5.

Describe the structure and function of each component of the nervous

system

The nervous system is a network of neurons whose main feature is to generate, modulate and
transmit information between all the different parts of the human body. This property enables
many important functions of the nervous system, such as regulation of vital body functions
(heartbeat, breathing, digestion), sensation and body movements. Ultimately, the nervous
system structures preside over everything that makes us human; our consciousness, cognition,
behaviour and memories.
The nervous system consists of two divisions; 
 Central nervous system (CNS)is the integration and command center of the body
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) represents the conduit between the CNS and the
body. It is further subdivided into the somatic nervous system (SNS) and
the autonomic nervous system (ANS). 

The Nervous System Functions of the Nervous System

1. Gathers information from both inside and outside the body - Sensory Function
2. Transmits information to the processing areas of the brain and spine
3. Processes the information in the brain and spine – Integration Function
4. Sends information to the muscles, glands, and organs so they can respond appropriately –
Motor

Function
It controls and coordinates all essential functions of the body including all other body systems
allowing the body to maintain homeostasis or its delicate balance.
The Nervous System is divided into Two Main Divisions: Central Nervous System (CNS)
and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Divisions of the Nervous System

Basic Cells of the Nervous System
Neuron

 Basic functional cell of nervous system

 Transmits impulses (up to 250 mph)

Parts of a Neuron

 Dendrite – receive stimulus and

carries it impulses toward the cell
body
 Cell Body with nucleus –
nucleus & most of cytoplasm

 Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from cell body

 Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral
Nervous System
 Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon – makes the
axon look gray
 Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath
 Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to axon

Three types of Neurons

o Sensory neurons – bring messages to CNS

o Motor neurons - carry messages from CNS
o Interneurons – between sensory & motor
neurons in the CNS

Impulses

 A stimulus is a change in the environment with sufficient strength to initiate a

response.
 Excitability is the ability of a neuron to respond to the stimulus and convert it into
a nerve impulse
 All of Nothing Rule – The stimulus is either strong enough to start and impulse
or nothing happens
 Impulses are always the same strength along a given neuron and they
are self-propagation – once it starts it continues to the end of the neuron in
only one direction- from dendrite to cell body to axon
 The nerve impulse causes a movement of ions across the cell membrane of the nerve
cell.
Synapse

o Synapse - small gap or space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of
another-the neurons do not actually tough at the synapse

o It is junction between neurons which uses neurotransmitters to start the impulse in the
second neuron or an effector (muscle or gland)

o The synapse insures one-way transmission of impulses

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters –
Chemicals in the junction which
allow impulses to be started in the
second neuron

Reflex Arc

Components of a Reflex Arc

A. Receptor - reacts to a stimulus

B. Afferent pathway (sensory
neuron) - conducts impulses to the CNS
C. Interneuron - consists of one or
more synapses in the CNS (most are in the
spine)
D. Efferent pathway (motor
neuron) conducts impulses from CNS
to effector.
E. Effector - muscle fibers (as in the

Spinal reflexes - initiated and completed at the spinal cord level. Occur without the
involvement of higher brain centers.

Central Nervous System

• Brain
o Brain stem – medulla, pons, midbrain
o Diencephalon – thalamus & hypothalamus
 o Cerebellem
o Cerebrum

• Spine
o Spinal Cord

Meninges
Meninges are the three coverings around the brain &
spine and help cushion, protect, and nourish the brain
and spinal cord.

 dura mater is the most outer layer, very tough

 arachnoid mater is the middle layer and adheres
to the dura mater and has weblike attachments to
the innermost layer, the pia mater
 pia mater is very thin, transparent, but tough, and
covers the entire brain,
following it into all its crevices (sulci) and spinal
cord
 cerebrospinal fluid, which buffers, nourishes, and
detoxifies the brain and spinal cord, flows
through the subarachnoid space, between the
arachnoid mater and the pia mater

Regions of the Brain

Cerebellum – coordination of movement

and aspects of motor learning
Cerebrum – conscious activity including
perception, emotion, thought, and planning
Thalamus – Brain’s switchboard – filters
and then relays information to various brain
regions
Medulla – vital reflexes as heart beat and
respiration Brainstem – medulla, pons, and
midbrain (involuntary responses) and relays
information from spine to upper brain
Hypothalamus– involved in regulating
activities internal organs, monitoring
information from the autonomic nervous
system, controlling the pituitary gland and its
hormones, and regulating sleep and appetite
Cerebrum
 Is the largest portion of the brain encompasses
about two-thirds of the brain mass -

 It consists of two hemispheres divided by a fissure –

corpus callosum

 It includes the cerebral cortex, the medullary body,

and basal ganglia

 cerebral cortex is the layer of the brain often

referred to as gray matter because it has cell bodies
and synapses but no myelin

o The cortex (thin layer of tissue) is gray because nerves in

this area lack the insulation or white fatty myelin sheath
that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white.

o The cortex covers the outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of

the cerebrum and cerebellum

o The cortex consists of folded bulges called gyri that

create deep furrows or fissures called sulci

o The folds in the brain add to its surface area which

• Medullary body – is the white matter of the cerebrum and consists of myelinated
axons
o Commisural fibers – conduct impulses between the hemispheres and form corpus

callosum
o Projection fibers – conduct impulse in and out of the cerebral hemispheres o Association
fibers – conduct impulses within the hemispheres

• Basal ganglia – masses of gray matter in each hemisphere which are involved in the
control of voluntary muscle movements

Lobes of the Cerebrum

 Frontal – motor area involved

in movement and in planning &
coordinating behavior

 Parietal – sensory
processing, attention, and
language

 Temporal – auditory
perception, speech, and complex
visual perceptions
Special regions

 Broca’s area – located in the frontal lobe – important in the production of speech

 Wernicke’s area – comprehension of language and the production of

meaningful speech

 Limbic System – a group of brain structures (aamygdala, hippocampus, septum,

basal ganglia, and others) that help regulate the expression of emotions and emotional
memory

Brain Waves

Brain waves are rhythmic fluctuation

of electric potential between parts of the
brain as seen on an
electroencephalogram (EEG).

 To measure brain waves electrodes

are placed onto the scalp using the
EEG.

 There are four types of brainwaves:

o Beta

o Alpha

o Theta

o Delta
• Peripheral Nervous System

Cranial nerves

 12 pair

 Attached to undersurface of brain Spinal

nerves

 31 pair

 Attached to spinal cord

Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)

 Relays information from skin, sense organs &

skeletal muscles to CNS

  Brings
Two responses back to skeletal muscles for
divisions
vpluntary responses
 Sympathetic nervous system- in times of stress
 Emergency response
 Fight or flight
 Parasympathetic nervous system- when body is at rest or with
normal functions
 Normal everyday conditions


 Skin receptors:

Your skin and deeper tissues contain millions of

sensory receptors. Most of your touch receptors sit
close to your skin's surface.

Light touch

 Meissner's corpuscles are enclosed in a

capsule of connective tissue
 They react to light touch and are located
in the skin of your palms, soles, lips,
eyelids, external genitals and nipples
these areas of your body are particularly
sensitive.

Heavy pressure

 Paccinian corpuscules sense pressure and

vibration changes deep in your skin.
 Every square centimeter of your skin
contains around 14 pressure receptors
Pain
 skin receptors register pain
 pain receptors are the most numerous
Temperature
  skin
eachreceptors
square centimeter
registerofwarmth
your skin
and cold
contains around 200 pain receptors
 each square centimeter of your skin contains 6 receptors for cold and 1 receptor for
warmth
 Cold receptors start to perceive cold sensations when the surface of the skin
drops below 95 o F. They are most stimulated when the surface of the skin is at 77 o F
and are no longer stimulated when the surface of the skin drops below 41 o F. This is
why your feet or hands start to go numb when they are submerged in icy water for a
long period of time.
 Hot receptors start to perceive hot sensations when the surface of the skin rises
above 86 o F and are most stimulated at 113 o F. Beyond 113 o F, pain receptors take
over to avoid damage being done to the skin and underlying tissues.
 thermoreceptors are found all over the body, but cold receptors are found in greater
density than heat receptors – most of the time of our environment is colder than our
body temperature
 The highest concentration of thermoreceptors can be found in the face and ears so
your nose and ears always get colder faster than the rest of your body on a chilly
winter day

Disorders of the Nervous System – symptoms,

prevention, treatment
 Epilepsy - common and diverse set of chronic neurological disorders characterized
by seizures.
  Seizures - the physical findings or changes in behavior that occur after an episode
of abnormal electrical activity in the brain and are caused by abnormal electrical
discharges in the brain

 Alzheimer’s Disease - a degenerative disease of the brain that causes

dementia, which is a gradual loss of memory, judgment, and ability to function. - the
most common form of dementia- affects an estimated 1 in 10 people over age 65

 Multiple Sclerosis - an autoimmune disease that affects the brain and spinal
cord (central nervous system) - body's immune system eats away at the protective
myelin sheath that covers the axons of the neurons and interferes with the
communication - MS can affect vision, sensation, coordination, movement, and
bladder and bowel control.

 Parkinson’s Disease - disorder of the brain that leads to shaking (tremors) and
difficulty with walking, movement, and coordination. People with Parkinson's disease
have low brain dopamine concentrations.

 Shingles (herpes zoster) - painful, blistering skin rash due to the varicella-
zoster virus, the virus that causes chickenpox – the virus remains inactive (becomes
dormant) in certain nerves in the body. Shingles occurs after the virus becomes active
again

 Cerebral Palsy - group of disorders that can involve brain and nervous system
functions such as movement, learning, hearing, seeing, and thinking resulting from
damage to certain parts of the developing brain

 Glaucoma - a group of eye conditions that lead to damage to the optic nerve due
to increased pressure in the eye - the eye’s drainage system becomes clogged so the
intraocular fluid cannot drain and as the fluid builds up, it causes pressure to build
within the eye. High pressure damages the sensitive optic nerve.

 Pink eye (Conjunctivitis) – infection of the conjunctiva of the eye

Effects of Drugs on the Nervous System

 Alcohol - central nervous system depressant – cell membranes are highly

permeable to alcohol so once in the bloodstream it can diffuse into almost all body
tissues. It is absorbed in the stomach so it gets into the blood stream quickly and
slows down function of the nervous system

 Caffeine - acts as a central nervous system stimulant - caffeine suppresses

melatonin for up to 10 hours and also promotes adrenalin. Melatonin is strongly
associated with quality sleep, while adrenalin is the neurotransmitter associated with
alertness.

 Nicotine - small doses of nicotine have a stimulating action on the central nervous
system – it is highly addictive nicotine's effects on the brain cause an increased
release of neurotransmitters associated with pleasure. The brain quickly adjusts to
repeated nicotine consumption by decreasing the amount of neurotransmitters
 released. The effect of this increased tolerance is that the smoker must continue to use
nicotine in order to avoid the feelings of discomfort associated with withdrawal from
the drug. Irritability and anxiety often ensue during nicotine withdrawal.

 Marijuana - THC, the main active ingredient in marijuana, binds to membranes of

nerve cells in the central nervous system that have protein receptors. After binding to
nerve cells, THC initiates a chemical reaction that produces the various effects of
marijuana use. One of the effects is suppression of memory and learning centers
(called the hippocampus) in the brain.

https://www.soinc.org/sites/default/files/uploaded_files/3-17_NERVOUS_HANDOUT.pdf

6.1 explain the structure and function of the cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system or circulatory system is a system which moves nutrients,

gases and wastes between cells, helps fight diseases, and transports blood throughout the
body (Circulatory System). The main components of the human cardiovascular system
include the heart, blood, and various blood vessels. There are several different circuits
contained in the cardiovascular system. One of these systems is the pulmonary circuit, which
is a “loop”, in which oxygenated blood travels through the lungs (Circulatory System). The
other circuit is the systemic circuit which transports the rest of the blood in a loop through the
body. In the cardiovascular system within the heart, there is the cardiac cycle, which is the
flow of blood between heartbeats. The cardiovascular system is essential to the human body
for blood to be distributed properly.

The first major component of the cardiovascular system is the pulmonary circuit. The
pulmonary circuit carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart and returns the blood in an
oxygenated form (Pulmonary Circulation). In the heart, there are four chambers, the right and
left atria, as well as the right and left ventricles. In pulmonary circulation deoxygenated blood
starts in the right side of the heart. The blood is then pumped by the right ventricle of the
heart as deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery, which is a blood vessel that’s
function, is to carry blood away from the right ventricle. From the pulmonary artery, the
blood is taken into the capillaries, which are small blood vessels that connect arteries and
veins of the lungs (Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation). Upon the deoxygenated blood
entering the lungs, oxygen binds to the red blood cells as carbon dioxide diffuses. Once the
blood has become oxygenated it travels along the pulmonary vein into the left atrium of the
heart. Upon entering the left atrium the blood joins the systemic circuit.

The systemic circuit is far larger than the pulmonary circuit and therefore is of far
greater importance to the body (Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation). The main function of
the systemic circuit is to carry blood to and away from all the tissues in the body. Due to the
fact that this system is much larger, this causes the walls of the left ventricle to be far stronger
than the right side of the heart. These thick muscles of the left side of the heart are essential
for blood to be distributed throughout the various tissues in the body (Pulmonary and
Systemic Circulation). In the systemic circuit oxygenated blood is transported from the left
ventricle into the aorta, which is the largest artery in the body. The aorta branches downward
to carry blood to the respective parts of the body. However, as blood is carried down the
aorta, there are several smaller arteries which branch off the aorta to carry blood to their
respective parts of the body. As blood exits the left ventricle, and begins to travel down the
aorta, small arteries branch off of the aorta to carry blood to the upper torso as well as the
brain. When blood travels to the brain, the arteries branch continuously, eventually becoming
capillaries which reach every single cell within the brain. When capillaries reach each cell in
the brain this allows for every cell in the body to have a supply of oxygen as well as a way of
disposing of carbon dioxide. Once the carbon dioxide is disposed from the cells the blood
becomes deoxygenated once again. This deoxygenated blood travels to the heart by going
through the various veins of the body. These veins which are returning to the heart eventually
all link together to form the Inferior and Superior Vena Cava, which are the two largest veins
in the body. The Inferior and Superior Vena Cava pump the deoxygenated blood back into
the right atrium, which starts the circulatory process all over again (Cardiovascular System-
Basic Structure).

Another essential part of the cardiovascular system is the cardiac cycle. The cardiac
cycle is measured on the basis of systole and diastole. Systole is the period in which the heart
is busy pumping blood. Diastole is the period in which the heart is resting as well as filling up
with blood. In the atria of the heart, systole is stimulated by “electric” nerve impulses, which
is created by a section on the wall of the right atrium called the sinoatrial node, or (SA). This
process is known as atrial systole. The SA is essential as it sets the tone of the beating of the
heart, and is therefore referred to as a pacemaker. After atrial systole occurs, the electric
impulse travels through the walls of the atria to the atrioventricular node, or (AV), which is
located in the wall between the right atrium and right ventricle. After reaching the AV, the
impulse signal is delayed 0.1 seconds in order to ensure that the atria of the heart have
finished contracting. After this delay, the impulse travels through special fibres in the heart
known as Purkinje fibres. Once the electrical impulse reaches the end of the Purkinje fibres,
the impulse spreads through the original cardiac muscle, which then allows for ventricular
systole to occur. Overall, the cardiac cycle takes about 0.8 seconds to complete. Around half
of this time is spent between atrial and ventricular systole, and the other half is composed of
atrial and ventricular diastole.

The second part of the cardiac cycle is also a major component of the cardiovascular
system. This part of the cycle explains that the “lub-dup” heart sounds are caused by the
closing of the valves in the heart during the cardiac cycle (Cardiac Cycle). The “lub” sounds
is caused by the closing of the AV valves and the beginning of ventricular systole (Cardiac
Cycle). The “dup” sound is caused by the closing of the pulmonary and aortic valves during
ventricular diastole (Cardiac Cycle). These valves of the heart ensure that the blood flow in
the heart is maintained at the same rate by opening and closing systematically. The cardiac
cycle is one of the major components to the cardiovascular system.

The cardiovascular system has shown that it is one of the vital systems of the human
body. It is truly amazing how the cardiovascular system is an intricate group of systems
which combine together to form one larger system. The cardiovascular system is extremely
complicated and the slightest malfunction can cause serious problems in the body. For
example, in the heart if the valves are opening the wrong way, a person can have a heart
murmur, which in some cases can prove to be fatal. These systems such as the systemic
circuit, pulmonary circuit, and cardiac cycle must always be functioning at a very high rate.
The cardiovascular system is a magnificent and exciting system to learn.

The effect of lifestyle on the cardiovascular system

Rest is essential to allow the body to adapt. Rest allows this heart to grow and the
number of capilleries to increase.
Factor that may have a negative effect on the cardiovascular system and increase the risk of
coronary heart disease:
 High colestrol, perhaps due to a diet high in animal fats
Cholestrol is a fatty substance carried in the blood by lipoproteins. Lipoproteins come
in two forms.
High density lipoprotein (HDL) contains more protein the fat and is referred
to as good cholesterol because it carries cholesterol away from the heart to the liver,
where it is removed from the body.
Low density lipoprotein (LDL) consists of mainly fat and is known as bad
cholesterol. It can lead to a build up of plaque which can restrict blood flow to the
arteries and therefore incrase blood pressure.
 Recreational drugs
o These include cigarettes (nicotine), which raise blood pressure because they
release adrenaline.
o Smoking also lowers HDL levels.
o Alcohol in moderation is thought to increase HDL and so in the long term can
lower blood pressure. However too much alcohol or binge drinking can have
serious adverse affects.
 Sedentary lifestyle and lack of exercise (hypokinetic disease)
o Sedentary lifestyle (inactivity) means that the cardiovascular system does not
receive the benefits of exercise. Sedentary living is also believed to be one of
the main reasons for increasing rates of obesity.
 Stress
Lifestyle can effect the cardiovascular system. Food high in LDL, alcohol, drugs and stress
can all lead to an increased risk of a heart attack. Exercise improves the cardiovascular
system and reduce blood pressure. Over a period of time the heart of a fit person will beat far
fewer times.
6.2 Explain the composition and function of the heart
Blood is a suspension of blood elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets) in blood
plasma. Blood elements can be separated from blood plasma using centrifugal force. Figure
shows that the most descended are erythrocytes – the volume of erythrocytes in a sample of
blood is called the hematocrit. Hematocrit values differ depending on sex – in men the
values range about 44 ± 5 % of blood volume and in women about 39 ± 4 % of blood
volume. Above the erythrocyte layer is found the white non-transparent layer composed
of leukocytes and thrombocytes. This layer is called buffy coat (forms about 1 % of blood
volume).

In our blood vessels circulate about 4.5-6 l of blood, which represents approximately 6-9% of

body weight. Women have less blood than men. Blood plasma, making up the liquidportion
of blood, is a colloid solution of organic and inorganic substances (electrolytes, nutrients,
proteins, hormones etc.) with an addition of dissolved blood gases. It is
slightly opalescent and its pale yellowish colour is caused by the presence of pigments,
formed by decay of erythrocytes. Volume of blood plasma is approximately 2.8-3.5 l (40-45
ml/kg of b.w.). Together with the lymph, it makes up to 25 % of extracellular fluid (ECF).
Basic functions of blood include:

1) Transport of nutrients, waste products, blood gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) or
signaling molecules 
2) Immune function 

3) To maintain homeostasis of water, ions or pH 

4) Distribution of heat throughout the body 

5) Blood clotting

Viscosity of the blood

Viscosity is a value that characterizes an internal friction of a fluid. It primarily  depends on

the attractive forces between particles. Under physiological conditions, the viscosity of the
blood of about three fold higher than the viscosity of water. Viscosity of blood is directly
related to the number of red blood cells (hematocrit).

http://fblt.cz/en/skripta/v-krev-a-organy-imunitniho-systemu/1-slozeni-krve/

6.3 Explain the location, structure and function of the heart

As a central part of the circulatory system, the heart is primarily responsible for
pumping blood and distributing oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. Because of this
task, the heart may be considered one of the most important organs of the body, such that
even small dysfunctions or abnormalities may cause drastic changes or effects in the human
organism.

The heart is a muscle whose working mechanism is made possible by the many parts
that operate together. The organ is divided into several chambers that take in and distribute
oxygen-poor or oxygen-rich blood. These chambers are accompanied by veins and arteries
that facilitate the same function. With all of its parts working together towards the same goal,
the heart successfully pumps blood with ease.
 Normally, a good-functioning adult heart could go on three cardiac cycles or 72 beats
per minute. This rate changes for children whose heart rates are normally and relatively
faster.

Structure of the Heart

The heart can be found at the center of the chest, underneath the sternum in a thoracic
compartment. It is made up of four chambers and several valves that regulate the normal flow
of blood within the body.

Two chambers called atria are located in the upper portion of the heart and receive
oxygen-free blood. The valves that separate these chambers are called atrioventricular
valveswhich is composed of the tricuspid valve on the left and the mitral valve on the right.

On the other hand, ventricles are chambers found on the lower portion of the heart;
they pump oxygen-enriched blood into all organs of the body, reaching even the smallest
cells. Similar to the atria, the ventricular chambers are also separated by valves. Collectively-
termed as semilunar valves, these are comprised of the pulmonary and aortic valve.

The heart also has a wall that is composed of three layers: the outer
layer epicardium (thin layer), the middle layer myocardium (thick layer), and the innermost
layer endocardium (thin layer). The myocardium is think because it is made up of cardiac
muscle fibers.

The structure of the heart is made more complex because of the mechanisms that
allow blood to be distributed throughout the body and to return into the heart. Facilitating this
continuous process are two types of blood vessels: veins and arteries. The vessels that bring
oxygen-free blood back into the heart are called veins; those that bring oxygen-rich blood
away from the heart and to other body parts are called arteries. Functioning in the left
ventricle, the largest artery is called aorta. The aorta is considered a main artery in the body.
It further splits into two smaller arteries called common iliac arteries. With regular
functioning, the heart is continuously able to supply sufficient amount of oxygen to all parts
of the body.
Function of the Heart
The heart is the main organ in the circulatory system, the structure primarily
responsible for delivering the circulation of blood and transportation of nutrients in all parts
of the body. This continuous task uplifts the role of the heart as a vital organ whose normal
operation is constantly required.

The heart’s blood-pumping cycle, called cardiac cycle, ensures that blood is

distributed throughout the body. The oxygen distribution process begins when oxygen-free
blood enters into the heart through the right atrium, goes into the right ventricle, enters the
lungs for oxygen refill and release of carbon dioxide, and transfers into the left chambers,
ready for redistribution. About 5.6 liters of blood circulate the body and three cardiac cycles
are completed per minute.

The performance of the heart could now be easily monitored when any cardiovascular
problem or disorder is suspected. For instance, a regularly abnormal heartbeat or beats per
minute are characteristic of a heart-related illness. This is because a heartbeat is a
manifestation of the oxygen-reloading process in the heart that is made up of two phases.

The systole is a short period that occurs when the tricuspid and mitral valves close;
the diastole is a relatively longer period when the aortic and pulmonary valves close. The
systole-diastole relationship is the reference in measuring blood pressure. Other ways of
physically determining the regular functioning of the heart is through examining the pulse
rate (beats per minute). A normal heart rate of an adult is at 72 beats per minute, while
children normally yield higher heart rates.

https://www.news-medical.net/health/Structure-and-Function-of-the-Heart.aspx

6.4 Explain the types of blood vessel

Types of Blood Vessels 

There are four main types of blood vessels that each play their own role:

 Arteries: These are elastic vessels that transport blood away from the
heart. Pulmonary arteries carry blood from the heart to the lungs where
oxygen is picked up by red blood cells. Systemic arteries deliver blood to the
rest of the body.
 Veins: These are also elastic vessels but they transport blood to the heart. The
four types of veins are pulmonary, systemic, superficial, and deep veins.
 Capillaries: These are extremely small vessels located within the tissues of the
body that transport blood from the arteries to the veins. Fluid and gas
exchange between capillaries and body tissues takes place at capillary beds.
 Sinusoids: These narrow vessels are located within the liver, spleen, and bone
marrow. Like capillaries, they deliver blood from larger arteries to veins.
Unlike capillaries, sinusoids are permeable and leaky to allow for quick
nutrient absorption.

https://www.thoughtco.com/blood-vessels-373483

6.5 Identify the major blood vessels of the head and uppur body
Major Blood Vessels

Normal function of the brain’s control centers is dependent

upon adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients through a
dense network of blood vessels.
Blood is supplied to the brain, face, and scalp via two major
sets of vessels: the right and left common carotid arteries and
the right and left vertebral arteries.

The common carotid arteries have two divisions. The

external carotid arteries supply the face and scalp with blood.
The internal carotid arteries supply blood to most of the
anterior portion of the cerebrum. The vertebrobasilar arteries
supply the posterior two-fifths of the cerebrum, part of the
cerebellum, and the brain stem.

Any decrease in the flow of blood through one of the internal

carotid arteries brings about some impairment in the function
of the frontal lobes. This impairment may result in numbness,
weakness, or paralysis on the side of the body opposite to the
obstruction of the artery.

Occlusion of one of the vertebral arteries can cause many

serious consequences, ranging from blindness to paralysis.

Circle of Willis

At the base of the brain, the carotid and

vertebrobasilar arteries form a circle of
communicating arteries known as the
Circle of Willis. From this circle, other
arteries—the anterior cerebral artery
(ACA), the middle cerebral artery
(MCA), the posterior cerebral artery
(PCA)—arise and travel to all parts of the
brain. Posterior Inferior Cerebellar
Arteries (PICA), which branch from the
vertebral arteries, are not shown.

Because the carotid and vertebrobasilar

arteries form a circle, if one of the main
arteries is occluded, the distal smaller
arteries that it supplies can receive blood
from the other arteries (collateral
circulation).
Anterior Cerebral Artery
The anterior cerebral artery extends upward
and forward from the internal carotid artery.
It supplies the frontal lobes, the parts of the
brain that control logical thought,
personality, and voluntary movement,
especially of the legs. Stroke in the anterior
cerebral artery results in opposite leg
weakness. If both anterior cerebral territories
are affected, profound mental symptoms may
result (akinetic mutism).

Middle Cerebral Artery

The middle cerebral artery is the largest

branch of the internal carotid. The artery
supplies a portion of the frontal lobe and
the lateral surface of the temporal and
parietal lobes, including the primary
motor and sensory areas of the face,
throat, hand and arm, and in the dominant
hemisphere, the areas for speech.

Posterior Cerebral Artery

The posterior cerebral arteries stem in most
individuals from the basilar artery but sometimes
originate from the ipsilateral internal carotid artery
[Garcia JH et al., In Barnett HJM at al (eds) Stroke
Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management
New York Churchill Livingstone 1992 125]. The
posterior arteries supply the temporal and occipital
lobes of the left cerebral hemisphere and the right
hemisphere. When infarction occurs in the territory
of the posterior cerebral artery, it is usually
secondary to embolism from lower segments of the
vertebral basilar system or heart.

Clinical symptoms associated with occlusion of the posterior cerebral artery depend on the
location of the occlusion and may include thalamic syndrome, thalamic perforate syndrome,
Weber’s syndrome, contralateral hemplegia, hemianopsia and a variety of other symptoms,
including including color blindness, failure to see to-and-fro movements, verbal dyslexia, and
hallucinations. The most common finding is occipital lobe infarction leading to an opposite
visual field defect.

Lenticulostriate Arteries
Small, deep penetrating arteries known as the lenticulostriate arteries branch from the middle
cerebral artery Occlusions of these vessels or penetrating branches of the Circle of Willis or
vertebral or basilar arteries are referred to as lacunar strokes. About 20% of all stokes are

In the elderly, CT scanning shows signs of

infarction in only approximately half of the
most of the common form of lacunar stroke
(pure motor stroke), but MRI has increased
the yield: the probability that CT or MRI will
lacunar [Stoke/Brain Attack reporter’s Handbook. Englewood, Colo: National Stroke
Association, 1995] and have a high incidence in patients with chronic hypertension.

Within a few months of the infarction, the necrotic brains cells are reabsorbed by macrophage
activity, leaving a very small cavity referred to as a lake (or lacune in French).

http://www.strokecenter.org/professionals/brain-anatomy/blood-vessels-of-the-brain/

UPPER Body Circulation

In the lungs, the pulmonary arteries (in blue) carry unoxygenated blood from the
heart into the lungs. Throughout the body, the arteries(in red) deliver oxygenated blood and
nutrients to all of the body’s tissues, and the veins (in blue) return oxygen-poor blood back to
the heart.
The aorta is the large artery leaving the heart. The superior vena cavais the large vein that
brings blood from the head and arms to the heart, and the inferior vena cava brings blood
from the abdomen and legs into the heart.

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/17061-blood-vessels-illustrations

6.6 Define blood vessels

The blood vessels are the components of the circulatory system that

transport blood throughout the human body. These vessels transport blood cells, nutrients,
and oxygen to the tissues of the body. They also take waste and carbon dioxide away from
the tissues. Blood vessels are needed to sustain life, because all of the body's tissues rely on
their functionality.
There are five types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from
the heart; the arterioles; the capillaries, where the exchange of water and chemicals
between the blood and the tissues occurs; the venules; and the veins, which carry blood
from the capillaries back towards the heart.
The word vascular, meaning relating to the blood vessels, is derived from the
Latin vas, meaning vessel. Some structures – such as cartilage, the epithelium, and
the lens and cornea of the eye – do not contain blood vessels and are labeled avascular.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel
What is Blood Clotting?
Otherwise known as blood clotting, coagulation plays a pivotal role in the repair of
blood vessels. The heart pumps blood throughout the body with the aid of the arteries, and in
turn, blood goes back to the heart through the veins. When the blood vessels become injured,
it will trigger the blood clotting process. This way, the body will repair the damage to stop
hemorrhage or bleeding from happening.

For instance, the damage happens in the lining of the blood vessels, the platelets will
form an initial plug on the affected area. They will initiate the clotting process with the aid of
certain clotting factors produced in the body.
What are Clotting Factors?
Clotting factors are components found in plasma that are linked to the blood clotting
process. These factors are named and numbered based on their discovery. Though there are a
total of 13 numerals, there are only 2 clotting factors. Factor VI was discovered to be part of
another factor.

The clotting factors are Factor I (fibrinogen), Factor II (prothrombin), Factor III
(tissue thromboplastin or tissue factor), Factor IV (ionized calcium), Factor V (labile factor or
proaccelerin), Factor VII (stable factor or proconvertin), and Factor VIII (antihemophilic
factor). Additionally, the coagulation factors also include Factor IX (plasma thromboplastin
component or the Christmas factor), Factor X (Stuart-Prower factor), Factor XI (plasma
thromboplastin antecedent), Factor XII (Hageman factor), and Factor XIII (fibrin-stabilizing
factor). The liver uses vitamin K to produce some of the factors such as Factors II, VII, IX,
and X. Normally, vitamin K can be consumed through the diet from plant and animal sources.
The normal flora of the intestine also produces vitamin K.

Blood Clotting Process

Hemostasis is a way of the body to stop injured blood vessels from bleeding. One of the most
important parts of hemostasis is clotting of the blood. Subsequently, the body needs to control
the mechanisms to control and limit clotting. These include dissolving excess clots that are
not needed anymore. When there is an abnormality in any part of the system that controls
bleeding, it can lead to hemorrhage or excessive clotting. These are potentially life-
threatening.
Too much clotting can lead to stroke and heart attacks because blood clots can travel and clog
the vessels. On the other hand, poor clotting can lead to severe blood loss even with just a
slight injury to the blood vessels.

Hemostasis has three major processes namely the constriction of blood vessels, activity of the
platelets, and activity of the proteins found in blood (clotting factors).

Injury

The first phase of the blood clotting process is injury or when a blood vessel becomes
damaged. This can be in the form of a small tear in the blood vessel wall that may lead to
bleeding.
Blood Vessel Constriction

The body will constrict the blood vessel to control blood loss. It will limit the blood flow to
the affected area.

Platelet Plug

In response to the injury, the body activates platelets. At the same time, chemical signals are
released from small sacs in the platelets to attract other cells to the area. They make a platelet
plug by forming a clump together. A protein called the von Willebrand factor (VWF) helps
the platelets to stick together.

Fibrin Clot

When a blood vessel becomes injured, the coagulation factors or clotting factors in the blood
are activated. The clotting factor proteins stimulate the production of fibrin, which is a strong
and strand-like substance that forms a fibrin clot. For days or weeks, this fibrin clot
strengthens and then dissolves when the injured blood vessel walls close and heal.Blood
clotting is a crucial process that can help prevent blood loss due to injury. If there is an
abnormality in any part of the process, it can lead to dangerous complications such as severe
blood loss. Commonly, people with clotting disorders are closely monitored to prevent
injuries and bleeding.

https://www.news-medical.net/health/Blood-Clotting-Process.aspx

6.7 Explain the factors that affect blood pressure

Understanding the difference between blood pressure and pulse

While your blood pressure is the force of your blood moving through your blood vessels,
your heart rate is the number of times your heart beats per minute.

 They are two separate measurements and indicators of health.

 For people with high blood pressure (HBP or hypertension), there’s no substitute for
measuring blood pressure.

Heart rate and blood pressure do not necessarily increase at the same rate
A rising heart rate does not cause your blood pressure to increase at the same rate. Even
though your heart is beating more times a minute, healthy blood vessels dilate (get larger) to
allow more blood to flow through more easily. When you exercise, your heart speeds up so
more blood can reach your muscles. It may be possible for your heart rate to double safely,
while your blood pressure may respond by only increasing a modest amount.
Heart rate and exercise
In discussions about high blood pressure, you will often see heart rate mentioned in relation
to exercise. Your target heart rate is based on age and can help you monitor the intensity of
your exercise.

 If you measure your heart rate (take your pulse) before, during and after physical
activity, you’ll notice it will increase over the course of the exercise.
 The greater the intensity of the exercise, the more your heart rate will increase.
 When you stop exercising, your heart rate does not immediately return to your normal
(resting) heart rate.
 The more fit you are, the sooner your heart rate will return to normal.

https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/high-blood-pressure/the-facts-about-high-blood-
pressure/blood-pressure-vs-heart-rate-pulse

Here is a list of 10 factors that can temporarily cause significant deviations in

your blood pressure measurements.

1. Blood Pressure Cuff is too Small- It is extremely important to make sure the
proper size blood pressure cuff is used on your upper arm when taking a
measurement. In fact, most blood pressure measurement errors occur by not
taking the time to determine if the patient's arm circumference falls within the
Range indicators on the cuff. Studies have shown that using too small of a blood
pressure cuff can cause a patient's systolic blood pressure measurement to
increase 10 to 40 mmHg.
2. Blood Pressure Cuff Used Over Clothing - When having your blood pressure
measured, the cuff should always be placed directly on your arm. Studies have
shown that clothing can impact a systolic blood pressure from 10 to 50 mmHg.
3. Not Resting 3-5 minutes- To obtain an accurate blood pressure measurement, it
is important that you relax and rest quietly in a comfortable chair for 3 to 5
minutes before a reading is taken. Any activities such as exercise or eating can
affect your systolic blood pressure measurement 10 to 20 mmHg.
4. Arm/Back/Feet Unsupported- When having your blood pressure measured, you
should always be seated in a comfortable chair, legs uncrossed, with your back
and arm supported. If your back is not supported, your diastolic blood pressure
measurement may be increased by 6 mmHg. Crossing your legs has shown to
raise your systolic blood pressure by 2 to 8 mmHg. The positioning of your upper
arm below your heart level will also result in higher measurements, whereas
positioning your upper arm above your heart level will give you lower
measurements. These differences can increase/decrease your systolic blood
pressure 2mmHg for every inch above/below your heart level.
5. Emotional State- Stress or anxiety can cause large increases in blood pressure.
If you are having your blood pressure taken while thinking about something that
causes you to tense up or become stressed, your blood pressure levels could
significantly increase.
6. Talking- If you are talking to the nurse/doctor while having your blood pressure
taken, studies have shown that your systolic blood pressure measurement may
increase 10 to 15mmHg.
 7. Smoking Tobacco products (cigarettes, cigars, smokeless tobacco) all contain
nicotine which will temporarily increase your blood pressure, so refrain from
smoking at least 30 minutes before having a blood pressure measurement taken.
8. Alcohol/Caffeine- Alcohol and caffeine (sodas, coffee, tea, etc) consumption
causes blood pressure levels to spike so stay away from alcohol/caffeine at least
30 minutes before having a blood pressure measurement taken.
9. Temperature- Blood pressure tends to increase when you are cold. Therefore, if
you are at the doctor's office and the room temperature is "chilly" to you, be
aware that your blood pressure readings may be higher than expected.
10. Full bladder- Your blood pressure is lower when your bladder is empty. As your
bladder gradually fills, your blood pressure increases. Studies have shown that
your systolic blood pressure measurements could increase 10 to 15mmHg when
you have a full bladder.

https://www.suntechmed.com/blog/entry/4-bp-measurement/49-10-factors-that-can-affect-
blood-pressure-readings

6.8 Describe the main diseases and disorders of the cardiovascular system

Diseases that can affect the circulatory system include:

1. Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a hardening of the arteries.

It is typically caused by a diet high in fat, which leaves fatty deposits on the lining of the
blood vessels. These fatty deposits stick together and make the arteries hard and less flexible.

Atherosclerosis leads to high blood pressure, which can damage the heart and kidneys and
even lead to strokes.

2. Heart attack

Myocardial infarction (MI) is the technical term for a heart attack. A heart attack can occur
when the blood supply is cut off from the heart, often by a blood clot. Some heart attacks are
minor, but others can be life-threatening.

3. Mitral valve prolapse

Mitral valve prolapse means the mitral valve bulges out or prolapses because it does not close
evenly. The mitral valve pumps freshly oxygenated blood out of the heart to the rest of the
body.

4. Mitral valve regurgitation

Mitral valve regurgitation happens when the mitral valve does not close all the way and
causes a leak, allowing some of the oxygenated blood to flow backward.

5. Mitral stenosis

Mitral stenosis means the mitral valve is abnormally narrow which can prevent the blood
from flowing smoothly or quickly through it.

6. Angina pectoris

Angina pectoris means “pain in the chest” and occurs if the heart is not receiving enough
blood. People often describe it as a crushing sensation or feeling like their chest is in a vice.

People with angina pectoris may also feel breathless, tired, and nauseated.

7. Arrhythmia and dysrhythmia

Arrhythmia and dysrhythmia are often used interchangeably, and both refer to abnormal heart
rates and rhythms. In general, arrhythmia means “no rhythm” and dysrhythmia means
“abnormal rhythm.

8. Cardiac Ischemia

Cardiac ischemia means the heart muscle is not getting enough oxygen to function properly.
A person with cardiac ischemia will usually experience angina-like pain and may feel as
though they are having a heart attack.

9. High cholesterol

High cholesterol is usually caused by a sedentary lifestyle and an unhealthful diet. Some

people can also be genetically at risk of high cholesterol.
People need cholesterol, but too much cholesterol can form a thick layer on the inside of the
vessels, blocking blood flow.

10. Heart failure

Heart failure means that the heart is not pumping blood around the body as efficiently as it
should. It can lead to fatigue, shortness of breath, and coughing.

Some people with heart failure find it difficult to do things such as walking, climbing stairs,
or carrying groceries.

11. High blood pressure (hypertension)

High blood pressure or hypertension means the force or pressure of the blood flowing
through the vessels is consistently too high. High blood pressure can lead to stroke, loss of
vision, heart failure, heart attack, kidney disease, and reduced sexual function.

12. Stroke

A stroke can happen when one of the vessels that lead to the brain either becomes blocked by
a blood clot or bursts. This stops blood flow and prevents oxygen from getting to the brain.

13. Peripheral artery disease (PAD)

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) refers to narrowing of the arteries that lead to the legs,
stomach, arms, and head. This reduced blood flow can damage the cells and tissues in the
limbs, organs, and brain. PAD tends to occur more often in older people.

14. Venous thromboembolism (VTE)

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a blood clot that gets stuck in a vein, blocking the flow
of blood. It is a serious condition that needs emergency medical attention.

15. Aortic aneurysms

Aortic aneurysms affect the main artery in the body. It means the artery wall has weakened,
allowing it to widen or “balloon out.” An enlarged artery could burst and become a medical
emergency.

16. Varicose Veins

Varicose veins are bulging, swollen, purple, ropy veins, seen just under your skin, caused by
damaged valves within the veins. They are more common in women than men and often run
in families. They can also be caused by pregnancy, being severely overweight, or by standing
for long periods of time. The symptoms include:

 Bulging, swollen, purple, ropy, veins seen under the skin

 Spider veins -- small red or purple bursts on your knees, calves, or thighs, caused by
swollen capillaries (small blood vessels)
 Aching, stinging, or swelling of the legs at the end of the day

17. Hypotension

Low blood pressure might seem desirable, and for some people, it causes no problems.
However, for many people, abnormally low blood pressure (hypotension) can cause dizziness
and fainting. In severe cases, low blood pressure can be life-threatening.

A blood pressure reading lower than 90 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) for the top number
(systolic) or 60 mm Hg for the bottom number (diastolic) is generally considered low blood
pressure.

18. Hepatitis

Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A is caused by an infection with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). This type of hepatitis
is most commonly transmitted by consuming food or water contaminated by feces from a
person infected with hepatitis A.

Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B is transmitted through contact with infectious body fluids, such as blood, vaginal
secretions, or semen, containing the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Injection drug use, having sex
with an infected partner, or sharing razors with an infected person increase your risk of
getting hepatitis B.

It’s estimated by the CDCTrusted Source that 1.2 million people in the United States and 350
million people worldwide live with this chronic disease.

Hepatitis C
Hepatitis C comes from the hepatitis C virus (HCV). Hepatitis C is transmitted through direct
contact with infected body fluids, typically through injection drug use and sexual contact.
HCV is among the most common bloodborne viral infections in the United
States. Approximately 2.7 to 3.9 million AmericansTrusted Source are currently living with a
chronic form of this infection.

19. Coronary Thrombosis

Coronary artery disease develops when the major blood vessels that supply your heart with
blood, oxygen and nutrients (coronary arteries) become damaged or diseased. Cholesterol-
containing deposits (plaque) in your arteries and inflammation are usually to blame for
coronary artery disease.

When plaque builds up, it narrows your coronary arteries, decreasing blood flow to your
heart. Eventually, the decreased blood flow may cause chest pain (angina), shortness of
breath, or other coronary artery disease signs and symptoms. A complete blockage can cause
a heart attack.

Because coronary artery disease often develops over decades, you might not notice a problem
until you have a significant blockage or a heart attack. But there's plenty you can do to
prevent and treat coronary artery disease. A healthy lifestyle can make a big impact.

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/321695