Baseband Shaping For Data

Transmission
Faculty Instructor
Saswati Paramita
Electronics & Communication
Engineering
 Introduction
• There are various techniques to convert the analog
signal to digital signal such as ADC, Sampling-
quantizing-encoding etc.
• But, the other way of getting digital data is from the
source digital computers. The information from such a
source is discrete in nature.
• If such discrete signal is transmitted over a bandlimited
channel, then the signal gets dispersed or spread. This
dispersion in the channel causes an overlap in time
between successive symbols. This is known as Inter
Symbol Interference (ISI).

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Pulse Dispersed & ISI

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 Cont...
• Therefore , to avoid ISI, the discrete signal
should not be transmitted as it is on the
transmission medium.
• First, this data is converted to a suitable PAM
signal format or waveform and then
transmitted over the channel. The various
format is called as Line Codes.

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 Cont...
• Discrete PAM signal can be represented as

• Ak = Amplitude of kth symbol in message sequence

which is a random variable
• v(t) = basic pulse shape = 1 for t=0
0 for t= ±T, ±2T, .....

v(t) is a rectangular pulse.

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 Signalling Rate & Modulation Rate
• Signalling rate or data rate or data signalling rate is the
rate of which data are transmitted. It is measured in
bits/second or bps.
• The rate is denoted as

• Where, Tb represents duration of one bit.

• The modulation rate is defined as the rate at which the

signal level changes according to the nature of the
format used to represent the digital data.
• The modulation rate is measured in symbols per
second (symbol rate) or bauds per second (baud rate).

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 M-ary Signalling
• For an M-ary format (with M integer power of 2
i.e. M=2N) used to represent binary data, the
symbol duration (T) is

• The signalling ate of M-ary form is

• Where N is number of successive message bits.

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 Cont...

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 Line coding
• Line coding is the process in which the digital
data or binary digits are represented in
suitable waveform for the purpose of the
transmission over the channel.

Ref: https://www.slideshare.net/rinaahire/line-coding-15852152

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 Properties of Line Coding
Following are the properties of line coding −

• As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a

single signal, the bandwidth used is much reduced.
• For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.
• The probability of error is much reduced.
• Error detection is done and the bipolar has also correction
capability.
• Power density is much favorable. As dc component=0
• The timing content is adequate. Exact timing from pulses
• Long strings of 1s and 0s is avoided to maintain
transparency.

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 Types of Line Coding
• There are 3 types of line coding basically.
– Unipolar
– Polar
– Bipolar
• Each of this type of line coding again can be
expressed in form of
– Return to Zero (RZ)
– Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)

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Unipolar Format or ON-OFF Signalling
• The presence of pulse represents a 1 and the
absence of pulse represents a 0.
• There are two variations in Unipolar signaling
– NRZ
– RZ

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 Unipolar NRZ
• In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data is
represented by a positive pulse called as Mark,
which has a duration Tb equal to the symbol bit
duration. A Low in data input has no pulse.

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 Cont...
• In this scheme , the signals are represented as:

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 Unipolar RZ
• In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in
data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its
duration Tb is less than the symbol bit
duration. Half of the bit duration remains high
but it immediately returns to zero and shows
the absence of pulse during the remaining half
of the bit duration.

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 Cont...

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 Polar Signaling
• There are two methods of Polar Signaling.
They are −
– Polar NRZ
– Polar RZ

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 Polar NRZ
• In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data is
represented by a positive pulse, while a Low in
data is represented by a negative pulse.
• In this scheme , the signals are represented as:

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 Cont...

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 Polar RZ
• In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data
i.e. Positive pulse, though represented by
a Mark pulse, its duration Tb is less than the
symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration
remains high but it immediately returns to
zero and shows the absence of pulse during
the remaining half of the bit duration.
• However, for a Low input, a negative pulse
represents the data, and the zero level
remains same for the other half of the bit
duration.
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 Cont...
• In this scheme , the signals are represented
as:

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 Bipolar Signaling
• This is an encoding technique which has three
voltage levels namely +, - and 0. Such a signal is
called as duo-binary signal.
• An example of this type is Alternate Mark
Inversion AMI.
– For a 1, the voltage level gets a transition from + to –
or from – to +, having alternate 1s to be of equal
polarity.
– A 0 will have a zero voltage level.
• Even in this method, we have two types.
– Bipolar NRZ
– Bipolar RZ

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 Bipolar NRZ
• In this scheme , the signals are represented as:

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 Bipolar RZ
• In this scheme , the signals are represented as:

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SPECIFIC LINE CODES

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 Manchester or Bi-phase Format
• Symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a
positive pulse for one-half of the symbol
duration followed by a negative pulse for the
remaining half of the symbol period.
• Symbol 0 is represented by transmitting a
negative pulse for one-half of the symbol
duration followed by a positive pulse for the
remaining half of the symbol period.
• It ha no DC components.

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 Cont...
• In this scheme , the signals are represented as:

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 Polar Quaternary NRZ
• It has 4-distinct symbols of dibits (pair of bits)
i.e. 4 possible combinations such as 00,
01,10,11.
• These 4 distinct combinations are having 4
different amplitude levels as shown in table
below. Message bits Amplitude
combination Levels
00 -3A/2
01 -A/2
10 +A/2
11 +3A/2

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 Cont...
• This type of signalling is used to reduce the
signalling rate . Hence, bandwidth is reduced.
Because, this transmits single pulse for 2-
message bits within 2Tb bit period. i.e. 2 bits
per one symbol.
• We know that
• Therefore, the signalling rate becomes
as N=2

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Polar Quaternary NRZ of Gray-encoded
version
Message bits Amplitude
combination Levels
00 -3A/2
01 -A/2
11 +A/2
10 +3A/2

The massage bits are gray coded and follow polar Quaternary
NRZ format

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 M-ary NRZ Format

• In this format, N successive message bits are

combined into M-possible symbols or waveforms.
i.e. M=2N .
• Example: N=3, M=8
i.e. It has 8-distinct symbols or amplitude levels
of 3-bits. Therefore, this is known as 8-ary or
octary NRZ format.
• So, each symbol period is 3Tb. Thus, the signalling
rate is reduced. Hence, BW is reduced.

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Question 1

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 Derivation of PSD of Discrete PAM
Signals
• According to the Einstein-Wiener-Khintchine
theorem, if the auto correlation function or power
spectral density of a random process is known, the
other can be found exactly.
• As well as auto correlation function and power
spectral density are Fourier transform pairs.
• Hence, time auto correlation function of power
signal x(t) is Rx(τ).
• x(t) is a discrete PAM signal. It is expressed as

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Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals
• The function which describes how the power of a
signal got distributed at various frequencies, in the
frequency domain is called as Power Spectral
Density (PSD).
• For a rectangular pulse of period T:

Ref: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/digital_communication/digital_communication_line_codes.htm

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 Cont...
• As per the definition of v(t) i.e.
v(t) = 1 for t=0
0 for t= ±T, ±2T,.....

• v(0)=1. Therefore, v(t-kT) is train of impulses.

• The auto correlation function is expressed as

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 Cont…

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 Cont...

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 NRZ Unipolar Format PSD
• Suppose 0s and 1s of a random binary sequence
occur with equal probability.
• Then, for unipolar format of NRZ type ,

ak ak-1 ak . ak-1 Equipro

bable

0 0 0 ¼
0 a 0 ¼
a 0 0 ¼
a a a2 ¼
n≠0

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 NRZ Unipolar Format PSD

By substituting V(f) value in PSD, we get

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 NRZ Unipolar Format PSD

According to Poisson’s Formula

Therefore,

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NRZ Unipolar Format PSD

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 NRZ Polar Format PSD
• In polar NRZ format: ak ak-1 ak . ak-1 Equipr
obable
-a -a a2 ¼
-a a -a2 ¼
a -a -a2 ¼
a a a2 ¼
n≠0

• Let us consider that symbol 1 and symbol 0 occurs with equal probabilities.

• The autocorrelation function:

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 NRZ Polar Format PSD

• Substituting V(f) Value in PSD equation:

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 NRZ Bipolar Format PSD
• In Bipolar NRZ format:

• Let us consider that symbol 1 and symbol 0 occurs with equal probabilities.

• The autocorrelation function:

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 NRZ Bipolar Format PSD

• As per table given in next slide for n=2 ,E[ak,ak-2] is calculated.

• Similarly for n>1 , all values E[ak,ak-2] is 0. a a k a a
k-1 Equipro k . k-1
bable
• Therefore, 0 0 0 ¼
0 ±a 0 ¼
±a 0 0 ¼
±a a - a2 ¼
n=1
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 NRZ Bipolar Format PSD
ak ak-1 ak-2 ak . ak-2 Equiprobabl
e
0 0 0 0 1/8
0 0 1(+a,-a) 0 1/8
0 1(+a,-a) 0 0 1/8
0 1(+a,-a) 1(-a,+a) 0 1/8
1(+a,-a) 0 0 0 1/8
1(+a,-a) 0 1(-a,+a) -a2,-a2 1/8
1(+a,-a) 1(-a,+a) 0 0 1/8
1(+a,-a) 1(-a,+a) 1(+a,-a) a2, a 2 1/8
n=2

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 NRZ Bipolar Format PSD

• Work out as home work to find the below expression

after substituting above values

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 Manchester Format PSD

• By substituting we get PSD of Manchester format is

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Comparison of PSD for different Line
Codes

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 Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
• The spreading of the pulse beyond its allotted time
interval Tb causes it to interfere with neighboring
pulses is known as ISI.

• Signal overlapping may give errors at the receiver.

This phenomena of pulse overlapping resulted
difficulty of discriminating symbols at the receiver is
termed as ISI.
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Baseband Transmission of Binary Data
• The basic elements of a baseband binary PAM
system is shown in figure below.

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 Cont...
• The input binary data sequence {bk} with a bit
duration of Tb seconds. This sequence is
applied to a pulse generator. Producing the
discrete PAM signal.

• Where, v(t) denotes the basic pulse and

normalized such that v(0)=1 &

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 Cont...
• The output of the pulse generator x(t) is passed through a
transmitting filter having the frequency response HT(f) & after that
it passed through a channel of transfer function Hc(f).
• The channel may be co-axial cable or fibre optic cable. The major
source of system degradation is dispersion in channel.
• The signal at the receiver is passed through a receiving filter of
transfer function HR(f).
• The receiving filter output is sampled synchronously with the
transmitter at t=iTb i.e. y(iTb) and then applied to the decision
device.
• The decision device takes the decision based on the magnitude of
y(iTb) as shown below:

If y(iTb) > Threshold , selects Symbol ‘1’

If y(iTb) < Threshold , selects Symbol ‘0’

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 Cont...
sequence sent 1 0 1
sequence received 1 1(!) 1

Signal received

Threshold

0 t

-3T -2T -T 0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T

Sequence of three pulses (1, 0, 1)

sent at a rate 1/T
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 Cont...
• Assuming that the channel is noise free.
Mathematically, the output of the pulse
generator can be described as:
----------- (1)

• Taking Fourier Transform on both the sides of

equation (1), we get
----------- (2)

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 Cont...
• Let the output of the receiving filter be defined by :

----------- (3)

• Where , µ is a scaling factor.

& p(t) is a pulse shaping function of y(t),
and normalized such that p(0)=1
• Taking Fourier Transform on both the sides of equation (3), we
get
----------- (4)

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 Cont...
• From the block diagram of baseband binary data
transmission PAM system, the output of the receiving filter
in frequency domain can be written as:
----------- (5)

• Substituting equation (2) & (4) in (5), we get

----------- (6)

----------- (7)

----------- (8)
Taking Inverse Fourier Transform of equation (8) , we get p(t).

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 Cont...
• y(t) is sampled at time t=iTb . From equation (3), we get

p(0)=1
ISI

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 Cont...

ISI

• First Term: It is generated by the ith transmitted bit

• Second Term: The residual effect of all other transmitted
bits on ith bit. This residual effect is known as ISI.
• ISI occurs because of imperfections in the overall
frequency response of the system. The frequency
components constituting the input pulses are differently
attenuated and differently delayed by the system.
Consequently pulse is dispersed at the output.

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 Cont...

• In the absence of ISI:

• In the design of the transmitting and receiving
filters, the objective is to minimize the effect
of ISI and thereby deliver the digital data to its
destination with the smallest error rate
possible.

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 Cont...
• The transfer function of the channel and the
transmitted pulse shape are specified.
• And Problem is:
– To determine the transfer functions of the
transmitting and receiving filters such that the
transmitted data sequence {bk} can be
reconstructed.

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 Nyquist’s Criterion for Distortionless
Baseband Binary Transmission
• The receiver reconstructs data sequence {bk} by
extracting and decoding the corresponding sequence
of weights {ak} from the output y(t).
• The extraction involves sampling the output y(t) at
some time t=iTb.
• The decoding requires that the weighted pulse
contribution as shown in the equation be free from
ISI due to overlapping trails of other weighted
contributions by k≠i.

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 Nyquist’s Criterion for Distortionless
Baseband Binary Transmission
• This requires that we control the received pulse
p(t).
Time domain condition
forzero ISI
• Therefore,

• This implies zero ISI condition of equation (I) by

assuring perfect reception with absence of noise.

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 Nyquist’s Criterion for Distortionless
Baseband Binary Transmission
Frequency domain condition for the perfect reception
• Let p(nTb) represents the impulses at which p(t) is
sampled for decision at a rate of Tb.
• The Fourier Transform of these impulses is given by:

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 Nyquist’s Criterion for Distortionless
Baseband Binary Transmission
• By putting n=i-k

• By substituting
• We get,

• Therefore,
• Using Equation (II) ,

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 Nyquist’s Criterion for Distortionless
Baseband Binary Transmission

• This is frequency domain condition for zero ISI

in the absence of noise (perfect reception) .

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 Eye Pattern or Eye Diagram
• In a bandlimited channel, the pulse spreading at
the output of the system will dispersed over an
interval which is longer than that of the
transmitted pulse.
• Eye diagram is a very effective tool for digital
signal analysis during real time experiments.
• An eye pattern is a practical technique for
determining the severity of the degradations
introduced by ISI and channel noise into the line
coded digital pulses in baseband transmission.

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 Eye Pattern or Eye Diagram
• Eye diagram is a simple and convenient engineering
tool applied on received signals for studying the
effects of
❑ISI
❑Accuracy of timing extraction
❑Noise Immunity
❑Determining the bit error rate (BER)
• Eye diagram provides information about the state of the
channel and quality of the received pulse.
• This information is useful for faithful detection of received
signal and determination of overall performance of digital
communication system.
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 Eye Diagram
• The eye diagram is created by taking the time domain
signal and overlapping the traces for a certain number
of symbols.
• The open part of the signal represents the time that
we can safely sample the signal with fidelity
Vertical and Horizontal Eye Openings
• The vertical eye opening or noise
margin is related to the SNR, and
thus the BER
– A large eye opening corresponds
to a low BER
• The horizontal eye opening relates
the jitter and the sensitivity of the
sampling instant to jitter
– The red brace indicates the range
of sample instants with good eye
opening
– At other sample instants, the eye
opening is greatly reduced, as
governed by the indicated slope
 Eye Diagram
• Eye diagram is a means of evaluating the quality of a
received “digital waveform”
– By quality is meant the ability to correctly recover symbols and
timing
– The received signal could be examined at the input to a digital
receiver or at some stage within the receiver before the decision
stage
• Eye diagrams reveal the impact of ISI and noise.
• Two major issues are
1) sample value variation, and
2) jitter and sensitivity of sampling instant
• Eye diagram reveals issues of both.
• Eye diagram can also give an estimate of achievable BER
Eye Diagram

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Interpretation of Eye Diagram
• The width of the eye opening defines the time
interval over which the received wave can be
sampled without error from ISI.
• It is apparent that preferred time for sampling is the
instant of time at which the eye is open widest.
• The sensitivity of the system to timing error is
determined by the rate of closure of the eye as the
sampling time is varied .
• The height of the eye opening , at a specified
sampling time, defines the margin over noise.

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 Eye Diagram

https://www.slideshare.net/GangatharanNarayanan/dc-unit-iii-final-ppt

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 Correlative Coding
• By adding ISI to the transmitted symbols in a
controlled manner, we can achieve the Nyquist
rate 2B in a channel bandwidth of B Hertz. Such
schemes are called as Correlative coding or
Partial-response signaling scheme.
• Since ISI introduced into the transmitted signal is
known, its effect can be interpreted at the
receiver in a deterministic way.
• The basic idea is Duobinary Signalling
– “Duo” means Doubling of the transmission capacity a
straight binary system
– Also Duobinary encoder output is follwing duobinary
line code format.
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 Correlative Code/Duo Binary
Code/DICODE/Partial Response Signalling Code
• According to Nyquist’s theorem, fb/2 or Rb/2 Hz
bandwidth is required for fb or Rb bits/sec transmission
without ISI distortion. For this Nyquist filter is required
but is not realizable.
• Practically fb Hz bandwidth is required for fb bps
transmission.
• By using correlative coding , Rb bps transmission is
possible with negligible ISI with a bandwidth of fb/2 or
Rb/2 Hz.
• i.e. By using correlative coding, the binary rate can be
doubled. So, correlative coding is also known as Duo-
Binary Code.

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 Duo Binary Signalling Scheme
Encoder
• Assume that input binary data format is NRZ polar
with amplitudes ±1 volt and interval Tb sec.
• Duobinary encoder output, Ck= bk+bk-1
• Characteristic polynomial of binary scheme is 1+D.
Where D=delay unit.

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 Duo Binary Signalling Scheme
Encoder
• Example: Input data : 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

Input 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
data
bk -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1
bk-1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1
(assumed)

Ck -2 -2 0 0 0 2 0

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 Duo Binary Signalling Scheme
Encoder
• Two adjacent Duobinary pulse one common
bit.
• For C1 & C2 , input bit b1 is common . Due to
this reason, two adjacent C1=b1+b0 , C2= b2+b1
pulses are correlated. So, the code is called
correlative code.

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 Duo Binary Signalling Scheme
Decoder
• If Ck = +2 volt ; o/p bit is 1
= -2 volt ; o/p bit is 0
= 0 volt ;o/p bit is complement of previous bit
Binary Data output
Ck : -2 -2 0 0 0 2 0

Tb
Duobinary Decision Binary data
Signal Device output
Ck

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 Duo Binary Signalling Scheme
• Disadvantages:
– Error Propagation
– Polarity Inversion
• Assume that amplitude of second received pulse is zero
volt due to noise present in the channel.(one bit error
during transmission)
Ck : -2 0 0 0 0 2 0
Binary o/p: 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Error propagated Input data : 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
Binary Data output
Ck : 2 2 0 0 0 -2 0 Ck : -2 -2 0 0 0 2 0
Binary o/p: 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
Polarity Inversion
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 Cont...
• Error Propagation & Polarity Inversion can be
avoided by using differential encoder before
Duobinary encoder. This differential encoder is
known as precoder.

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 Duo Binary Signalling Scheme with
Precoder
• Precoder o/p, dk = bk xor dk-1
• Function of Pulse amplitude Modulator(PAM) is to generate
amplitude levels of +1 volt and -1 volt when the input bits are
1 and 0. In place of PAM, NRZ Polar Generator can also be
used.
• Duobinary encoder output , Ck = dk + dk-1

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 Duo Binary Signalling Scheme
Encoder with Precoder
• Example: Input data : 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
Input 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
data
bk 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
dk-1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
(assumed)

dk 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
dk (volt) -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1
dk-1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1
(volt)
Ck -2 -2 0 2 0 0 2

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 Duo Binary Signalling Scheme
Decoder with Precoder
Tb
Duobinary Decision Binary data
Signal Device output
Ck

• Precoder o/p: dk = bk xor dk-1

Using property, bk = dk xor dk-1
• Duobinary o/p, Ck = dk + dk-1
– case I: If dk ≠ dk-1 then Ck = 0 volt & bk = 1
– case II: If dk = dk-1 then Ck = ±2 volt & bk = 0

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 Cont...
• Decision Algorithm:
– If Ck = 0 volt ; output bit is 1
– If Ck = ±2 volt ; output bit is 0

Ck : -2 -2 0 2 0 0 2
Decoder o/p: 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

Advantages:
• No error propagation
• No polarity inversion error

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 Transfer function of Duobinary Conversion
Filter
• Duobinary Encoder

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 Transfer function of Duobinary
Conversion Filter

• Nyquist Filter Transfer Function

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 Transfer function of Duobinary
Conversion Filter
• Duobinary conversion filter(Cosine Filter)

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 Transfer function of Duobinary
Conversion Filter
• If Tb=1, then the magnitude and phase
response of duo binary conversion filter will
be as shown in below figure.

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 Transfer function of Duobinary
Conversion Filter
• Impulse response of duobinary conversion
filter: [By finding inverse FT of HD(f)]

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 References
[1] Digital communications - Simon Haykin, John Wiley, 2005 .
[2]https://www.slideshare.net/GangatharanNarayanan/dc-unit-
iii-final-ppt.
[3]https://www.slideshare.net/rinaahire/line-coding-15852152.
[4]https://www.tutorialspoint.com/digital_communication/digita
l_communication_line_codes.htm.

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