University of Alexandria Dept.

of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering

Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

CHAPTER 4 OFFSHORE STRUCTURES

The use of offshore structures for the exploration and production of offshore
petroleum reserves has been conducted in most continental shelf areas of the world.
As new technologies arose, a move towards deeper waters followed. There are
different types of offshore structures in use today. These are classified here
according to whether they are fixed with respect to the sea bed, compliant (with a
degree of mobility providing a means to alleviate destructive loads), or floating.

4.1 Fixed (Bottom Founded) Structures

These are structures that are fixed to the sea bed and hence do not experience rigid
body motions. They are optimal for drilling and production. For such structures, the
weight is much larger than the buoyancy (W>>B).

4.1.1 Self-Elevating Jack-Up Structure

The self-elevating jack-up platform (Figure 20) is one of the earliest types of
platforms. It is mainly used for exploratory drilling operations to drill wells for
permanent platforms but a number have been constructed as accommodation
support vessels to provide assistance to fixed installations during construction,
modification or repair. The majority of jack-ups are used for exploration (wildcat
drilling) purposes and work-over. It consists of a triangular shaped (sometimes
rectangular), box-section barge fitted with three (sometimes four) moveable elevator
legs which enable the vessel to stand on the sea bed in water depths of up to
approximately 140 meters. The drilling derrick is fitted to rails so that it can be
cantilevered into a position which provides direct access to the wellhead area.

Figure 20 Typical jack-up platform

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

In Figure 20, the following are shown: a- spud cans, b- elevating racks, c- legs, d-
gear units, e- drilling derrick and equipment, f- accommodation, g- helicopter pad, h-
cranes, i- nearby jacket platform.
Such platforms are typically towed like a barge to the drilling site (over short
distances) with the legs elevated vertically above the barge deck. At the site, the legs
are jacked down through the water column and into the sea floor, while using
thruster units to position the platform. Before jacking, favourable weather conditions
of sufficient duration, i.e. suitable weather window must be ensured. As the legs
engage the sea floor, the drilling deck is raised out of the water and into the air. The
base of each leg is fitted with a spud can which consists of a plate or dish designed
to spread the load and prevent overpenetration of the leg into the sea bed. High
pressure jets of water or compressed air may be used to remove loose debris in the
vicinity of the spud cans while the legs are manoeuvred into position, this process
being referred to as spudding in. The legs are raised and lowered by means of a
rack and pinion arrangement, the racks being attached to the chords of each leg,
running from top to bottom while the pinions are driven by electric motors via
reduction gearboxes, typically 12 motors for each leg. The hull of the jack-up must
be raised and lowered on an even keel. Deck space provides room for drilling
equipment, supplies and crew accommodation. Helicopters and supply boats ferry
workers and equipment to the platform. The drilling deck must be well above the
height of the highest expected waves. After the drilling is complete, the procedure is
reversed and the drilling deck is lowered to the water and the legs are jacked up
above the drill deck. A tugboat is then used to move the platform to another location.
To undertake long sea passages, the jack-up is transported on the deck of a
submersible heavy lift ship. This is both quicker and safer.

Advantages of jack-up platforms:

1-When elevated, the jack-up is a stable platform since it does not experience any
rigid body motions in the elevated position.
2- Economical due to low initial cost and operating costs.
3- High mobility.
4- Large deck area.
5- Good safety record.

Disadvantages of jack-up platforms:

1- Limited to shallow waters (140 meters).
2- Before transporting, raising and lowering; suitable weather conditions must be
ensured. Therefore, jack-ups are dependent on weather window.
3- Problems have occurred due to insufficient leg penetration resulting from seafloor
scour caused by high intensity sub-sea currents.
4- If uncontrolled blow-out occurs during drilling, the platform may plunge to the
seafloor as the soil loosens (fluidization), resulting in total platform loss.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

4.1.2 Fixed Steel (Jacket) Structure

A fixed jacket structure (Figure 21) consists of a steel framed tubular structure that is
attached to the sea bottom by piles. These piles are driven into the sea floor through
pile guides (sleeves) on the outer members of the jacket.

Figure 21 Four-legged steel jacket platform

The topside structure consists of drilling equipment, production equipment, crew

quarters, gas flare stacks, revolving pedestal cranes, and a helicopter pad. The
helicopter pad and crew quarters must be situated as far from the hydrocarbon
processing facilities as possible. Drilling and production pipes are brought up to
topside through conductor guides within the jacket framing, and the crude oil and gas
travel from the reservoir through the production conductor to topside for processing.
The produced oil and gas are transported to shore through subsea export pipelines.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

The detailed design of the frame varies widely and depends on the requirements of
strength, fatigue, and launch procedure. The maximum water depth is 500m.
The platform phases include: design, construction, load-out, launch, installation,
piling, and hook-up before it begins producing. The design life of the structure is
typically 10-25 years. This is followed by the requirement to remove and dispose of
the platform once the reservoir(s) is (are) depleted. Since these structures are made
of steel, the effects of corrosion must be considered due to exposure to the ocean
environment. Sacrificial anodes are installed to protect the structure against
corrosion.
Fixed jacket structures represent the vast majority of offshore production platforms.
They vary considerably in size due to location, water depth, weather conditions and
whether they are intended for gas or oil production.

Advantages of fixed jacket platform:

1- Supports large deck loads.

2- May be constructed in sections and transported.
3- Large field, long term production (supports a large number of wells).
4- Piles result in good stability.
5- Little effect from seafloor scour.

Disadvantages of fixed jacket platform:

1- Costs increase exponentially with depth.

2- High initial and maintenance costs.
3- Not re-usable.
4- Steel structural members subject to corrosion.

Installation of Jacket Structure

Offshore structures are constructed on land. Jacket structures are generally built on
their sides.
The first installation operation involves that of the sub-sea template on the sea bed.
The template is piled into the sea bed in a location considered to be the most
favourable for reaching the hydrocarbon reservoirs. The main objective of the
template is to provide a guide frame through which wells can be drilled before the
arrival of the jacket. In addition to well guides, guides are provided in the template to
assist in the accurate positioning of the jacket over the template. For small platforms
situated in shallow waters sub-sea templates are not necessary. An acoustic
transponder system is used to position the jacket over the template, see Figure 22.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Figure 22 Acoustic transponder system for installing jacket structure over template
among existing subsea pipelines

Steel jackets are completely built onshore before being transported to site by dumb
barge. The smaller jackets may be lifted in place by a floating crane while the larger
jackets may employ flotation devices to assist in their installation once launched from
the barge. The flotation devices are sequentially flooded to enable the jacket to sink
slowly into place. Figure 23 shows common methods of jacket installation,
depending on water depth. In shallow water, a single lift floating crane may be used.
In water of moderate depth, a dual lift floating crane may be used. In deep water, a
flotation device is used.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Figure 23

Once located on the sea bed, jackets are normally secured by foundation piles.
Jacket size dictates the method of pile installation as can be seen from Figure 24.
On smaller jackets, tubular piles are driven through the legs to a predetermined
depth of 30-50 meters. The annulus space formed by the jacket leg and pile is
grouted (cemented) to ensure an extremely rigid structure. This arrangement has
been used to secure jackets in water depths up to 100 meters. For large sized
jackets, piling through the legs becomes impractical so a pile cluster is fitted to the
base of each leg. The piles can then be driven through the cluster guides to the
required depth of 60-90 meters before being grouted into position.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Figure 24

Topsides are constructed in liftable packages that are installed and welded one at a
time, see Figure 25. Heavy lift cranes mounted on semi-submersible barges are
used. Different modules may be fabricated in different yards, in different countries.

Figure 25

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

4.1.3 Concrete Gravity Base Structure (GBS)

It has a base manufactured from reinforced concrete. The first concrete structure
was installed in the North Sea by the Norwegians in 1973. The void spaces in the
design of a GBS provide valuable storage space for crude oil prior to discharge into
oil tankers via a single buoy mooring (SBM). The columns are used for drilling and oil
production conductors.
Figure 26 shows a typical GBS. The construction of a concrete installation base
normally starts in a drydock. The design of the base includes caissons (void spaces)
suitably dimensioned to provide the structure with a natural buoyancy to enable it to
be floated clear of the drydock for finishing off before towing to its final destination.
Once on location the void spaces are flooded to position the base on the sea bed.
The topside modules are then lifted into place. The void spaces may be pumped dry
and used as storage compartments for crude oil or filled with sand or iron ore ballast.
There is no need to install foundation piles because of the very big weight.

Figure 26 Gravity base concrete platform (Condeep)

Advantages of concrete gravity base platforms:

1- Ability to store crude oil.
2- Construction and testing may be completed before floating the structure and
towing it to an offshore location.
3- More tolerant to overloading and degradation due to exposure to sea water than
steel structures.
4- Ability to withstand impact from icebergs.
5- Lower maintenance.
6- Higher deck payload.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

7- Possible re-use.

Disadvantages of concrete gravity base platforms:

1- Greater cost than for similar steel structure.
2- More steel is sometimes required for reinforcing the concrete than required for an
equivalent steel jacketed structure.
3- Foundation settlement is expected over the life of the structure, reducing the
clearance between the mean water level and the underside of the deck structure.
4- Subject to seafloor scour.

A suitable air gap (1.2m minimum) between wave crests and the underside of the
deck structure must be maintained. The following must be considered:
1- Add a tolerance of 1m to the theoretical water depth (depth from sea bed to lowest
astronomical tide). Further add the highest astronomical tide (HAT, 0-3m) and a
storm surge (maximum of 0.6m).
2- A 100-year wave is considered, with wave crests steeper than troughs. A further
0.5-3m is added as waves become steeper when they pass over the caisson.
3- Another wave height increase of up to 0.5m due Venturi effect causing an
increase in local wind velocity and hence a decrease in dynamic pressure.
4- Settling of foundation after installation and further with time must be taken into
account.

Note:
Tide is the periodic rising and falling of the water resulting from the gravitational
attraction of the moon and sun and other astronomical bodies acting upon the
rotating earth. It is described by:
Mean low water (MLW): the mean water level (low tide) in a specific time period.
Highest astronomical tide (HAT): in a certain location water rises from its lowest point
until it reaches the highest tide possible.
Lowest astronomical tide (LAT): in a certain location water falls from its highest point
until it reaches the lowest tide possible.
Tidal period: interval of time between two consecutive like phases (low or high) of the
tide.

4.2 Compliant Structures

Compliant structures move with the applied environmental forces from wind, current
and waves. These structures are much lighter and cost considerably less. The
following compliant structures will be discussed: articulated loading platform (ALP) or
tower (ALT), guyed tower, tension leg platform (TLP), and spar platform.

4.2.1 Articulated (Loading) Tower

It is used mainly for the development of small reservoirs in water depths of up to

about 200m. The weight slightly exceeds the buoyancy (W≈B) to keep the universal
joint on the sea bed, see Figure 27. Crude oil is moved up the articulated tower and
transferred to the tethered tanker for processing and storage.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Figure 27 Example articulated loading tower

Advantages of ALT:

1- Low cost.
2- Large restoring moments due to high center of buoyancy.
3- Risers are protected by tower.

Disadvantages of ALT:

1-Shallow water only – greater oscillations as depth increases.

2- Cannot operate in bad weather.
3- Limited to small fields.
4- Fatigue of universal joint.

4.2.2 Guyed Tower

The guyed tower is shown in Figure 28. It is a slender truss-like structure supported
on the sea floor (W>B) by a spud-can or pile foundation and held upright by multiple
wire or chain guy lines which are held in place by clump weights and anchor lines.
Water depth varies from 200 to 600m.
The guy lines connect to anchor piles and are equipped with heavy clump weights
between the anchor and tower. The guy wires restrain the platform motion during
typical operating weather conditions without lifting the clump weights off the bottom.
During more extreme weather conditions, the guy wires lift the clump weights off the
bottom, and the clump weights create a larger restoring force to resist the larger
wave forces. The cost of this type of structure is considerably less than a fixed steel
jacket structure.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Figure 28 Example guyed tower platform

Advantages of guyed tower:

1- Low cost.
2- Good stability – guy lines and clump weights give added restoring force.
3- Possible re-use.

Disadvantages of guyed tower:

1- High maintenance cost.

2-Small fields only.
3- Cost increases exponentially with depth.
4- Difficult mooring.

4.2.3 Tension Leg Platform (TLP)

The concept was devised by Conoco Oil Company for the development of deep
water oil and gas fields. The first such platform was built by Conoco in 1984 and
used to develop the Hutton field in the North Sea. It was located in 148 meters of
water. The TLP fulfils a role midway between fixed offshore platforms and floating
production systems.
The TLP consists of a floating production facility tethered to the sea bed by a number
of tensioned legs, see Figure 29. The legs are typically constructed from large
diameter (250mm to 750mm) steel pipes or wire ropes (125mm) maintained in
tension by the excess buoyancy of the platform. One end of the leg is secured in a
foundation template piled into the sea bed while the other end is connected to a
tensioning winch within the floating superstructure. As long as the legs remain in
tension the platform can resist vertical wave induced motion. Note: W<B.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Figure 29 Example tension leg platform (TLP)

The restriction on vertical movement permits the use of fixed installation type
wellhead equipment and rigid steel conductors or risers, leading to smaller
installation costs and better maintenance availability compared to floating production
systems.
The record water depth for TLPs is 2300m. The mini-TLP is a new development with
smaller weight and a record water depth of 1100m approximately.

Advantages of TLP:

1- Mobile and re-usable.

2- Stable – minimal vertical motion.
3- Low cost increase with depth increase.
4- Deep water capability.
5- Low maintenance cost.

Disadvantages of TLP:

1- High initial cost.

2- High subsea cost.
3- Fatigue of tension legs.
4- Difficult maintenance of subsea systems.
5- Little or no storage.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

4.2.4 Spar Platform

It is a new compliant structure being designed and developed for deep water
offshore installations with a spar-like configuration (having a surface piercing
column), see Figure 30. Its response characteristics make it very suitable for deep
water (>1000m) oil production.

Figure 30 Spar platform

It has a large storage capacity and is similar to a semi-submersible. It has evolved

considerably in recent years.

4.3 Floating Structures

We must differentiate between drilling and production structures. Drillships and

semisubmersibles are the two main types of drilling structures. Floating production
systems may be conventional ship shaped monohull vessels or semisubmersibles.

4.3.1 Drillship

Towards the ends of the 1990s, interest in deep water exploration was encouraged
due to the belief that substantial oil reserves exist in deep water. A drillship may be
used to drill wells of 2500m or more. The record is currently 3000m (10000ft). It has
a ship shape hull adapted to accommodate drilling equipment as was shown in

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Figure 11. The drilling derrick is usually positioned amidships and a moonpool
opening is located below the derrick for the drilling operation. Drillships have their
own propulsion and move under their own power. A dynamic positioning (DP)
system is used to keep the drillship over the drilling location.
Some such ships have heavy lift equipment for direct lifts to be used for setting
subsea templates. Such vessels have a high block coefficient. They have bilge keels
and roll stabilization systems since good rolling characteristics are required. They
are provided with a dynamic positioning (DP) system, they usually have twin screws
and forward and aft thrusters.
They have a large deckload capacity and a large deck area, since large quantities of
riser, casing and drill pipe are required. They are designed to remain at sea for long
periods of time. New drillship designs have oil storage capability and are mostly
double hulled.

Advantages of drillships:

1- Mobile with high speed transit (up to 16 Knts).

2- Deck load greater than semisubmersibles.
3- Reduced transoceanic transit times ( able to pass through Suez and Panama
Canals).
4- Low initial and operating cost.
5- Low mobilization (making ready) cost.
6- Superior seaworthiness and survival capability.

Disadvantages of drillships:

1- Poor stability in rough seas.

2- Minimum deck area.
3- Low freeboard.
4- Difficult to handle mooring systems and land BOP stack and riser in rough seas.

4.3.2 Semisubmersible (semi-sub)

It is essentially an enormous box section barge supported on column-stabilized twin

hulls (pontoons). It is usually towed not self-propelled. It is moored to the sea floor
using a catenary mooring system. Connection to the oil reservoir is through rigid
tensioned risers or through flexible risers, see Figure 31.
The semi-sub (Figure 32) represents the ideal choice of vessel for operations where
accurate station keeping and exceptional stability are required. Depths of
approximately 2000m have now been reached. The vessel may perform one of the
following roles, depending on the fitted equipment:
a) Heavy lift: for installation of offshore platforms. Rapid acting ballast systems
counteract weight transfers that occur when structures are lifted and manoeuvred
into position.
b) Accomodation: to provide extra accommodation and storage space when used for
modification or repair projects. Semi-sub may remain in close attendance to a fixed
structure for months.
c) Drilling exploration: it is the first choice vessel for this role due to good stability
characteristics and large deck space.
d) Pipelaying.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

e) Floating production system.

Semi-subs have three characteristic drafts:
• Transport draft: when towed water level is at pontoon.
• Operating draft: when drilling it is semisubmerged with water level through
surface-piercing columns.
• Survival draft (between above two drafts): in extreme wave conditions (small
draft compared to operating draft). Pontoons are closer to water surface than
operating draft condition.

Figure 31

Advantages of semisubmersible:

1- Mobile with high transit speed (10 Knts).

2- Stable – minimal response to wave action.
3- Large deck area.

Disadvantages of semisubmersible:

1- High initial and operating costs.

2- Limited deck load (low reserve buoyancy).
3- Structural fatigue.
4- Expensive to move large distances.
5- Limited dry-docking facilities available.
6- Difficult to handle mooring systems and land BOP stack and riser in rough seas.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Figure 32

In Figure 32, the following are shown: a- pontoon, b- column, c- bracing, d- mooring
lines, e- anchor rack, f- deck, g- moonpool, h- crew quarters, i- helicopter pad,
j- drill pipe racks.

4.3.3 Floating Production Systems FPS

It is a floating oil rig. It contains all equipment associated with a fixed installation and
is used in conjunction with subsea wellheads to exploit moderate to deep water oil
fields.
They are selected for field development for one of three reasons:
a) Field is small (marginal).
b) Field is isolated and there is no pipeline.
c) Field is located in very deep water. World record depth is currently 2600m.

When oil production becomes unprofitable, they simply lift anchors and move to new
locations. The following configurations are most frequently used:

1- FSO or FSU: Floating Storage and Offloading system or Unit. It stores and
offloads hydrocarbons to shuttle tankers for transportation to a refinery. It has no
hydrocarbon processing facilities, but receives processed oil from a fixed platform or
a semi-sub FPS.
2- FPS: Floating Production System. Processes and offloads hydrocarbons without
storage capacity. It is usually connected to a subsea pipeline.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

3- FPSO: Floating Production, Storage and Offloading system. Processes, stores

and offloads hydrocarbons. Not connected to subsea pipeline. Offloads into shuttle
tankers. Figure 33 shows the Schiehallion FPSO.
4- FPDSO: these are FPSOs fitted with drilling derricks.
5- PSV: Production Storage Vessel. For small fields located in moderate water
depths. An FPS and shuttle tanker in one.

Figure 33 The FPSO Schiehallion

Principal Features of FPSOs

Monohull new or converted tankers are presently in service. Main propulsion system
may be omitted with reliance on electrically powered thruster units to assist in station
keeping. FPSOs may remain on station for a period of 10-20 years without
drydocking. Process equipment is pre-assembled into skids mounted on pillars 3
meters above main deck of vessel. The air gap provides protection against green
seas, large waves breaking on deck and to isolate hazardous areas.
It is typically moored using a turret mooring system, which consists of a number of
mooring legs attached to a turret that is designed to act as part of the vessel. The
turret is a large diameter (16-32 meters) vertical cylinder mounted on heavy duty
roller bearings. The turret may be mounted internally within the vessel or externally
from the vessel bow or stern. Mooring wires and flexible risers are attached to the
turret preventing it from rotating. The vessel is free to weathervane (rotate through
an angle of 270°) around the turret under the influence of wind, waves and currents.
The extent of rotation is controlled by the vessel’s azimuth thruster units.
A spread mooring arrangement (8 to 14 lines) connects the turret to the seabed. A
spread mooring system consists of multiple catenary lines anchored to piles or drag
anchors at the seabed. The line is a combination of wires and chains with buoys or
sinkers (clump weights) along the line.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

4.4 Description of Typical Offshore Platform

Figure 21 shows a typical fixed offshore platform. The main component parts are:
1- Accomodation.
2- Wellhead area: containing the Christmas trees.
3- Process area: contains pressure vessels and equipment for production.
4- Power generation: alternators are provided, driven by diesel engines or gas
turbines.
5- Heli-deck: to transport personnel and for evacuation in emergencies.
6- Lifeboats: for abandonment.
7- Radio mast: for communication components such as satellite and telemetry
dishes.
8- Vent stack: for gas producing installations. Process gas may be expelled to
depressurize.
9- Flare stack: for oil producing installations. Unwanted gas may be burned.
10- Drilling derrick: to drill new wells, drill wells for EOR, and to modify and repair
existing wells.
11- Pedestal crane: to load and unload stores from supply boats and to assist in
maintenance operations.
12- Cellar deck: lowermost deck.
13- Spider deck: walkway above high water line for inspection and maintenance.
Also as an escape route.
14- Jacket: tubular steel structure.
15- Conductor guide frame: located at regular intervals to restrain conductors against
lateral movement.
16- Conductor: pipe from sea bed to wellhead area.
17- Riser: extends from subsea pipeline to ESDV.
18- Riser clamp: secures riser to jacket.
19- Caissons: for drainage or to accommodate deep well pumps for fire fighting and
service water. Must extend to a position below the lowest sea water level.
20- Mud mats: steel plates at the base of each leg to prevent overpenetration of
jacket into soft sea bed.
21- Pile clusters: housing for foundation piles.

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