
Flow Controller (IPFC) concept proposed in this paper addresses the problem of
compensating a number of transmission lines at a given substation. Conventionally, series
capacitive compensation (fixed, thyristor-controlled or SSSC based) is employed to increase
the transmittable real power over a given line and also to balance the loading of a normally
encountered multi-line transmission system. However, independent of their
implementation, series reactive compensators are unable to control the reactive power flow
in, and thus the proper load balancing of, the lines. This problem becomes particularly
evident in those cases where the ratio of reactive to resistive line impedance (Xm) is
relatively low. Series reactive compensation reduces only the effective reactive impedance X
and, thus, significantly decreases the effective X/R ratio and thereby increases the reactive
power flow and losses in the line. The IPFC scheme proposed provides, together with
independently controllable reactive series compensation of each individual line, a capability
to directly transfer real power between the compensated lines. This capability makes it
possible to: equalize both real and reactive power flow between the lines; transfer power
demand from overloaded to under loaded lines; compensate against resistive line voltage
drops and the corresponding reactive power demand increases.
Fig

A pure series reactive (controllable) compensation in the form of TCSC or SSSC can be used
to control or regulate the active power flow in the line; the control of reactive power is not
feasible unless active (real) voltage in phase with the line current is not injected. The
application of a TCSC (or SSSC with impedance emulation) results in the reduction of net
series reactance of the line. However, X/R ratio is reduced significantly and thereby
increases the reactive power flow (injected at the receiving end) and losses in the line. The
interline power flow controller (IPFC) provides, in addition to the facility for independently
controllable reactive (series) compensation of each individual line, a capability to directly
transfer or exchange real power between the compensated lines. This is achieved by
coupling the series connected VSC in individual lines on the DC side, by connecting all the DC
capacitors of individual converters in parallel. Since all the series converters are located
inside the substation in close proximity, this is feasible.

An IPFC with two converters compensating two lines is similar to UPFC in which the
magnitude and phase angle of the injected voltage in the prime system (or line) can be
controlled by exchanging real power with the support system (which is also a series
converter in the second line). The basic difference with a UPFC is that the support system in
the later case is the shunt converter instead of a series converter. The series converter
associated with the prime system of one IPFC is termed as the master converter while the
series converter associated with the support system is termed as slave converter. The
master converter controls both active and reactive voltage (within limits) while the slave
converter controls the DC voltage across the capacitor and the reactive voltage magnitude.
For the system shown in figure, the received power and the injected reactive power at the
receiving end of the prime line can be expressed as:

P10 and Q10 are the real power and reactive power in the line 1 (at the receiving end) when
both Vp1 and Vr1 are zero. These are expressed as:

Similar equations also apply to the support line ( 2) except that Vp2 is not independent. It
is related to Vp1 by the equation.
Vp1 I1 + Vp2 I2 = 0. (4)

The above equation shows that Vp2 is negative if Vp1 is positive. With the resistance
emulation, we have

Vp1 = -R1I1, Vp2 = - R2I2. (5)

Substitute equation (5) in equation (4), we get the constraint involving R1 and R2 as R1I12 =
- R2I22 (6)

The constraint equation (4) and (6) can limit the utility of IPFC. In such a case, an additional
shunt converter (forming a GUPFC) will be useful as shown in figure 5 below:
The concept of combining two or more converters can be extended to provide flexibility and
additional degrees of freedom. A generalized UPFC refers to three or more converters out of
which one is shunt connected while the remaining converters are series connected as
shown in figure 5.

III. MODELLING OF MULTI – CONVERTER FACTS DEVICES

The studies of multi converter FACTS devices are carried out from the objectives of planning
and operational analysis. The broad spectrum of the required studies is listed below with
increasing order of complexity.

1. Power flow studies

2. Dynamic stability

3. Transient analysis neglecting harmonics

4. Detailed transient analysis considering switching action in the converters.
The power flow studies involve the computation of solution of non-linear algebraic
equations that relate the specifications to the system state variables. The constraints are
usually handled by modifying the specifications. For example, limits on the reactive current/
power are handled by changing the voltage (magnitude) specification.
The dynamic stability refers to the stability of a power system influenced by various
controllers (AVR, PSS and network controllers including HVDC and FACTS). There are
different mechanisms of system instability.
Both power flow and dynamic stability analysis are based on the single - phase models of
the network. Since dynamic stability analysis involves phenomena of frequency below 5 Hz,
the network variables (voltage and currents) are represented by phasor that very slowly.
However it is essential to test the controller performance using detailed three phase models
to validate the simplified analysis. For example, the design of AC voltage regulator for shunt
converter requires the study electromagnetic interactions that result from the network
transients. In general, this is true for all fast acting controllers. The detailed transient
simulation considers three phase nonlinear models of all relevant components.
For the analysis and simulation of SSR, network transients (below third harmonic) need to
be modelled by approximate models. For example, a transmission line can be modelled by a
single  equivalent model. There is no need to consider the switching action in the
converters and the resulting harmonics. The FACTS controllers can be modelled using
dynamic phasor or d – q variables referred to a synchronously rotating reference frame.

It would be desirable to employ a common model for all types of studies. For multi-
converter circuits, a converter can be modelled by a variable voltage source in series with
inductive impedance as shown in figure 6. Here the voltage source is related to the voltage
across the DC capacitor based on the converter topology and control action. For three phase
models, the voltage source is defined instantaneously and contains harmonics. Neglecting
harmonics, we can represent the voltage by d – q components (dynamic phasor) that are
determined by exact controller models.

The phasor Vinj is expressed differently for the shunt and series converters. For the shunt
converter for transient or dynamic stability analysis, the converter model shown above can
be represented conveniently by Norton equivalent that simplifies the network solution using
the admittance matrix. For power flow analysis, a shunt converter in isolation can be
modeled as synchronous condenser with the specification of bus voltage (magnitude). The
two control variables |Vsh| and  are calculated from the specified voltage magnitude and
the constraint equation that relates the power drawn to the losses in the converter. For the
series converter, the specification in the line power flow (P) and the constraint is the power
supplied by the series converter which may be assumed as zero. For the coupled converters
such as UPFC, the four control variables, |Vsh|, |Vse|, α and β can be computed from the
three specified variables, (say V1, P2, Q2) and the constraint that relates the power balance
in the DC circuit.
APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
The concept and basic operating principles of the IPFC are explained in this paper. In
practical applications the IPFC would, in general, have to manage the power flow control of
a complex, multi-line system in which the length, voltage, and capacity of the individual lines
could widely differ. One of the attractive features of the IPFC is that, although it may pose
engineering challenges particularly in the area of control, it is inherently flexible to
accommodate complex systems and diverse operating requirements. A few relevant points
to consider are briefly mentioned below.

(1) The IPFC is particularly advantageous when controlled series compensation or other
series power flow control (e.g., phase shifting) is contemplated. This is because the IPFC
simply combines the otherwise independent series compensators (SSSCs), without any
significant hardware addition, and provides some of those with greatly enhanced functional
capability.

(2) The operating areas of the individual inverters of the IPFC can differ significantly,
depending on the voltage and power ratings of the individual lines and on the amount of
compensation desired. It is evident that a high power line may supply the necessary real
power for a low capacity line to optimize its power transmission, without significantly
affecting its own transmission.

(3) The IPFC is an ideal solution to balance both the real and reactive power flow in a multi-
line system.

(4) The prime inverters of the IPFC can be controlled to provide totally different operating
functions, e.g., independent P and Q control, phase shifting (transmission angle regulation),
transmission impedance control, etc. These functions can be selected according to
prevailing system operating requirements.

CONCLUSION
IPFC like other FACTS Controller contribute to the optimal system operation by reducing the
power loss and improving the voltage profile. The IPFC is a kind of combined compensators,
which combines at least two SSSCs via a common DC voltage link. This DC voltage link
provides the device with an active power transfer path among the converters, which
enables the IPFC to compensate multiple transmission lines at a given substation. This is a
very attractive feature of this FACTS device.