Yerevan State University

Faculty of European Languages and Communication

English Philology Chair

Term Paper
The Junction of Speech-Sounds and Fundamental Consonant
Allophones in Modern English

Student: Izabel Stambolyan

Supervisor: Yervand Vardanyan

YEREVAN 2019

1
 Contents
Introduction..........................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 1.1.......................................................................................................................................4
English Consonants: The Classification of English Consonants..................................................4
Chapter 1.2....................................................................................................................................8
The Junction of Speech-Sounds..................................................................................................8
Chapter 2.1..............................................................................................................................12
Phonemes VS. Allophones......................................................................................................12
Chapter 2.2..........................................................................................................................15
Fundamental Consonant Allophones in English..............................................................15
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................16
Bibliography.................................................................................................................17
Internet sources........................................................................................................17

2
 Introduction

 A language can be used in two ways for the purposes of communication. It can be spoken or written
but the medium of speech is more important than writing. This is because speech comes first in the
history of any language community – in fact, it came centuries before writing in the history of any
language community. Secondly, speech comes first in the history of any individual. We started
speaking long before we started writing. Speech as a medium of communication is used much more
than the medium of writing. In every language, a letter of the alphabet represents a particular sound.
Lastly, modern technology has contributed tremendously to the importance of speech - modern
inventions like the telephone, the radio, the tape recorder and several such devices have raised
problems of communication primarily concerned with speech. The work of speech organs necessary
for making speech sounds is called articulation. According to the specific character of articulation,
especially according to the presence or absence of the obstruction speech sounds are divided into
vowels and consonants. The most substantial difference between vowels and consonants is that in
the articulation of vowels the air passes freely through the mouth cavity, while in making
consonants an obstruction is formed in the mouth cavity or in the pharynx and the flow of the air
meets a narrowing or complete obstruction.

Like a consonant, a sonorant is characterized by an obstruction as well as by a concentration of

muscular tension in the place of obstruction. In making sonorants voice prevails over noise; while in
all other consonants (both voiced and unvoiced), noise prevails over voice. This is why under certain
conditions sonorants [n] and [l] become syllabic. However, since sonorants are more often non-
syllabic, they are usually considered among consonants.

In my work I will introduce the system of consonants, the junction of speech-sounds and the
allophonic variation of consonants.
The aim of my work is to give a brief information about these three points.
My work consists of;
 Introduction
 Chapter I
The system of consonants in English, which consists of 2 sub-chapters;
1) English Consonants: The Classification of English Consonants
2) The Junction of Speech-Sounds
 Chapter II
English Allophones, which also consists of 2 sub-chapters;
1) Phonemes VS. Allophones
2) Fundamental Consonant Allophones in English
 Conclusion
 Bibliography

3
Chapter 1.1.
English Consonants: The Classification of English Consonants

A consonant is a sound produced with an obstruction to the air stream. The organs of speech are
tense at the place of obstruction. In the articulation of voiceless consonants the air stream is strong,
while in voiced consonants it is weaker.
The particular quality of a consonant depends on the work of the vocal cords, the position of the
soft palate and the kind of noise that results when the tongue or the lips obstruct the air-passage.
There are two types of articulatory obstruction: complete and incomplete.
A complete obstruction is formed when two organs of speech come in contact with each other and
the air-passage through the mouth is blocked.
An incomplete obstruction is formed when an articulating organ (articulator) is held so close to a
point of articulation as to narrow, or constrict, the air-passage without blocking it.
Consonants are usually classified according to the following principles:
I. According to the type of obstruction and the manner of the production of noise.
II. According to the active speech organ and the place of obstruction.
III. According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation.
IV. According to the position of the soft palate.

 According to the type of obstruction English consonants are divided into occlusive and
constrictive.
Occlusive consonants – [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [m], [n], [ŋ], [t∫], [dʒ].
Constrictive consonants – [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [∫], [ʒ], [h], [w], [l], [r], [j].
Occlusive consonants may be: (A) noise consonants and (B) sonorants.
According to the manner of the production of noise occlusive noise consonants are divided into
plosive consonants (or stops) and affricates.
In the production of plosive consonants the speech organs form a complete obstruction which is
then quickly released with plosion
[p], [t], [k] are voiceless plosives.
[b], [d], [ɡ] are voiced plosives.
In the production of affricates the speech organs form a complete obstruction which is then
released so slowly that considerable friction occurs at the point of articulation- [t∫], [dʒ].
In the production of occlusive sonorants the speech organs form a complete obstruction in the
mouth cavity which is not released, the soft palate is lowered and the air escapes through the nasal
cavity-[m], [n], [ŋ].1

1
В. А. Васильев и др. ''Фонетика Английского Языка''. Нормативный Курс, М., 1980, р. 16.
4
 Constrictive consonants are produced with an incomplete obstruction, that is by a narrowing of the
air-passage.
Constrictive consonants may be: (A) noise consonants (or fricatives) and (B) sonorants.
In the production of noise constrictives the speech organs form an incomplete obstruction-[f], [v],
[θ], [ð], [s], [z], [∫], [ʒ], [h].
Constrictive sonants are oral. They may be medial (the tongue’s sides rise and touch side teeth, air
blows along its central part) – [w], [r], [j] and lateral (the front edge rises to the alveoli and touches
them, the sides lower, air leaves via side passages – [l].

 According to the active organ of speech English consonants are divided into labial, lingual
and glottal.
1. LABIAL consonants may be (A) bilabial and (B) labio-dental.
(A) Bilabial consonants are articulated by two lips – [w], [m], [p], [b].
(B) Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth – [f], [v].
2. LINGUAL consonants may be (A) forelingual, (B) mediolingual, and © backlingual.
(A) Forelingual consonants are articulated by the blade of the tongue, the blade with the tip or by
the tip against the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge. According to the position of the tip English
forelingual consonants may be (a) apical, and (b) cacuminal.
(a) Apical consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the
alveolar ridge – [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z], [∫], [ʒ], [t∫], [dʒ].
(b) Cacuminal consonants are articulated by the tongue tip raised against the back part of the
alveolar ridge. The front of the tongue is lowered forming a spoon-shaped depression – [r].
(B) Mediolingual consonants are articulated with the front of the tongue against the hard palate –
[j].
(C) Backlingual consonants are articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate – [k],
[g], [ŋ].
3. GLOTTAL consonants are produced in the glottis – [h].
According to the point of articulation forelingual consonants are divide into (1) dental (interdental
or post-dental), (2) alveolar, (3) palato-alveolar, and (4) post-alveolar.
(1) Dental consonants are articulated against the upper teeth either with the tip – [θ], [ð].
(2) Alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge – [t], [d],
[n], [l], [s], [z].

5
 (3) Palato-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip and blade of the tongue against the alveolar
ridge or the back part of the alveolar ridge, while the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of
the haed palate – [∫], [ʒ], [t∫], [dʒ].
(4) Post-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the back part of the
alveolar ridge – [r].
According to the point of articulation mediolingual and backlingual consonants are called palatal
and velar, respectively.
Most consonants are pronounced with a single obstruction. But some consonants are pronounced
with two obstructions, the second obstruction being called coarticulation. Coarticulation may be
front (with the front of the tongue raised) or back (with the back of the tongue raised). The tongue
front coarticulation gives the sound a clear (“soft”) colouring –[l], [∫], [ʒ], [t∫], [dʒ].
The tongue back coarticulation gives the sound a dark (“hard”) colouring – [l], [w].

 According to the work of the vocal cords consonants are divided into voiced and voiceless.
According to the force of articulation consonants are divided into relatively strong, or fortis
and relatively weak, or lenis.

English voiced consonants are lenis. English voiceless consonants are fortis. They are pronounced
with greater muscular tension and a stronger breath force.

The following English consonants are voiceless and fortis: [p], [t], [k], [t∫], [f], [θ], [s], [∫], [h].
The following English consonants are voiced and lenis: [b], [d], [ɡ], [dʒ], [v], [ð], [z], [ʒ], [m], [n],
[ŋ], [w], [l], [r], [j].

 According to the position of the soft palate consonants are divided into oral and nasal.
Nasal consonants are produced with the soft palate lowered while the air-passage through the
mouth is blocked. As a result, the air escapes through the nasal cavity.
The English nasal consonants are [m], [n], [ŋ].
Oral consonants are produced when the soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth.
The following English consonants are oral [p], [b], [d], [t], [k], [ɡ], [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [∫],[ʒ],
[h], [t∫],[dʒ], [w], [l], [r], [j].2
However we can classify consonants in a simplified way:
1) According to the place of articulation: bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar,
palate-alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal.
2) According to the manner of articulation: plosives, fricatives, affricates, nasals, lateral,
semivowels.

2
В. А. Васильев и др. ''Фонетика Английского Языка''. Нормативный Курс, М., 1980, рp. 17-19.
6
Graphically it can be represented like that:

7
 Chapter 1.2.
The Junction of Speech-Sounds

Sounds in actual speech are seldom pronounced by themselves. They are usually pronounced
together with other sounds within single words and at the junction of words in phrases and
sentences. But in order to pronounce a word consisting of more than one sound, a phrase or a
sentence, it is necessary to join the sounds together in the proper way. One should not think that
sounds are always joined together in the same way in different languages or even in one and the
same language. As a matter of fact, there exist several types of junction, some of which are
common to all or many languages, while others are characteristic of individual languages.
In order to master these specific types of junction it is necessary to understand the mechanism of
joining sounds together. This mechanism can only be understood after analysing the stages in the
articulation of a speech-sound pronounced in isolation.
Every speech-sound pronounced in isolation has three stages of articulation.
(1) the on-glide, or the initial stage,
(2) the retention stage, or the medial stage,
(3) the off-glide (release), or the final stage.
The on-glide, or the beginning of a sound, is the stage during which the organs of speech move
away from a neutral position to take up the position necessary for the pronunciation of a consonant
or a vowel. The on-glide produces no audible sound.
The retention-stage, or the middle of a sound, is the stage during which the organs of speech are
kept for some time either in the same position necessary to pronounce the sound (in the case of
non-complex sounds) or move from one position to another (within complex sounds, such as
diphthongoids, diphthongs and affricates). For the retention-stage of a stop consonant the term
stop-stage may also be used.
The off-glide, or the end of a sound, is the stage during which the organs of speech move away to
a neutral position.3
The off-glide of most sounds is not audible, the exception being plosives which off-glide
produces the sound of plosion before a vowel and in a word-final position before a pause.
To illustrate these three articulatory stages let us analyse the work of the organs of speech in
pronouncing the consonant [p].
During the on-glide of this consonant the soft palate is being raised, and the lips are brought
together to form a complete obstruction. At the same time the vocal cords are kept apart, because
[p] is a voiceless consonant. As soon as the lips are closed to form a complete obstruction, the
stop-stage of the sound begins. The stop-stage is immediately followed by the off-glide, or release.
During this stage the lips are quickly opened, and the air escapes from the mouth with plosion. The
soft palate is lowered. Thus the organs of speech take up a neutral position.
The three stages in the articulation of the consonant [p] pronounced in isolation may be
represented graphically in the following way:
3
В. А. Васильев и др. ''Фонетика Английского Языка''. Нормативный Курс, М., 1980, рp. 61-62.
8
 P2

   
P1
P3
 

 P2
 where P1 stands for the on-glide, for the retention-stage

and P3 for the off-glide.4

 
In English there are two principal ways of linking two adjacent speech sounds:
I. Merging of stages.
II. Interpenetration of stages.
The type of junction depends on the nature of the sounds that are joined together.
As all English sounds come under the classification of consonants and vowels we may speak of
joining:
a) a consonant to a following vowel (C+V), as in the word [mi:] me;
b) a vowel to a following consonant (V+C), as in the word [on] on;
c) two consonants (C+C), as in the word [blou] blow;
d) two vowels (V+V), as in the word [ri:'əliti] reality;
Merging of stages, as compared with interpenetration of stages, is a simpler and looser way of
joining sounds together. It usually takes place if two adjacent sounds of a different nature are
joined together. In this case the end of the preceeding sound penetrates into the beginning of the
following sound. In other words, the end of the first sound and the beginning of the second are
articulated almost simultaneously. Thus, during the merging of stages, some organs of speech
move away from the position taken up for the pronunciation of the first sound and others move to
take up the position necessary for the articulation of the second sound.5

4
https://mykonspekts.ru/1-45144.html/ page 11, accessed on 12.05.2019.
5
В. А. Васильев и др. ''Фонетика Английского Языка''. Нормативный Курс, М., 1980, р. 63.
9
 Such a junction of speech-sounds in the word [pa:t] part, for example, may be approximately
represented graphically in the following way:
 

                 p2 a:2 t2

 
p1 a:1 p3 t1 a:3 t3
 
(Compare it with the graphical representation of the articulatory phases in sounds pronounced
separately, one after another, given above.)
 

       
      
   

1 During the merging of stages as in and the organs of speech work in the following way:
The end of [p] merges with the beginning of [a:], that is to say, while the lips are being opened to
remove the complete obstruction and the air escapes with a kind of plosion, the lower jaw is
lowered ([p3]), the bulk of the tongue becomes more or less flat, the back of the tongue is raised a
little to the position of a low back vowel, and the vocal cords are drawn near together ([a:1]). Thus
the lips, the tongue and the vocal cords work almost simultaneously. The end of [a:] merges with
the beginning of [t], that is to say, while the back part of the tongue is being lowered ([a:3]), the
tongue is moving forward, the tip of the tongue being raised in the direction of the alveolar ridge to
form a complete obstruction, the vocal cords stop vibrating and move apart ([t1]). Thus the back
part of the tongue, the blade with the tip of the tongue and the vocal cords work almost
simultaneously.6

               p2 a:2 t2
 
p1 a:1 p3 t1 a:3 t3

6
В. А. Васильев и др. ''Фонетика Английского Языка''. Нормативный Курс, М., 1980, p. 64-65.
10
 As has been stated merging of stages usually takes place when sounds of different nature are
joined together, that is to say, the sounds articulated
(a) by different organs of speech C+V [pa:t] [mi:]
V+C [a:m] [i:v]
C+C [fju:] [spei]
(b) by different parts of the tongue C+V [gɪv] V+C [i:gl]
C+C [kju:] V+V [kjυәrɪ′osɪtɪ]
(c) both by different organs of speech and by different parts of the tongue C+V [wɪ:]
V+C [-i:w-]7
Interpenetration of stages usually takes place when consonants of a similar or identical nature are
joined.
In this case the end of the first sound penetrates not only into the beginning but also into the
middle part of the second sound, as in [-kt] act, [begd] begged.
Sounds of a similar nature articulated by different parts of the tongue. In the pronunciation
of [-kt], [-gd] the organs of speech move away already in the middle of the first sound to take up
the position necessary to pronounce the second sound.8
This may be represented graphically as follows.
[-kt]:

         k2 t2

k1 t1 k3 t3

7
Peter Roach – Phonetics and Phonology, Cambridge 1983, p. 48-50.

8
В. А. Васильев и др. ''Фонетика Английского Языка''. Нормативный Курс, М., 1980, p. 65-66.

11
Chapter 2.1.
Phonemes VS. Allophones

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in speech. When children first begin to read, we teach that
phonemes have distinctive sounds that are represented by letters and that each phoneme carries
distinct word meaning. For example, the word 'cat' has three phonemes, 'c' 'a' and 't', but if 'c' is
changed for the other phoneme 'mat', the meaning of the word changes.

Allophones are variations in the realization (or sound) of phonemes, like the different
pronunciations of the phoneme 't' in the word 'tar' and the word 'letter', where the 't' allophone
(sound) is softened to a 'd' sound. Allophones do not indicate a change in the meaning of the word,
nor do they indicate a change in the phoneme used to make up the word.

A difference between the two is that changing the phoneme changes the meaning of the word,
whereas changing the allophone changes the sound of the realization of word but does not change
the meaning of the word. 
In phonology, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds, or phones, or signs
used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language.

There are two types of allophones, based on whether a phoneme must be pronounced using a
specific allophone in a specific situation or whether the speaker has the unconscious freedom to
choose the allophone that is used.

If a specific allophone from a set of allophones that correspond to a phoneme must be selected in a
given context, and using a different allophone for a phoneme would cause confusion or make the
speaker sound non-native, the allophones are said to be complementary. The allophones then
complement each other, and one of them is not used in a situation in which the usage of another is
standard. For complementary allophones, each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and
may be involved in a phonological process.9

Just what is an allophone? Elsewhere we have defined a phoneme as a contrastive sound in the
speech sound system of a particular world language. In essence, phonemes are speech sounds that
are used to differentiate between one word and another. Consider the word mad, which we
would transcribe phonemically as /mæd/. We could substitute the initial bilabial nasal /m/ with the
bilabial plosive /b/ in order to make the new word bad /bæd/. Thus, /b/ is a phoneme because it has
functioned contrastively and created a new distinction in meaning – it has created a new word. By
reversing the argument, it can be seen that /m/ is also a phoneme, as it can substitute for the /b/
in bad /bæd/ to make the new word mad /mæd/.

What we are doing here, to test whether or not a particular speech sound is a phoneme or not, is
searching for minimal pairs. A minimal pair is two words that mean different things and differ in
only one sound. So, as we have seen, bad and mad form a minimal pair. They differ only in one
9
https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-difference-between-phoneme-allophone-46939/ accessed on
18.05.2019.
12
sound (the initial consonant), and they mean different things. Consequently, the two initial
consonants /b/ and /m/ contrast with one another to create new meanings and they are, therefore,
distinct phonemes. Other examples of minimal pairs include:

tan /tæn/ ― ban /bæn/

tan /tæn/ ― can /kæn/
tan /tæn/ ― Dan /dæn/
tan /tæn/ ― fan /fæn/
tan /tæn/ ― man /mæn/
tan /tæn/ ― pan /pæn/
tan /tæn/ ― ran /ræn/
tan /tæn/ ― van /væn/

We see from this list that /t/, /b/, /k/, /d/, /f/, /m/, /p/, /r/ and /v/ must all be phonemes because they
demonstrate a contrastive function and create new meanings.

Now, recall that sounds have a tendency to be modified by the environment in which they occur.
We have seen previously, for example, that when the consonant /t/ occurs in a word such as top it is
aspirated, i.e. [tʰ]. However, when it follows a /s/, such as in the word stop, it is not aspirated, i.e. [t].
However, unlike the phonemes highlighted above, these two sounds fail the minimal pairs test. That
is to say, we can find no minimal pairs in English for these two sounds:

pat /pætʰ/ ― pat /pæt/

Clearly the above is not a minimal pair because both words mean the same thing: they are merely
articulated slightly differently. In sum, [tʰ] and [t] do not contrast and they are not, therefore,
phonemes. They are, in fact, slightly different ways of articulating the same phoneme /t/, depending
on the environment in which this phoneme occurs.

We see, then, that native speakers do not perceive all phones as sufficiently distinctive for creating
differences in meaning. In this sense, phonemes are mental constructs. They are not the sounds
themselves, as it is the various phones (e.g. [tʰ] and [t]) that we actually articulate in any particular
context. Phonemes are, therefore, abstract mental representations of the distinctions that native
speakers consider important in creating meaning (Figure 1). Phones, then, are always articulated in a
precise way (e.g. with or without aspiration). However, phonemes are articulated differently in
different environments, according to how many variant sounds of a particular phoneme there are.
The variant sounds are known as allophones. They are the different pronunciations of the same
phoneme.10

10
M. A. Sokolova and others – Practical Phonetics of English Language, 1984, p. 76-77.

13
 Figure 1. Phonemes are abstract mental representations11

11
https://www.google.com/search?
q=Figure+1.+Phonemes+are+abstract+mental+representations&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjyya2izL
biAhWryKYKHYaCCtgQ_AUIDigB&biw=1366&bih=657#imgrc=uONihofXqwH3sM:/ accessed on 19.05.2019.
14
Chapter 2.2.
Fundamental Consonant Allophones in English
In this subsection we describe and exemplify four phonetic features that influence allophones of
consonants:

a) Loss of aspiration
b) Incomplete plosion
c) Nasal plosion
d) Lateral plosion

The voiceless plosive [p], [t], [k] consonants are pronounced with aspiration like with some
exhalation noise right after voiceless consonants. This weak exhalation comes from air friction with
the closing vocal cords to remind the [h] consonant sound – [ph], [th], [kh]. In forming syllables
starting with [p], [t], [k], vowels are pronounced after a pause as in [khil], [khi:l], not right after these
consonants.
Loss of aspiration: [p], [t], [k] lose aspiration after the constrictive voiceless [s] consonant as in
[spi:k]. Voiceless plosive consonants are pronounced without aspiration in unstressed syllables as in
“potato, tobacco”.
Incomplete Plosion: In combining 2 plosive consonants of different origin (like [-kt-] in “asked” or
[-tg-] in “don’t go”) both have all the 3 articulation stages though with the 1st consonant’s plosion
being very weak, almost inaudible.
Nasal Plosion: Joining the [t], [d] plosives and the nasal [n] sonant features their pronunciation
unification. In pronouncing the apical alveolar [tn], [dn] combinations the tongue’s front edge sticks
to the alveoli while air leaves the nasal cavity with some plosion as in “burden” [-dn], “button” [-tn].
Lateral Plosion: The [t], [d] plosives are pronounced together with the lateral [l] sonant, without a
vowel overtone in between. In the [tl], [dl] combinations both sounds are apical alveolar. In their
articulation the tongue’s front edge stays on the alveoli, the sides lower and air leaves the mouth
cavity with some plosion noise as “middle” [-dl], “little” [-tl].12

12
http://lovelylanguage.com/pronunciation/sounds/english-consonant-articulation/ accessed on 25.05.2019
15
Conclusion

In my work, I have set out to understand how phonology and phonetics interact over the course of
phonetic change with the hope of broadening our knowledge of both sound change, and the general
relationship between phonology and phonetics.

Drawing upon the data of my work, I have tried to introduce phonology in my own way (as I
understand it).

As a result of my study I have come to the following conclusions:

Consonants are classified according to how they are produced. The articulatory description for
each consonant includes three pieces of information, the voicing, the place of articulation, and the
manner of articulation.

The first piece of information we need to know about a consonant is its voicing — is it voiced or
voiceless?  

The second thing we need to know about consonants is where the obstruction in the vocal tract
occurs; we call that the place of articulation.

In addition to knowing where the vocal tract is obstructed, to classify consonants we also need to
know how the vocal tract is obstructed. This is called the manner of articulation.

To sum up, all consonants involve some obstruction in the vocal tract. We classify consonants
according to three pieces of information:

 the voicing: is it voiced or voiceless,

 the place of articulation: where is the vocal tract obstructed,
 the manner of articulation: how is the vocal tract obstructed.

These three pieces of information make up the articulatory description for each speech sound, so
we can talk about the voiceless labiodental fricative [f] or the voiced velar stop [ɡ], and so on.

And I can say that all sounds during the production of which we hear friction are consonants, but
not all consonants are produced with friction.

16
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 V. A. Vassilyev – English Phonetics/ A theoretical course, 1970.
 J. D. O’ Connor – Better English Pronounciation, Cambridge 1980
 S. F. Leontyeva – A Theoretical Course of English Phonetics, Moscow 1980.
 Vassilyev and others – English Phonetics, Moscow 1980.
 Peter Roach – Phonetics and Phonology, Cambridge 1983.
 M. A. Sokolova and others – Practical Phonetics of English Language, 1984.

Internet sources

 https://www.sltinfo.com/allo101-allophonic-variation-in-consonants/ accessed on
05.05.2019.
 http://staffnew.uny.ac.id/upload/132107096/pendidikan/Book+one.pdf/ accessed on
19.05.2019.
 https://www.google.com/search?
q=english+allophones&tbm=isch&source=univ&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwikmIflyafiAhXy6aY
KHUbCAdcQsAR6BAgIEAE&biw=1366&bih=657/ 19.05.2019.
 https://www.google.com/search?
q=Figure+1.+Phonemes+are+abstract+mental+representations&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa
=X&ved=0ahUKEwjyya2izLbiAhWryKYKHYaCCtgQ_AUIDigB&biw=1366&bih=657#i
mgrc=uONihofXqwH3sM:/ accessed on 19.05.2019.
 http://lovelylanguage.com/pronunciation/sounds/english-consonant-articulation/ accessed on
25.05.2019.

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