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Numerical and experimental investigation on the effect of regenerator mesh size on

performance of the traveling wave thermoacoustic-stirling heat engine

Mahesh Krishna Gaikwad, Pradeep A. Patil

PII: S2214-157X(20)30027-7
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2020.100630
Reference: CSITE 100630

To appear in: Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

Received Date: 21 January 2020

Revised Date: 19 March 2020
Accepted Date: 20 March 2020

Please cite this article as: M.K. Gaikwad, P.A. Patil, Numerical and experimental investigation on the
effect of regenerator mesh size on performance of the traveling wave thermoacoustic-stirling heat
engine, Case Studies in Thermal Engineering (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2020.100630.

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 Author Statement

All the Authors’ individual contributions is mentioned as follows

Sr.
Term Contributions
No.

1 Conceptualization Mahesh K. Gaikwad

2 Methodology Mahesh K. Gaikwad

3 Software Mahesh K. Gaikwad

4 Validation Mahesh K. Gaikwad

5 Formal analysis Mahesh K. Gaikwad

6 Investigation Mahesh K. Gaikwad, Pradeep Patil

7 Resources Mahesh K. Gaikwad, Pradeep Patil

8 Data Curation Mahesh K. Gaikwad, Pradeep Patil

9 Writing - Original Draft Mahesh K. Gaikwad

10 Writing - Review & Editing Mahesh K. Gaikwad, Pradeep Patil

11 Visualization Mahesh K. Gaikwad, Pradeep Patil

12 Supervision Mahesh K. Gaikwad

13 Project administration Mahesh K. Gaikwad, Pradeep Patil

Corresponding Author
Mahesh Krishna Gaikwad
 Numerical and Experimental Investigation on the Effect of Regenerator Mesh Size on
Performance of the Traveling Wave Thermoacoustic-Stirling Heat Engine

1
Mahesh Krishna Gaikwad, 2Dr. Pradeep A. Patil
1
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jayawantrao Sawant College of
Engineering, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, Maharashtra India.
2
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jayawantrao Sawant College of
Engineering, Pune, Maharashtra India.

1
maheshgaikwad5981@gmail.com
2
papatil73@gmail.com

Abstract
Traveling wave thermoacoustic-Stirling heat engine is a unique device that is used to convert
heat energy to acoustic work. In this article, the thermoacoustic engine is modeled, manufactured
and tested. The cyclic analysis is used to carry out the numerical analysis based on the Stirling
cycle of the engine. This analysis has considered for study the physical property and
characteristics of the regenerator matrix. The traveling acoustic wave produced from the
prototype is measured using an audio-speaker as a linear alternator for extracting electrical power
from acoustic power. The size and geometry of the regenerator mesh is defines the thermal
penetration depth, pressure drop due to it, dead volume across the matrix and acoustic power
produced. Hence, there is a need to optimize the mesh size for a given mesh material to
maximize the power generated from the engine. The engine has tested with five combinations of
mesh sizes. The results of the numerical analysis has shown that 50.1W power is produced and
the tested engine has developed 44.9W electric-power with the thermal efficiency of 8.3%
respectively for 304 wire mesh of SS having mesh size of 60 strands/inch. The results obtained
from the numerical analysis and the experiments performed are presented in this paper.

Keywords: Pressure waves, Stirling engine, traveling wave, thermo-acoustic engine, wire
mesh.

1
 Nomenclature

A area, m2
Af mean sectional area in void space within matrix, m2
AR area of the regenerator, m2
CV specific heat of the gas at constant volume of a gas, J / kg K
CP specific heat of the gas at constant pressure of a gas, J / kg K
Cr heat capacity ratio
Cm Specific heat of the regenerator matrix at constant pressure, J / kg K
Crs heat capacity of regenerator J/K
dm thickness of wire in screens of regenerator, m
DP diameter of the hot heat exchanger, m
DE diameter of the cold heat exchanger, m
DR diameter of the hot regenerator, m
DRMT change in the matrix temperature, K
FC fraction of the mass of the gas in the compression space
FE fraction of the mass of the gas in the expansion space
FR fraction of the mass of the gas in the regenerator space
f friction factor
FF fill factor for the mesh (solid part/volume of the mesh)
h convective heat transfer coefficient, kW/m2 0C
hmean mean heat transfer coefficient, kW/m2 0C
Qcmx conduction loss through regenerator matrix, W
IPOW ideal power output from the system, W
Kmx effective thermal conductivity of the regenerator matrix, W/ m k
Kg gas spring stiffness, N / m
kgas thermal conductivity of working fluid, W/ m k
Km thermal conductivity of the matrix, W/ m k
LR length of regenerator, m
M total mass of the working fluid in the working space, kg
M mass of fluid in the hot heat exchanger, kg,
C

M mass of fluid in regenerator space, kg and

RD

M mass of fluid in cold heat exchanger, kg

E

Mmx mass of the regenerator matrix, kg

NTU number of transfer units
Nud Nusselt number of packed wire screens
2
N number of wire mesh screens
Pm mean gas pressure inside the engine, bar
PTOTAL sum total of pressures in each interval of the cycle, bar
QR heat stored by the regenerator matrix, Joule
QTS loss due to the temperature swing, W
R Universal gas constant, J / mol K
RE(I) acoustic power generated in the engine, W
Re Reynolds number
Tm matrix temperature, K
Tf fluid temperature, K
TR regenerator temperature, K
TE heater or hot side temperature, K
TC cold side/space temperature, K
Tloss temperature loss in regenerator, K
TExp expansion space temperature, K
ΔT temperature difference across regenerator, K
umatrix flow velocity within the matrix, m/s
VCM working volume of hot heat exchanger, m3
VEM working volume of cold heat exchanger, m3
VRD working volume of Regenerator, m3
VE expansion space volume, m3
VC compression space volume, m3
VT total volume for power generation
VEC clearance volume of the cold heat exchanger, m3
VCC clearance volume of the hot heat exchanger, m3
WR mass flow rate in regenerator, kg/h
WES mass flow rates in cold heat exchanger, kg/s
WCS mass flow rates in hot heat exchanger, kg/s
WRS mass flow rate through the regenerator space, kg / s
XP lengths of hot heat exchanger, m
XE lengths of cold heat exchanger, m

3
Greek Letters
εreg regenerator effectiveness
thermal effectiveness
density of wire mesh matrix material, kg/m3
∆ difference
η efficiency, %
γ ratio of the specific heats
φ phase angle, degree
α phase difference between gas pistons of expansion and compression region.
ω angular velocity, rad / s
λ acoustic wavelength, m

Subscripts
C, P compression space or hot heat exchanger region
E expansion space or cold heat exchanger region
RC interference between regenerator and heater
RE interference between cooler and regenerator
I interval
NTU number of transfer units
R regenerator region
max maximum
min minimum

4
1 Introduction
The thermo-acoustic engine operated on two different principles, standing wave and traveling
wave. It is found that the phase difference between the pressure and velocity for the standing
wave is 900 and for the traveling wave is less than 150 [1]. The thermo-acoustic engine has hot
and cold heat exchangers, regenerator matrix, thermal buffer tube, and acoustic loop. S.
Backhaus et al. [1] numerically analyzed thermo-acoustic engine uses lumped-element
distributed model with regenerator consisting of 120 stainless steel screens with wire mesh size
of 65 µm. Zhibin Yu and Patcharin Saechan et al. [2, 15] focused on the use of an audio
loudspeaker (woofer type, model: 6 PS 38, mfg. B & C speakers) as a linear alternator to convert
the acoustic power into electricity. The numerical simulation of the setup has carried out in the
DeltaEC (Design Environment for Low-amplitude Thermoacoustic Energy Conversion) code to
calculate volume flow rate, acoustic impedance, acoustic power, and position of the regenerator
in order to minimize high viscous dissipation loss. This leads the engine to generate an acoustic
power of 19.3 W and 11.6 W by numerical simulation and experimentation respectively. Baiman
Chen et al. [3] manufactured two types of traveling wave thermo-acoustic generators, the first
one operated by a propane stove using air at atmospheric pressure and the second by the waste
heat of a wood-burning stove using air at 200 kPa. The audio loudspeaker has been utilized as a
linear alternator to convert the acoustic energy into electric power. The propane stove operated
thermo-acoustic generator generated 15 W electricity whereas 22.7 W electricity has wood-
burning stove. D. M. Sun et al. [4] developed and analyzed the solar powered thermo-acoustic
engine and an acoustic circuit of a linear alternator using an electro-mechano acoustical analogy.
The author has optimized the load impedance and generated maximum electrical power of 345.3
W by converting from thermal to electric power and derived 9.34% efficiency. Shinya Hasegawa
et al. [5] optimized the multistage thermo-acoustic engine is using numerical calculations based
on Rott’s theory and produced acoustic oscillations inside the engine at a low temperature of
110.8 K with 21 % efficiency. Somayeh Toghyani et al. [6] applied the Schmidt approach for the
numerical analysis of the Beta type Stirling engine. The author considered that multi-objective
optimization technique which considered the different losses while calculating output power and
efficiency of the engine. Sarafraz M. M. et al. [7] author studied experimentally the thermal
performance of convective flow boiling heat transfer and particulate fouling of CuO/EG
nanofluids for annular heat exchanger. Scale formation and fouling resistance were
experimentally identified. Tao Jin et al. [8] reviewed in brief, different developments in the field
of the thermo-acoustic engines in the past 30 years. The author also discussed the current
research and experimental testing of different prototypes. Kenichiro Tsuda et al. [9] tested three
different thermo-acoustic engines viz standing wave engine with a straight tube, traveling wave
engine with a looped tube and traveling wave engine with looped and straight tube. The result
5
showed that due to wet regenerator the oscillating temperature reduces considerably, i.e.
oscillations start at a temperature less than 100 0C. Kalid Abdoulla et al. [10] tested traveling
wave thermo-acoustic engine with side branch arrangement to place the linear alternator
(loudspeaker, 8-inch B & C 8 BG 51-subwoofer) to extract electricity from the linear alternator.
D. J. Shendage et al. [11] modeled the 1.5 kW Beta type Stirling engine is using cyclic analysis
to estimate the regenerator effectiveness using Martini and Miyabe models. In the Martini model
to calculate the effectiveness of the regenerator NTU method has used. The Miyabe model
discussed dimensionless numbers to calculate regenerator effectiveness. Marialuisa Napolitano et
al. [12] has focused on increasing conversion performance of regenerator thermal energy to
acoustic energy. The regenerator matrix has modeled with thermal and viscous functions from
the Johnson-Champoux-Allard model. Sarfaraz M. M. et al. [13] experimentally identified the
performance of the copper heat sink with rectangular micro-channel which carried aqueous
nanofluid as coolant. The higher heat transfer coefficient and low temperature profile were
observed in the copper heat sink. Shendage D. J. et al. [14] numerically analyzed the Beta type
Stirling engine using second order cyclic analysis. The analysis has focused on calculating the
ideal heat input, ideal power output and related losses in the engine. Anas A. Rahman et al. [16]
has focused on the prediction of the working fluid oscillating frequency and acoustic wave
pressure amplitude for selected parameters like, length of the resonator, regenerator stack length,
spacing between two wire meshes and thickness of the wire mesh plate. The author has used an
artificial neural network (ANN) in comparison with DeltaEC model for standing wave thermo-
acoustic engine. Mahesh Gaikwad et al. [17] mainly discussed the use of SS regenerator can(s)
which considerably reduced the assembly and testing time of setup. This can(s) used were
flexible and capable to change regenerator material, mesh size and length of the regenerator with
minimum efforts. Mohsen Izadi et al. [18] has numerically analyzed natural convection of multi
wall carbon nanotubes using Lattice Boltzmann Method. The author studied the parameters like,
Nusselt number, Rayleigh number, the cavity obstruction ratio, the heat source position, and the
heat source aspect ratio on the hydrodynamic and thermal characteristics on the working fluid.
Khaled M. Bataineh [19] developed thermodynamic model considering the thermal, pumping and
regenerator losses for alpha type Stirling engine using Ross Yoke mechanism. Mahesh Gaikwad
et al. [20] investigated effect of position of the heater on the performance of the thermo-acoustic
engine for different working fluids, like air, hydrogen and helium using computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) simulation. Geng Chen et al. [21] has developed a standing wave thermo-
acoustic engine to convert acoustic power into electric power using a piezoelectric transducer.
The stability of the system was analyzed considering the transfer matrix method which was built
on linear thermo-acoustic theory. L. K. Tartibu et al. [22] numerically analyzed the rectangular
and round edged stack geometry to improve the heat transfer rate and efficiency of the thermo-
6
acoustic refrigerator using CFD Fluent code. The analysis showed that the round edge stack has
good performance characteristics which reduced the flow resistance and acoustic streaming
across the stack of refrigerator. R. Rahpeima et al. [23] investigated the effect of geometry and
thermo-physical properties of stack material on the performance of standing wave thermo-
acoustic refrigerator using the COMSOL Multi-physics software code. Sarafraz M. M. et al. [24]
conducted the experiment on nano-suspension of graphene nano-platelets dispersed in water-
ethylene glycol which improves the thermal conductivity of working fluid up to 32.1 %. It also
promoted the Brownian motion and thermophoresis effect for tested working fluid for mass
fraction within 0.1-0.3 %. Sarafraz M. M. et al. [25] has investigated the effect on heat transfer
coefficient of liquid metal mixture of gallium, indium and tin (Ga-In-Sn) on heat exchanger has
rectangular passage. The setup has tested at 200-350 0C temperature and 0.1-1.5 g/s mass flow
rate of working fluid. The mixture has showed a decrease in pressure drop and plausible thermal
response for temperature greater than 200 0C. Hossein Rostamian et al. [26] numerically
analyzed the thermal conductivity of carbon dioxide (CO2) at the liquid, vapor, and supercritical
phases are using surface response methodology (RMS) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN).
For ANN modeling temperature, pressure, and density of carbon dioxide were provided as input.
Esmaeil Jalali et al. [27] numerically analyzed laminar heat transfer and direct fluid jet injection
of oil and Multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) nano-fluid by finite volume method. This
analysis has used to increase cooling performance of heated walls inside rectangular mico-
channel. Rostamian, H. et al. [28] has developed correlation for calculating the carbon dioxide
thermal conductivity for liquid, vapor and supercritical phases at the temperature ranging (250-
1100) K, pressure ranging (1-3000) bar and density ranging (0.3-1400) Kg.m3. Hossein Goodarzi
et al. [29] has analyzed the natural convection heat transfer phenomenon in a closed cavity using
a finite volume method. The results has shown that heat transfer in the cavity depends on
advection mechanism and fluid circulation which is based on the density difference caused by a
temperature gradient across the cavity area. Lixiao Liang et al. [30] investigated the numerically
and experimentally working fluid flow rate, inlet temperature and heat flux in Y-micro-channel.
The k-ɛ turbulence model has developed for analysis. Mohammad Fares et al. [31]
experimentally investigated the effects of graphene nanofluids on the convective heat transfer in
a vertical shell and tube heat exchanger.
The present paper is focused on the thermodynamic analysis of traveling wave
thermoacoustic engine with different wire meshes in regenerator. The cyclic analysis method is
used for the thermodynamic analysis of the engine. It is also applied to study the physical
property and characteristics of the regenerator wire mesh matrix of thermoacoustic engine. The
acoustic power has estimated for different wire mesh matrix for a different temperature gradient
of the regenerator. All related losses are calculated separately. The paper also includes the
7
investigation on the regenerator effectiveness considering the Miyabe analysis. The Miyabe
analysis which includes the optimization of regenerator length and number of wire mesh screens
used inside the regenerator to overcome the pressure drop inside the regenerator, dead volume
due to piling of screens, and geometry of regenerator. Five meshes with different wire sizes are
utilized to observe the performance of the thermoacoustic engine using numerical and
experimental analysis.

2 Theoretical Analysis of Regenerator Wire Mesh Matrix

The main purpose to use wire mesh screens inside the regenerator is to store and transfer the heat.
The function of heat storage and heat exchange mainly depends on the diameter of the wire mesh
used in the regenerator [33]. Figure 1 shows models with various diameters of wire mesh for the
conduction of heat. It was observed that heat does not penetrate to the center of the wire for mesh
with large diameter (Fig. 1(c)) within a stipulated time span. Thus, some sectional area of wire
mesh did not participate in the heat storage and the heat exchange. Whereas for wire mesh with
small diameters (Fig. 1(a)), it was observed that heat transferred to the center of the wire mesh
before the stipulated time span. It was also noticed that, increasing the number of wire mesh
screens created obstacles that lead to flow loss or pressure drop. Due to this, the heat is not stored
in the regenerator effectively even after the utilization of the total volume of wire mesh. Hence,
the diameter of the wire mesh and the number of screens need to be optimized.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1 Heat conduction in wire element at different diameters [33]

Miyabe’s Analysis for Effectiveness of Regenerator

To identify the effectiveness of regenerator Miyabe presented dimensionless numbers [32]. The
assumptions considered by Miyabe are as follows:
Constant temperature of working fluid at the inlet of regenerator matrix.
Negligible heat conduction of regenerator matrix and working fluid.
Heat transfer coefficient is constant in between the regenerator matrix and working
fluid.
8
 Flow of fluid is unidirectional throughout the system.

To obtain energy equation Miyabe considered the control volume [32]

×
= (i)
( )
$.%&
= 0.42 × ` (ii)
×' ( )
= (iii)
* +

∗ @
,-., 0 = 1, 23 4 = 56,789 ;<= Ψ ≤
A +

A + (9EA + )F @
23 4 = GH − (1 + K3 )L − K3 M1 − NOP−(1 + K3 )L}] HS (iv)
BCD(9EA + )F A +

The dimensionless parameters introduced in the form of an expression are as follows [32],
T CV W CVX ' ( ) ×[
0=U 4 ' 63 4 3 3
56∗ = C W CVX
5Z = \] ×A^
Y

BCD C W CVX
L= 5∗ = C = 5Z × 0
A Y W CVX

(_ ) ([`
6 ' ) (_ ) ([` 6 ' )
K3 = \] × Aa × (bU c )
K3 = d 4 '](* ×eV ×fg ×Aa

hi (j) = ,i × ki (j) × Kl × 5m n (v)

where,
5m n = o5pT` − 5A (j)q × o1 − 2i 4 q (For Miyabe analysis [32]) (vi)

Heat took place when the total volume of working fluid is relatively constant, to check this heat
transfer Cv is introduced in equation, (v). Out of the total volume present a small amount of
working fluid volume is in the regenerator section. Miyabe’s analysis predicts safe value as
compared to Martini’s analysis. For the thermoacoustic engine 2i 4 is nearly 0.95 to 1. To
calculate the value the condition is NTU > 50, Cr >30 [32]. As the values of NTU and Cr are
increased more than the necessary condition, it was observed that the flow losses also increased
considerably. Table 1 shows the relation between the regenerator length and the effectiveness of
regenerator. To determine the number of wire mesh screens were used in regenerator Miyabe’s
analysis on the basis of NTU, identifies the pressure drop in the regenerator as shown in Table 2.

Table 1 Regenerator effectiveness using Miyabe analysis to optimize regenerator length

(Regenerator ID = 48.8 mm, OD = 60.3 mm)

Sr. Length of Dead Volume of Regenerator effectiveness

No. regenerator, mm regenerator, cc (Miyabe analysis)
1 41 63.22 0.954
9
 2 42 68.13 0.958
3 43 72.95 0.960
4 44 77.64 0.963
5 45 80.60 0.966
6 46 85.12 0.967
7 47 88.78 0.969
8 48 91.02 0.970
9 49 96.34 0.972
10 50 97.69 0.974

Table 2 shows the performance of the regenerator when approximately ± 5% number of screens
are used in the selected lengths of the regenerator from table 1. From table 2, it is observed that
increment in the number of screens used in the regenerator increases the pressure drop which
simultaneously reduces the power output and efficiency. But with the decrement in the number of
screens used in the regenerator the pressure drop has reduced, and the dead volume increased in
the regenerator section. So the net effect is that the thermal efficiency is minimized. To improve
the thermal efficiency of the regenerator, the mass of the wire mesh matrix is increased. Hence
optimization of the number of screens in the regenerator section is important.

Table 2 Regenerator optimization with ± 5 % number of screens are filled inside regenerator
volume

Sr. Number of screens in Regenerator Length of

Fill factor
No. the regenerator pressure drop, W regenerator, mm

1 230 (100%) 63.12 0.23 45

2 218 (95%) 52.39 0.21 45

3 242 (105%) 87.41 0.28 45

3 Cyclic Analysis of Traveling Wave Thermo-acoustic-Stirling Engine

The thermo-acoustic engine basically worked on the Stirling cycle principle [1]. The thermal
analysis is a crucial step in the development of the thermo-acoustic engine. The second-order
cyclic analysis [14, 34] is used to analyze the performance of the thermo-acoustic engine. The
analysis includes the following important steps,
• to obtain volume and pressure variation for a specific time interval,

10
 • to calculate the mass of working fluid in compression and expansion space during the
interval,
• to find the total mass of working fluid and its fraction in each working region,
• to find the mass change in an interval, and get the mass flow rate for a given working
region,
• to obtain pressure and volume variation for compression and expansion regions, to find
out ideal power output.

(a)

(b) (c)
Fig. 2 (a) The schematic of adiabatic model of cyclic analysis, (b) schematic of the state and heat
transfer interactions between wire mesh and working fluid [10], (c) schematic of Stirling cycle
superimposing with thermoacoustic cycle [10].

The cyclic analysis adiabatic model and heat transfer interaction between wire mesh and working
fluid are shown in Fig. 2 (a) and (b) respectively. For this analysis, gas pistons are assumed
inside a hot heat exchanger (compression space) and cold heat exchanger (expansion space)
similar to the Stirling engine. The compression and expansion processes are considered adiabatic
and isothermal respectively. The numerical analysis is considered only for cold heat exchanger,
regenerator and hot heat exchanger. At the start of the analysis, the pressure variations were
calculated without considering any pressure loss for different components. The compression and
expansion space regions were considered ideal as heat input and heat output respectively. In the
11
calculations done further, all losses viz, regenerator ineffectiveness, and flow loss in the heater
were considered resulting in the decrease in the output of the power. The remarkable feature in
this analysis is that all the losses are not depending on each other and the cumulative loss is the
addition of all the losses. This analysis gave a clear idea of the loss that is dominant for the
output of the power.
The following assumptions are made in this analysis.
The gas obeys as an ideal gas.
The gas pressure at any given instant is the same throughout the engine.
The temperature is considered constant at a regenerator cross-section.
The mass flow and pressure variations inside the engine loop are sinusoidal.
The effect of the temperature on the other properties of the working fluid and regenerator
matrix such as thermal conductivity of matrix, heat capacity of gas etc. are also
considered.
The log mean temperature is considered for the two ends of the regenerator matrix for the
iterative procedure to determine regenerator effectiveness.
Consider leak proof system.

The thermo-acoustic engine analysis starts by assuming various operating and geometrical
parameters. The operating parameters include the working fluid mean pressure (air in the present
case), the frequency, the cold heat exchanger temperature, and hot heat exchanger temperature.
The geometric factors include the volumes of the hot heat exchanger space, the regenerator space
and the cold heater exchanger space. The regenerator details like mesh matrix, wire diameter, and
the mesh material are also provided for analysis. The clearance and the dead volume between
flanges and joints are also considered. The variation of properties of working fluid and material
of construction with temperature have taken into consideration in this analysis. The volume,
pressure and temperature variation will repeat in the subsequent thermodynamic cycles as shown
in Fig. 2 (c). The working volume is calculated using equations (1), (2) and (3) for hot heat
exchanger, cold heat exchanger, and regenerator respectively [14].
π
VCM = ( ).( DP2 ). X P (1)
4
π
VEM = ( ).(DE2 ).X D (2)
4
π
VRD = ( ).(DR2 ).LR . (3)
4
In analysis, the regenerator temperature (TR) is the log mean of the temperature at the two ends of
the regenerator calculated by equation (4) [36].

12
 (TE − TC )
TR = (4)
ln(TE / TC )
To determine the instantaneous volume for the cold heat exchanger (expansion region) VE, and
the hot heat exchanger (compression region) VC, occurring due to the sinusoidal motion of the gas
using equations (5) and (6), [14]. Here phase angle (φ) is considered as 100 between pressure and
velocity for analysis purpose.
(1 − cos φ )
VE = VEC + VEM × (5)
2
(1 − cos(φ − α ))
VC = VCC + VCM × (6)
2
The working fluid clearance volume is considered near to the pipe section or the one which is in
between the flange joints for the cold heat exchanger (expansion) space and the hot heat
exchanger (compression) space, respectively occurring because of sinusoidal movement of gas
particles.
The total mass of fluid inside the thermo-acoustic engine is calculated by considering equations
(7) and (8), [14],
M = MC + M RD + M E
(7)
M = (P .V ) / (R.T ), M = (P .V ) / (R.T ) and M = (P .V ) / (R.T ) (8)
C C C C RD RD RD RD E E E E

The total mass of the working fluid (in terms of moles, M) is not known in the beginning.
Temperatures at the cold space TC and hot space TE are assumed as a constant for the complete
cycle. The logarithmic mean temperature is considered for the regenerator.
Using perfect gas law [14],

M ×R
P(1) = (9)
{(VC /TC ) + (VRD /TR ) + (VE /TE )}

Identifying all the parameters in equation 9, initial pressure P(1) can be calculated. The cycle is
considered to be divided into a large number of intervals and the temperature inside the hot heat
exchanger after the first interval, i.e. TE(2) is calculated Knowing TE(1), P(1) and the assumed
value of P(2).
The magnitude of engine pressure p, and compression space volume VC, expansion space volume
VE, and expansion space temperature TE changes with gas piston motions. The temperature of the
compression space is assumed to be constantan due to the uninterrupted supply of heat from the
hot heat exchanger. The product (M x R) of total mass of working fluid in terms of moles M, and
universal gas constant R, are considered to be unity so equation (9) becomes,

13
 1
P= (9a)
{(VC /TC ) + (V RD /TR ) + (V E /TE )}

For adiabatic compression,

uvw
r(s) t u x
5A (2) = 5A (1) × G S (10)
r(9)

Inserting the values of TC (2), VC (2) and VE (2) in equation (9a), so only one unknown quantity,
P(2), The magnitude of the P(2) is obtained by Newton-Raphson method. Similarly, the
magnitude of P(2) is used to calculate the value of P(3), and the pressures for the remaining 12
intervals.

Mean pressure, Pm, would therefore, be calculated using equation (11), [36],
Pm = PTOTAL /12 (11)
I =12
where, PTOTAL = ∑ P(I)
I =1
(12)

Pavg, the average pressure of the working fluid of the system is known. The ratio of the average
pressure to mean pressure gives the magnitude of (M × R). At the start of the analysis, (M × R) is
considered equal to one. So, with the new magnitude of (M × R), all the previously calculated
values of working fluid pressure for every interval, are now revised by multiplying the pressure
corresponding to a given interval by MR.
The ideal acoustic power of the thermo-acoustic engine is calculated by equation (13) [36],
I = 12
IPOW(I) = ∫ P(I) × dV T (I) (13)
I =1

where, P(I) is average pressure considered in 30 interval of the cycles, and

VT (I ) = VC (I ) + VRD + VE (I ) (14)

In equation (13), the ideal power IPOW is calculated by integrating the product of total pressure
and change in total volume at each interval.
The mass fraction of total mass of the gas in expansion side (FE), compression side (FC) and
regenerator space (FR) is calculated for each interval using equation (16).

,p (j) = y(j)zp (j)/ (n 5p )

,A (j) = y(j)zA (j)/ (n 5A ) (16)
,i (j) = y(j)zi (j)/ (n 5i )

The molecular weight of working fluid along with the phase angle φ is used to compute the mass
flow rate in each interval. The product of the molecular weight of working fluid and phase angle
and the difference between mass fraction at a particular iteration and its successive iteration is

14
required for conversion of working fluid mass fraction contained in working space in terms of
flow rate.
Mass flow rates in cold heat exchanger region ( W ES ) and hot heat exchanger region ( W CS ) are

calculated using equations (17) and (18) [14].

N
W ES ( I ) = [ FE ( I + 1) − FE ( I )] × M × M w × (17)
(φ / 360 )
N
WCS ( I ) = [ FC ( I + 1) − FC ( I )] × M × M w × (18)
(φ / 360 )

3.1 Loss Analysis in Traveling Thermo-acoustic Engine

The output power of the engine decreases considerably due to the different losses. The major
assumption is that each loss is independent of the other losses, therefore the total loss is the
addition of all losses. The net power produced is calculated by ideal heat input and the losses.

3.1.1 Loss due to Pressure Drop in the Regenerator

The pressure drop in the regenerator is considered this affects the performance of the thermo-
acoustic engine in terms of acoustic power produced. This ultimately depends on the choice of
the matrix material, the mesh size of the matrix, diameter and length of the regenerator. The
present analysis considers the correlation given by Chan and Griffin [35] in equation (19).
f = 49.78/Re +0.318 (3 < Re < 2000) (19)

3.1.2 Regenerator Ineffectiveness Loss

In an ideal regenerator, the air gets heated from TE (I) to TC (I). In actual condition, due to
regenerator ineffectiveness air gets heated from TE (I) up to (TC (I) -∆Tloss). Martini [36] has
given the expression for the calculation of regenerator ineffectiveness loss in equation (20).
QR (I)= FR × WRS (I)× CV × AR (20)

2
AR = (TC ( I ) − TE1 ) × ( ) (21)
NTU1 + 2
The rationale for using CV, in the equation (20), is that at constant total volume heat transfer of
working fluid took place.

V RD ⋅ CV ⋅ (Pmax − Pmin ) 2
Q R (I) = FR × {W RS (I) ⋅ C P ⋅ (T E (I) − TC ) − ( )} × [ ] (21a)
M.R. ⋅ (FR /N) NTU1 + 2

The above equation (21a) used to calculate the pressure change during the flow through the
regenerator. The values of Cp and Cv of working fluid used to identify the ineffectiveness of the
regenerator.

15
3.1.3 Regenerator Wire Mesh Matrix Conduction Loss
An arrangement of compactly packed layers of fine screens are used as a regenerator in the
thermoacoustic engine. The contact between adjacent wires signify controlling resistance and
hence the degree of packing for the stack influences the thermal conductivity.
The thermal conductivity of the regenerator screen stack, | T is consider by Martini [36] in
equation (22)
(1 + K m / K g )
− FF
(1 − K m / K g )
K mx = KG (22)
(1 + K m / K g )
+ FF
(1 − K m / K g )

where, FF = Fill factor = (1- Porosity), for the regenerator wire mesh.
Considering the cross sectional area of the regenerator matrix, loss is calculated by equation (23),
∆T
Qcmx = K mx * AR * (23)
LR
3.1.4 Pressure Drop in Hot and Cold Heat Exchangers
The series of small wire mesh is placed in the hot heat exchanger region for uniform distribution
of heat. The cold heat exchanger has 40 small tubes through which the air oscillates. The outer
surfaces of the tubes are exposed to cold water, which acts as the cooling medium. Pressure drop
through the hot heat exchanger and cold heat exchanger are determined [36]. The friction factor
is determined using Fanning friction factor.
9&
For ≤ 2000 }=
i(
(24)
For > 2000 log } = −1.34 − 0.20 log( )

The Reynolds number in the regenerator section is low i.e. up to 50, and in hot heat exchanger
and cold heat exchanger this number is high i.e. up to 7500.

3.1.5 Loss due to Temperature Swing

Temperature swing loss introduced in the engine due to a change in temperature of wire mesh
matrix of regenerator during the working cycle. This is the heat absorbed by the wire mesh due to
its finite heat carrying capacity. The fall in the temperature of the regenerator wire mesh matrix is
due to the single flow of working fluid in the expansion region [36]. The complete cyclic analysis
has shown in Fig. 3.
W RS × CV × (TE − TC )
D RMT = (25)
N × M mx × C m
So temperature swing loss is,

QTS = (Cycle Time) × WRS × CV × DRMT / 2 (26)

16
 Input Machine Data and Geometric Parameters

Calculate live and dead volumes

Choose suitable Interval and Calculate values of

VC(1)….VC(13) : VE(1)…VE(13)

Assume TE(1) and Use Dead Space temperature to

Obtain Value of P(1), Assume Adiabatic
Compression find P(2)….P(13)

No if ABS values of P(1)-

TE(1)=TE(13) P(13) & |TE(1)-TE(13)|
with in tolerance = 0.0001

Yes

Find Pm and MR = (Pavg/Pm) Multiply

P(1)....PI(13) by MR to find out Actual
Pressures

17
 Calculate Mass Flow Rates for Various
Intervals over the Cycle

Calculate Actual (Ideal) Power output

Calculate Losses
Pact = Pideal - Losses

STOP

Fig. 3 Flow chart of cyclic analysis applied to thermo-acoustic engine

4 Experimental Setup
The schematic of the traveling wave thermo-acoustic engine is shown in Fig. 4. The main cold
heat exchanger, regenerator, hot heat exchanger, and the thermal buffer tubes are made with
SS347 for more reliable design and low maintenance costs. The length of an acoustic loop is
about 4.13 m which determines the acoustic frequency nearly up to 78 Hz. The audio
loudspeaker 50 W, 8-inch subwoofer (mfg. Paras Electronics Ltd) is used as a linear alternator,
which is installed inside the MS cylinder. The load resistance is fixed at 22.4 Ω to extract the
electric power from the alternator.

Fig. 4 Schematic of traveling wave thermo-acoustic system

The regenerator cross-sectional area is increased than the remaining parts of the thermo-acoustic
engine to take care of acoustic impedance [10]. Also, regenerator length is adjusted using
different can(s) (shown in Fig. 5(c)) considering from the experiment point of view which will
18
reduce the dismantling and assembly time of engine setup considerably [17]. Stainless steel 304,
wire mesh of different sizes, viz. mesh size 30, 40, 60, 70 and 80 strands/inch were tested during
experimentation shown in Fig. 5(b).

Fig. 5 Regenerator parts, a) Regenerator body b) Wire mesh screens c) Top and front view of
regenerator can

Table 3 Instrumentation specifications of thermo-acoustic engine

Sr.
No. Name of the Instruments Specification

K-type thermocouples to Range : 0-1200 °C

1 measure Least count: 1 °C

Accuracy: within 1.0 % of full scale value, overload

2 Wattmeter capacity: 120%, rated voltage: 600V, current 10 A
Operating Principle: Electrodynamometer type
resolution 0.001 V, accuracy: ± 1%
Voltmeter
3 Operating Principle: Permanent moving coil
resolution 0.01 A, accuracy: ± 1%
Ammeter meter current: 1mA at full scale
4
Operating Principle: Permanent moving coil

50 W, 8-inch subwoofer Frequency 55Hz, electrical

inductance 0.68 mH, electrical resistance 5.5 Ω, moving
Linear alternator
5 coil 21.3 g, stiffness of coil 4345 kg/s, resistance of coil
6.8 Ω, diaphragm displacement ± 5.6 mm, effective area
of diaphragm 187 mm

5 Result and Discussion

19
The results were obtained for the following working conditions: (i) the air is used as a working
fluid inside the thermo-acoustic engine at atmospheric pressure, length of stub is 200 mm, and
the load resistance is 22.4 Ω. (ii) the actual number of wire mesh screens in the regenerator
section is determined from thermal penetration depth of oscillating working fluid, pressure drop
and dead volume inside the regenerator due to pilling of screens.

5.1 Geometric optimization of Regenerator using Miyabe analysis

When the regenerator is too long, it affects the dissipation of acoustic wave which increases the
pressure drop [23, 37]. Ultimately, reduces the acoustic power output and efficiency. Again the
decrement in the number of screens used in the regenerator reduces the pressure drop, but
increased dead volume [23, 37]. For a certain amount of value, the relation between the numbers
of screens and the power generation is linear. From Fig 6, it shows that, up to 250 screens the
power generation is increased but for 275 and 300 screens the power produced decreases because
of the pressure drop. At this instant the obstacle is created due to the increased number of screens
to the passage of wave.

Number of Wire Mesh Screens vs Acoustic Power

55

50
Acoustic Power, W

45

40

35

30
50 100 150 200 250 300
Number of Wire Mesh Screens

Fig. 6 Effect on the acoustic power due to increment in the number of wire mesh screens

Fig. 7 shows the effect of regenerator length variation on the generation of acoustic power. As
the length of the regenerator increases the dead volume is added in regenerator [23, 37]. This will
affect the net power output of the engine. In addition to this ensure that the ratio of ΔT/Lreg is
sufficient for the length of the regenerator matrix to achieve high temperature gradient on the
basis of single mesh screen mass [23, 37]. Considering table 3.1 and keeping the focus on power

20
output and net thermal efficiency, regenerator length is fixed as 45 mm for an optimized set of
dimensions of the engine.

Length of Regenerator vs Acoustic Power Generated

80

70
Acoustic Power, W

60

50

40

40 42 44 46 48 50
Length of Regenerator, mm

Fig. 7 Effect of increment in regenerator length on generation of acoustic power

5.2 Temperature difference in Regenerator

From study it is observed that at the cost of flow losses the regenerator effectiveness is
improved. The length of the regenerator is fixed to 45 mm for this length regenerator
effectiveness is 0.966. The five different stainless steel (SS304) wire meshes were tested, viz.
wire mesh 30, 40, 60, 70 and 80 strands/inch, inside the regenerator can(s) to analyze the
performance of the thermoacoustic engine. The difference in the results of the regenerator
temperature and acoustic power produced is plotted. The acoustic oscillations start at the
threshold value of the temperature difference of the regenerator, for different temperature ranges
the working fluid oscillations start [38] has shown in Fig. 8. For mesh size 30 strands/inch, the
oscillations start at nearly 206 0C. Using fine meshing inside the regenerator, delayed the ignition
of working fluid oscillation due to a large pressure drop [23, 33]. As a result, for fine mesh 80
strands/inch, the oscillations start at a temperature of about 282 0C.

21
 Regenerator Mesh Size vs Oscillating Temperature Range

Regenerator oscillating
temperature range, 0C
440

400

360

320

280

240

200
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Regenerator Mesh Size, strands/inch

Fig. 8 Minimum and maximum temperature of regenerator of different wire mesh size for ignite
the acoustic oscillations

5.3 Acoustic Power

The linear relation is observed within the computed and experimental results of the acoustic
power generated with the temperature difference along the regenerator [38] as shown in Fig. 9
and 10. Fig. 10 and result Table 4 shows that the experimental acoustic power (max.) generated
for mesh size 60 strands/inch is 44.9 W, with thermal to acoustic efficiency 8.30 % than the other
four-wire mesh.

60 SS Mesh size 30 SS Mesh size 40

SS Mesh size 60 SS Mesh size 70
50 SS Mesh size 80
Acoustic Power, w

40

30

20

10

0
190 240 290 340 390 440
Regenerator Temperature Diffrence 0C

Fig. 9 Computed acoustic power generated for different wire mesh sizes

22
 45 SS Mesh size 30 SS Mesh size 40
40 SS Mesh size 60 SS Mesh size 70
35 SS Mesh size 80
Acoustic Power, w
30
25
20
15
10
5
190 240 290 340 390 440
Regenerator Temperature Diffrence 0C

Fig. 10 Experimental acoustic power generated for different wire mesh sizes

Table 4 Result table for different mesh size and acoustic power produced
Experimental Thermal to
Numerical
Wire acoustic power acoustic
Sr. Mesh size simulation
diameter produced by efficiency
No. (strands/inch) acoustic power
(mm) alternator (max.),
(max.), (W)
(max.), (W) (%)
1 30 0.330 38.9 29.6 5.47
2 40 0.254 47.8 34.3 6.34
3 60 0.191 50.1 44.9 8.30
4 70 0.165 46.7 41.8 7.73
5 80 0.140 43.4 36.2 6.69

From mesh 30 to 40 strands/inch acoustic power increases from 38.8 W to 47.8 W. But as the
mesh size increases from 60 to 70 strands/inch the power produced decreases dramatically. At
mesh size 70 strands/inch due to fine mesh, the pressure drop dominates the power produced.
Similarly, with mesh size 80 strands/inch due to pressure drop acoustic power produced
decreases drastically because at atmospheric pressure losses are more dominating [38]. So
optimized wire mesh for this working condition is mesh size 60 strands/inch.

5.4 Acoustic Efficiency

Fig. 11 shows the regenerator temperature difference vs thermal to acoustic efficiency for
different wire meshes. From the graph, the wire mesh 60 strands/inch has the highest efficiency
of around 8.30 %. But for the wire meshes 70 and 80 strands/inch viscous losses and pressure

23
drop dominates the efficiency as they do not perform. Fine meshing decreases the performance of
the thermoacoustic engine as more heat gets rejected in the direction of gas flow by heat
conductance [32, 33]. This decreases the generated power drastically.

9.5 Mesh Size 30 Mesh Size 40

Mesh Size 60 Mesh Size 70

Mesh Size 80
6.5
η, %

3.5

0.5
190 240 290 340 390 440
Regenerator Temperature Diffrence 0C

Fig. 11 Efficiency of different wire mesh vs regenerator temperature difference

Fig. 12 shows the relation between the maximum external heater temperature and wire mesh size
with a maximum overall efficiency of the thermo-acoustic engine. The efficiency goes on
increasing from wire mesh 30 to 60 strands/inch and then it drastically falls down for wire mesh
size 70 and 80 strands/inch due to fine meshing. Also, due to the increase in the pressure drop
across the regenerator the heat required from the external heater too increases. Fig. 12 clearly
shows that the engine achieves the highest efficiency of around 8.30 % with wire mesh size 60
strands/inch at maximum external heater temperature at 402 0C.

425

Heater T emp., degree C.400

9
375
8

350 7
6
Efficiency o f en gin e, %
32 40 48 56 64 72 5
80

Wir e m esh size, strands / inch

24
Fig. 12 Maximum efficiency of different wire mesh size at maximum external heater temperature

Conclusion
A small-capacity traveling wave thermo-acoustic engine is modeled, designed, constructed and
tested using air as working fluid at 1 atmosphere. The thermal analysis of the engine is carried
out to observe the effect of the wire mesh size on the performance of the thermo-acoustic engine.
This is done by considering the cyclic analysis and the results which are then compared
experimentally. The five different wire meshes are numerically analyzed using cyclic analysis
and then tested experimentally. The regenerator can(s) are used to avoid time delay for assembly
and experimental testing. The selection of wire mesh number and total screens are used inside the
regenerator mainly depend upon pressure drop, dead volume and the thermal penetration depth.
The wire mesh 30, 40, 60, 70 and 80 strands/inch are used in the regenerator out of which for
wire mesh size 60 strands/inch the engine output is observed to increase as compared to other
wire mesh. To generate the electrical energy from the acoustic wave, a commercially available
low-cost loudspeaker is used as a linear alternator. At the start of experimental testing for wire
mesh 30 and 40 strands/inch the acoustic power produced is 29.6 W and 34.3 W respectively,
which shows the increasing trend. But for the wire mesh 70 and 80 strands/inch due to the fine
meshing pressure drop dominated the acoustic power produced and acoustic power decreased
from 41.8 W and 36.2 W respectively. The thermo-acoustic engine generates a maximum of 44.9
W acoustic power with acoustic to electric conversion efficiency 8.3 % for wire mesh 60
strands/inch.

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29
Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Gaikwad Mahesh Krishna