Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

Province of Laguna

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Second Semester, Academic Year 2019-2020

GEC 1– GEC ELECTIVE-1

WRITTEN REPORT
MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY

Submitted by:
ARGONCILLO, RAPHAEL GABRIEL
BARAERO, KARL WENDELL
CAMACHO, JOSEPH ALEN
CONTE, MELCHIE MAY
DIZON, AVELINO JR.
FLORES, JESSICA BIATRIZ
GOGOLIN, JOT JAIO

ELLAINE CHING
INSTRUCTOR
Major types of Ecosystem

There are two major types of Ecosystem namely the Terrestrial Ecosystem and the
Aquatic Ecosystem. The following ecosystems have their sub- type, for the Terrestrial
Ecosystem it has six primary types and for the Aquatic Ecosystem it has two sub-types.

Terrestrial Ecosystem

This is one of the two major types of ecosystem, it is found only on biomes known as
beds. It has six primary types namely; tundra, taiga, temperate deciduous forest,
tropical rainforest, grassland and desert.

- Six Primary Terrestrial Ecosystem

Tundra

- The word “tundra” comes from the Finnish word tunturia which means treeless
land.

- There are two types of tundra which are called Arctic (ice) and Alpine (green)
Tundra.

Taiga

- It is the largest terrestrial ecosystem found in the lands of Europe, North

America and Asia.
- This ecosystem experiences short wet summers and long cold winters and
plenty of rainfall during the summer season.

Temperate Deciduous Forest

- This primary type of ecosystem gets to experience the four types of

season(summer, fall, winter and spring) which is each of these four seasons only
last 3 months in a year.
- Countries like the United States, Canada, Europe, China and Japan falls under
this kind of ecosystem.
- Leaves that grow from this type of ecosystem changes its color from green to
brown, because of the production of chlorophyll in plants stops.

Tropical Rainforest

- Tropical Rainforest covers 7% of the earth’s surface. It is considered to be one of

the oldest ecosystem that exist on earth.
- Tropical rainforest are responsible in production of oxygen which we breathe

Grassland
 - Grassland ecosystem are normally found surrounding places like deserts and
forest. In fact 25% of the earth’s surface is covered with grassland, each
continent have this ecosystem except in Antarctica.
- Grassland can be identified into two kinds; the tropical grassland (that has a
warm weather) and the temperate grassland (that experience both warm and
cold weather).

Desert

- Deserts covers the surface of the earth for about 20%.

- Sahara Desert is an example of a desert and is considered to be the largest
desert can be found.
- Desert ecosystem ca be found except in Europe.

Aquatic Ecosystem

It is the second and last major type of ecosystem. It is found in bodies of water and has
two primary types ( Marine and Freshwater Ecosystem) and each type has two
classification (Marine: ocean and coral ecosystem; Freshwater: lotic and lentic) under it.

Marine Ecosystem.
- It is the largest ecosystem that covers approximately 71% of the earth’s
surface
- Minerals and salts can be found in the marine ecosystem.
- There are two types of marine ecosystem which are the coral reef and the
ocean ecosystem. Ocean ecosystem is the home of the largest known
mammal (blue whale). Coral reef ecosystem are located on the shallow clear
part of the ocean.
Freshwater Ecosystem
- This type of ecosystem only covers 0.8% of the earth’s surface. Freshwater
ecosystem has two basic types namely lentic and the lotic ecosystem.
- Lentic ecosystem this is also known as a standing water its examples are
lakes, ponds, swamps, and marshes.
- Lotic ecosystems are also known as a flowing waters its examples are rivers,
streams, creeks and springs.

Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety of living species on Earth, including plants,
animals, bacteria, and fungi. While Earth’s biodiversity is so rich that many species
have yet to be discovered, many species are being threatened with extinction due to
human activities, putting the Earth’s magnificent biodiversity at risk. Biodiversity is a
term used to describe the enormous variety of life on Earth. It can be used more
specifically to refer to all of the species in one region or ecosystem.

Biodiversity refers to every living thing, including plants, bacteria, animals, and
humans. Scientists have estimated that there are around 8.7 million species of
plants and animals in existence. However, only around 1.2 million species have been
identified and described so far, most of which are insects. This means that millions of
other organisms remain a complete mystery. Over generations, all of the species that
are currently alive today have evolved unique traits that make them distinct from other
species.

These differences are what scientists use to tell one species from another.
Organisms that have evolved to be so different from one another that they can no
longer reproduce with each other are considered different species. All organisms
that can reproduce with each other fall into one species. Scientists are interested in how
much biodiversity there is on a global scale, given that there is still so much biodiversity
to discover. They also study how many species exist in single ecosystems, such as a
forest, grassland, tundra, or lake.

A single grassland can contain a wide range of species, from beetles to snakes to
antelopes. Ecosystems that host the most biodiversity tend to have ideal environmental
conditions for plant growth, like the warm and wet climate of tropical regions.
Ecosystems can also contain species too small to see with the naked eye. Looking at
samples of soil or water through a microscope reveals a whole world of bacteria and
other tiny organisms. Some areas in the world, such as areas of Mexico, South
Africa, Brazil, the southwestern United States, and Madagascar, have more
biodiversity than others. Areas with extremely high levels of biodiversity are
called hotspots.

Endemic species—species that are only found in one particular location—are

also found in hotspots. All of the Earth’s species work together to survive and
maintain their ecosystems. For example, the grass in pastures feeds cattle. Cattle
then produce manure that returns nutrients to the soil, which helps to grow more
grass. This manure can also be used to fertilize cropland. Many species provide
important benefits to humans, including food, clothing, and medicine. Much of the
Earth’s biodiversity, however, is in jeopardy due to human consumption and other
activities that disturb and even destroy ecosystems. Pollution, climate change, and
population growth are all threats to biodiversity. These threats have caused an
unprecedented rise in the rate of species extinction. Some scientists estimate that half
of all species on Earth will be wiped out within the next century. Conservation efforts are
necessary to preserve biodiversity and protect endangered species and their habitats.
The term was coined in 1985 – a contraction of “biological diversity” – but the huge
global biodiversity losses now becoming apparent represent a crisis equalling – or quite
possibly surpassing – climate change.

More formally, biodiversity is comprised of several levels, starting with genes, then
individual species, then communities of creatures and finally entire ecosystems, such as
forests or coral reefs, where life interplays with the physical environment. These myriad
interactions have made Earth habitable for billions of years.

A more philosophical way of viewing biodiversity is this: it represents the

knowledge learned by evolving species over millions of years about how to
survive through the vastly varying environmental conditions Earth has
experienced. Seen like that, experts warn, humanity is currently “burning the library of
life”.

Just how diverse is biodiversity?

The simplest aspect to consider is species. About 1.7 million species of animals,
plants and fungi have been recorded, but there are likely to be 8-9 million and
possibly up to 100 million. The heartland of biodiversity is the tropics, which
teems with species. In 15 hectares (37 acres) of Borneo forest, for example, there
are 700 species of tree – the same number as the whole of North America.

Recent work considering diversity at a genetic level has suggested that creatures
thought to be a single species could in some cases actually be dozens. Then add in
bacteria and viruses, and the number of distinct organisms may well be in the billions. A
single spoonful of soil – which ultimately provides 90% of all food – contains 10,000 to
50,000 different types of bacteria.

The concern is that many species are being lost before we are even aware of them, or
the role they play in the circle of life.

How bad is it?

The best studied creatures are the ones like us – large mammals. Tiger numbers,
for example, have plunged by 97% in the last century. In many places, bigger
animals have already been wiped out by humans e.g. dodos or woolly
mammoths.

The extinction rate of species is now thought to be about 1,000 times higher than before
humans dominated the planet, which may be even faster than the losses after a giant
meteorite wiped out the dinosaurs 65m years ago. The sixth mass extinction in
geological history has already begun, according to some scientists.
Lack of data means the “red list”, produced by the International Union for Conservation
of Nature, has only assessed 5% of known species. But for the best known groups it
finds many are threatened: 25% of mammals, 41% of amphibians and 13% of birds.

Species extinction provides a clear but narrow window on the destruction of

biodiversity – it is the disappearance of the last member of a group that is by
definition rare. But new studies are examining the drop in the total number of
animals, capturing the plight of the world’s most common creatures.

The results are scary. Billions of individual populations have been lost all over the
planet, with the number of animals living on Earth having plunged by half since 1970.
Abandoning the normally sober tone of scientific papers, researchers call the massive
loss of wildlife a “biological annihilation” representing a “frightening assault on the
foundations of human civilisation”.

What’s destroying biodiversity?

We are, particularly as the human population rises and wild areas are razed to
create farmland, housing and industrial sites. The felling of forests is often the
first step and 30m hectares - the area of the Britain and Ireland - were lost
globally in 2016.

Poaching and unsustainable hunting for food is another major factor. More
than 300 mammal species, from chimpanzees to hippos to bats, are being eaten into
extinction.

Pollution is a killer too, with orcas and dolphins being seriously harmed by long-lived
industrial pollutants. Global trade contributes further harm: amphibians have suffered
one of the greatest declines of all animals due to a fungal disease thought to be spread
around the world by the pet trade. Global shipping has also spread highly damaging
invasive species around the planet, particularly rats.

The hardest hit of all habitats may be rivers and lakes, with freshwater animal
populations in these collapsing by 81% since 1970, following huge water extraction for
farms and people, plus pollution and dams.

Diversity at different levels of biological organization

1. Individual (species or organism) A species is a group of reproductively isolated

organisms. It is the basic unit of taxonomic classification of organisms

2. Population: Population is a group of individuals of the same species occupying

a distinct space at a certain time. It contains genetic variation within itself.
 3. Community: A group of interacting organisms sharing a specific geographical
area and it shows species diversity.

4. Ecosystem: It refers to all the abiotic factors (physical and chemical

constituents) and all the communities that established in a specific area.
Community diversity exists at this level due to the presence of different
communities in an ecosystem.

5. Biomes-Largest ecological unit present in different geographic area and named

after the dominant vegetation. Variation in the structure and functions of different
ecosystems creates ecosystem diversity. Terrestrial biodiversity of earth is
described as biomes.

6. Biosphere: Biosphere is the sum of all the ecosystems established on Earth.. It

is the whole portion of Earth colonized by living beings.

Levels of Biodiversity
The following are the three common levels of biodiversity namely Genetic diversity,
Species diversity and Ecological diversity.

What is Genetic diversity?

- The word genetic is define as heredity or origin. Diversity on the other hand is
defined as a range of different things. Genetic diversity means that each
species possesses genes which are the source of each species’ uniqueness.
- Diversity of genes within a species. All living organisms share a common
molecule, ribonucleic acid (RNA), and most also have deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). All species have descended from a single, common ancestor, species
diverge and develop their own peculiar attributes with time, thus making their
own contribution to biodiversity.
-
Significance of Genetic diversity
- The huge variety of different gene sets also define an individual or a whole
population’s ability to tolerate stress from any given environmental factor.
How do human activities affect the genetic diversity?
- Changes from the environment may it be natural or from human activity,
changes and affects a selection of events that only the fittest survive. The
 following events or impacts that humans cause the diminishing of genetic
diversity.
1. Anthropogenic impact- this are events that are caused by human activities.
 Natural Selection and Artificial Selection
It is a selective breeding of individual
It is the nature that select species
species. Its objective is to produce
that has favorable variations for
offspring’s that has a favorable trait
better survival in the environment.
that will benefit the human being.
Though it also has a slow process it
Species that undergo in this
is much more fast than of the
selection can only be fully new
naturally selected species.
species for a hundreds of years.

The genetic diversity remains high The quality of the genetic diversity
and produces a great result in the that undergoes in the artificial
gene pool. selection is lowered.

 The release of farmed species to the wild- this activity makes species to
adapt in another environment that is not the same from their natural
environment. This activity can result to the species’ evolution or worse it
can result to extinction.
Why prevent the loss of Genetic diversity?
- Although it is hard to distinguish or have an exact number of the loss of
genetic diversity, it is alarming to know that we are experiencing rapid
extinction of different species that can affect the genetic diversity. This loss
affects the ability of certain species’ to perform its inherent role in the whole
ecosystem.
What is Species diversity?
- Species diversity can be defined as the abundance of each species that lives
in a particular location is called species richness.
Significance of Species diversity
- The composition of species in a given environment is a result of long lasting
evolution. Species undergoes an ecological niche which means that a species
plays a role in their natural habitat, the resources it gains from their habitat.
- diversity among species in an ecosystem
- It is the variety of species within a habitat or a region. Species are the basic
units of biological classification and thus the normal measure of biological
diversity.
How human activities affect the Species diversity?
- Humans cause a major disturbance in the species diversity. Humans
contribute a big part on the loss of species diversity. The following activities
like over-exploitation, pollution and habitat conversion, introduction of new
species are some of the activities that does not benefit other species.
Why prevent the loss of species?
- Its clear that the loss of species diversity is also the loss o functionality which
greatly affects us human beings, reduction of commercially used fish stocks
and erosion of soil and sediment can be the result of the loss if species
diversity.
What is Ecological diversity?
- It deals with the variation of the ecosystem and the geological location, the
human impact and the environment.
- diversity of a habitat given in a unit area
- It is the intricate network of different species present in local ecosystems and
the dynamic interplay between them. Measuring ecological diversity is difficult
because each of earth’s ecosystems merges into the ecosystems around it.

How human activities affects the Ecological diversity ?

- Human action affects greatly in our ecological diversity, with the continuous
growth of our population, human activity also takes a lift that demands the
ecological diversity which is also a problem because we only have limited
resources like lands for shelter. The demand in shelter forces other species to
migrate to new habitats which may or may not have a good affect in them.
Why prevent Ecological diversity?
- We should prevent and balance the demands in the ecological diversity. The
complex network of various living organism should be preserved.

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
1. ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE
The environmental value of biodiversity can be found by examining each ecosystem process
and identifying the ecosystem services that result. For instance, in wetlands the vegetation
captures water- carried sediment and the soil organisms break down a range of nutrients
and pollutants washed into the area.
2. Social Value
The social value of biodiversity includes aesthetic, recreational, cultural and spiritual values.
To this can be added health benefits resulting from recreational and other activities. While
traditional societies which had a small population and required less resources had
preserved their biodiversity as a life supporting resource, modern man has rapidly depleted
it even to the extent of leading to the irrecoverable loss due to extinction of several species.
3. Ecosystem Services
These services also support human needs and activities such as intensely managed
production ecosystems.
4. Economic Value
The economic potential of biodiversity is immense in terms of food, fodder, medicinal, ethical
and social values. Biodiversity forms the major resource for different industries, which
govern the world economy.
5. Consumptive Use Value
This is related to natural products that are used directly for food, fodder, timber, fuel wood
etc. Humans use at least 40,000 species of plants and animals on a daily basis. Many
people around the world still depend on wild species for most of their needs like food,
shelter and clothing. The tribal people are completely dependent on the forests for their daily
needs.
6. Productive Use Value
This is assigned to products that are commercially harvested and marketed. Almost all the
present date agricultural crops have originated from wild varieties. The biotechnologists
continuously use the wild species of plants for developing new, better yielding and disease
resistant varieties. Biodiversity represents the original stock from which new varieties are
being developed.
7. Ethical and Moral Value
It is based on the principle of ‘live and let others live’. Ethical values related to biodiversity
conservation are based on the importance of protecting all forms of life. All forms of life have
the right to exist on earth. Man is only a small part of the Earth’s great family of species.
8. Aesthetic Value
The beauty of our planet is because of biodiversity, which otherwise would have resembled
other barren planets dotted around the universe. Biological diversity adds to the quality of
life and provides some of the most beautiful aspects of our existence. Biodiversity is
responsible for the beauty of a landscape.
Biodiversity at Global
Global biodiversity is the measure of biodiversity on planet Earth and is defined as the
total variability of life forms.
Conservative estimates of the existing biodiversity is ten million species, but if
estimates for insects are correct then it could be around 30 million species, we have till
now enlisted about 1.4 million species. It includes among others about 98% birds, 95%
reptiles and 90% fish and about 85% higher plants knownto exist on this Earth.
Biodiversity at Global level is vast and widespread due to Variation in Climate,
Atmosphere, Topographic factors, Edaphic factors.
FOUR ZONE BASE ON CLIMATE
1. Arctic Zone – Zone near the pole.
2. Southern Temperate Zone – Region of Southern Africa, Australia and New
Zealand.
3. Northern Temperate Zone – Parts of United States of America and Canada.
4. Tropical Zone – Region of tropical Africa. Tropical Asia, Mexico and large areas
of South America.

REGION BASE ON FAUNA

1. Oriental Region – Rainfall is sufficient in most part of this region.
2. Neotropical Region – Regions of South America, Central America and some
parts of Mexico.
3. Australian Region – Deserts and dry plains.
4. Nearctic Region – Green America.
5. Palearctic Region – Largest geographical region include Europe, Northern parts
of Africa and Asia.
Local
The Philippines is one of the 17 mega bio diverse countries, containing two-thirds of the
Earth’s biodiversity and 70 percent of world’s plants and animal species due to its
geographical isolation, diverse habitats and high rates of endemism. It provides food,
water, energy sources, pharmaceuticals, biomass fuels, carbon sequestration and
climate regulation, crop pollination, cultural and spiritual inspiration and ecotourism
value.
In the 2000 Red List of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUNC)
1. 418 of the country’s 52,177 species were listed a threatened.
2. The country is home to about 9,000 species of flora, a third of which is said to be
endemic to the country
3. It hosts 165 species of mammals, 121 of which can be found only in this part of
the world. However, these are critically endangered.
4. There are also 332 species of reptiles and amphibians living in the country, 215
of them are endemic to the archipelago.
5. It is said to that less than 14 of the 114 total species of snakes in the country is
poisonous.
6. Several species of frogs and other reptiles remain to be documented. Several
species were believed to have vanished without being studied.
According to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), the
country’s total forest size dwindled to 6.7 million hectares in 1990 from 30 million
hectares in 1930. At the same time, the forest-to-man ratio shrank to 0.1 hectares per
Filipino in 1990 from 1.13 hectares per Filipino in 1930. By 1996, experts claimed that
only 1.8 million to 2.4 million hectares or 6 to 8 percent of original vegetation were
remaining.
A study by the Philippine Congress said that 123,000 hectares of the country’s forest
cover are lost every year. The study added that by 2036, there would be no forest left
in the Philippines, unless reforestation is started. In January 2003, a study be the Green
Tropics International (GTI) claimed that the Philippines would need P30 trillion to
reforest country’s denuded maintains in over 85 years.
In 1953, Albert Herre identified 2,117 species of fish in Philippine waters. These
included 330 species of endemic freshwater fish. Whales, dolphins and whale sharks
have also been visiting Philippine waters near the islands, allowing sightings by both
marine scientist and commercial fishermen. He also identified about 500 of the 800
known coral reef species in the world are found in the Philippine waters. The country
also has the highest concentration of birds and butterflies in the world. These are some
86 species of birds and 895 species of butterflies in the country. About 352 species of
butterflies are endemic to the Philippines.
Many of these biological wonders are now in danger. The main culprit is human’s
indiscriminate use of the country’s natural resources, resulting in an unabated
denudation of the Philippine rainforest.
In the last 500 years, the Philippines saw the destruction of over 93 percent of its
original forest cover.
Only about 5 percent of the country’s 27,000 square kilometers of coral reefs were in
excellent condition.

NATIONAL
Anaconda Suns Itself
An anaconda suns itself on an overhanging branch along the murky waters of the
Tiputini River, Ecuador. Anacondas, the largest snakes in the world, are a sign of a
biodiverse area. Animals that can grow as large as adult anacondas need a healthy
food supply and expansive environment that includes both terrestrial and aquatic areas.
Green anacondas like this one can grow to more than 5 meters (15 feet) and weigh
more than 98 kilograms (216 pounds).
Roosevelt Elk
Roosevelt elk live in the temperate rain forests of the states of California, Oregon, and
Washington, and the Canadian province of British Columbia. This one is in Prairie
Creek Redwoods State Park, California. The biodiversity of this old-growth forest
includes coast redwoods, ferns, owls, and mountain lions.
Giant Megasoma Beetle

People have been fascinated by the biodiversity of Brazil's tropical rain forests for
decades. Here, a giant Megasoma beetle creeps toward scientists of different ages,
near Serra do Navio, Brazil.
Clear-Cutting in Brazil
The biodiversity in tropical rain forests is not in their soil, which is often of poor quality,
but in their canopy, or layer of overhanging tree branches. The biodiversity of the
Amazon rain forest includes hundreds of thousands of insects and plants, some of
which have the potential to treat human diseases. Here, and all over the Amazon basin,
companies and governments are destroying the rain forest for agriculture, housing, and
industry.
 What threatens biodiversity?
Extinction
The elimination of a species, is a normal process of the natural world. Species die out
and are replaced by others, often their own descendants, as part of evolutionary
change. In undisturbed ecosystems, the rate of extinction appears to be about one
species lost every decade. In this century, however, human impacts on populations and
ecosystems have accelerated that rate, causing hundreds or perhaps even thousands
of species, sub-species, and varieties to become extinct every year. If present trends
continue, we may destroy millions of kinds of plants, animals, and microbes in the next
few decades.
Types of threats:
1) Natural Threats – threats that occur naturally in nature

 Narrow geographical area - species lives only in one place, if it is degraded or

destroyed their habitat will be affected or gone

 Low population - smaller populations have smaller genetic diversity and are
less resilient (large predators and extreme specialists e.g. snow leopard and
tiger)

 Low breeding rate – species with low reproductive potential reproduce slowly
and infrequently (e.g. whales, and larger seabirds e.g. albatrosses which only
produce one egg per pair per year)

 Natural disasters - natural hazard events (e.g. volcanoes, drought, ice age,
meteor impact)

2) Anthropogenic Threats – threats that are cause due to human activities

 Overexploitation of resources - the rising human population caused an

increase in demand for manufactured products, essential goods and services.
Forms of resource exploitation for profit has heightened the risks of species
extinction. It has also altered natural habits therefore destroying food chains and
interfering with the ecological balance.

 Habitat loss and deforestation - When such habitats are lost due to
deforestation and other anthropogenic activities such as mining, the respective
 environments are unable to provide shelter, food, water, or breeding grounds for
the living organisms.

 Climate change - The global climatic changes throughout the history have
definitely modified life and ecosystems in the planet. If the global temperatures
continue to change drastically, especially due to anthropogenic activities that
accelerate the process, the threats to biodiversity will continue to expand as
ecosystems and species will not be able to adapt.

 Invasive species – These are the non-native species that invade normal and
healthy ecosystems and threaten the survival of the native species either by
attacking them or competing for the habitat’s resources. They upset the native
biota and ecosystems thereby causing extinctions and massive threats to
biodiversity.

 Pollution – It continued to harm the biosphere by releasing and depositing toxic

chemicals into the atmospheric, terrestrial and marine systems. It gradually
disrupts the earth’s ecosystems as the chemicals released potentially influences
species’ habits and ecosystems

Conservation of Biodiversity
Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of
wildlife and natural resources such as forests and water. Through the conservation of
biodiversity and the survival of many species and habitats which are threatened due to
human activities can be ensured. There is an urgent need, not only to manage and
conserve the biotic wealth, but also restore the degraded ecosystems.
Humans have been directly or indirectly dependent on biodiversity for
sustenance to a considerable extent. However, increasing population pressure and
developmental activities have led to large scale depletion of the natural resources.
Types of Conservation:
Conservation can broadly be divided into two types:
1. In-situ conservation
2. Ex-situ conservation
In-situ Conservation
In-situ conservation is on site conservation or the conservation of genetic
resources in natural populations of plant or animal species, such as forest genetic
resources in natural populations of tree species.
It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural
habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species
from predators.
It is applied to conservation of agricultural biodiversity in agro forestry by farmers,
especially those using unconventional farming practices. In-situ conservation is being
done by declaring area as protected area.
1. National Parks:
A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the betterment of the
wildlife and where activities like forestry, grazing on cultivation are not permitted. In
these parks, even private ownership rights are not allowed.
Their boundaries are well marked and circumscribed. They are usually small
reserves spreading in an area of 100 Sq. km. to 500 sq. km. In national parks, the
emphasis is on the preservation of a single plant or animal species. One of the national
Parks in the Philippines is the Pagsanjan Gorge National Park located in the Pagsanjan,
Laguna.
2. Wildlife Sanctuaries:
A sanctuary is a protected area which is reserved for the conservation of only
animals and human activities like harvesting of timber, collecting minor forest products
and private ownership rights are allowed as long as they do not interfere with well-being
of animals. Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary is one of the local wildlife sanctuaries located in
Sta. Rosa.
3. Biosphere Reserves:
It is a special category of protected areas where human population also forms a
part of the system. They are large protected area of usually more than 5000 sq.km. A
biosphere reserves has 3 parts- core, buffer and transition zone.
The main functions of biodiversity reserves are:
 Conservation:
To ensure the conservation of ecosystem, species and genetic resources.
 Development:
To promote economic development, while maintaining cultural, social and ecological
identity.
  Scientific Research:
To provide support for research related to monitoring and education, local, national
and global issues.
Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as ‘living laboratories’ for testing out and
demonstrating integrated management of land, water and biodiversity.
Advantages of in-situ conservation:
1. The flora and fauna live in natural habitats without human interference.
2. The life cycles of the organisms and their evolution progresses in a natural
way.
3. In-situ conservation provides the required green cover and its associated
benefits to our environment.
4. It is less expensive and easy to manage.
5. The interests of the indigenous people are also protected.
Ex-Situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity
outside their natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well
as wild and cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and
facilities. Such strategies include establishment of botanical gardens, zoos,
conservation strands and gene, pollen seed, seedling, tissue culture and DNA banks.
1. Seed gene bank:
These are cold storages where seeds are kept under controlled temperature and
humidity for storage and this is easiest way to store the germ plasma of plants at low
temperature. Seeds preserved under controlled conditions (minus temperature) remain
viable for long durations of time.
2. Gene bank:
Genetic variability also is preserved by gene bank under normal growing
conditions. These are cold storages where germ plasm are kept under controlled
temperature and humidity for storage; this is an important way of preserving the genetic
resources.
3. Cryopreservation:
This is the newest application of technology for preservation of biotic parts. This
type of conservation is done at very low temperature (196°C) in liquid nitrogen. The
metabolic activities of the organisms are suspended under low temperature, which are
later used for research purposes.
4. Tissue culture bank:
Cryopreservation of disease free meristems is very helpful. Long term culture of
excised roots and shoots are maintained. Meristem culture is very popular in plant
propagation as it’s a virus and disease free method of multiplication.
5. Long term captive breeding:
The method involves capture, maintenance and captive breeding on long term
basis of individuals of the endangered species which have lost their habitat permanently
or certain highly unfavorable conditions are present in their habitat.
6. Botanical gardens:
A botanical garden is a place where flowers, fruits and vegetables are grown.
The botanical gardens provide beauty and calm environment. Most of them have started
keeping exotic plants for educational and research purposes.
7. Animal Translocation:
Release of animals in a new locality which come from anywhere else.
Translocation is carried in following cases:
1. When a species on which an animal is dependent becomes rare.
2. When a species is endemic or restricted to a particular area.
3. Due to habit destruction and unfavorable environment conditions.
4. Increase in population in an area.
5. Zoological Gardens:
In zoos wild animals are maintained in captivity and conservation of wild animals
(rare, endangered species). The oldest zoo, the Schonbrumm zoo which exists today
also, was established in VIENNA in 1759.
The Manila Zoo, formally known as the Manila Zoological and Botanical Garden,
is the first zoo of the Philippines located in Malate, Manila that opened on July 25, 1959.

Advantages of ex-situ preservation:

1. It is useful for declining population of species.
2. Endangered animals on the verge of extinction are successfully breeded.
3. Threatened species are breeded in captivity and then released in the natural
habitats.
 4. Ex-situ centers offer the possibilities of observing wild animals, which is
otherwise not possible.
5. It is extremely useful for conducting research and scientific work on different
species.
Difference between “In-situ Conservation” and “Ex-situ Conservation”
Some of the major Differences between In-situ and ex-situ Conservation are as
follows:
In situ Conservation:
1. It is conservation of endangered species in their natural habitats.
2. The endangered species are protected from predators.
3. The depleting resources are augmented.
4. The population recovers in natural environment.
Ex situ Conservation:
1. It is conservation of endangered species outside their natural habitats.
2. The endangered species are protected from all adverse factors.
3. They are kept under human supervision and provided all the essentials.
4. Offspring produced in captive breeding are released in natural habitat for
acclimatization.

Environmental Problems
Our environment is constantly changing. There is no denying that. However, as our
environment changes, so does the need to become increasingly aware of the problems
that surround it. With a massive influx of natural disasters, warming and cooling periods,
different types of weather patterns and much more, people need to be aware of what
types of environmental problems our planet is facing.

Global warming has become an undisputed fact about our current livelihoods;
our planet is warming up and we are definitely part of the problem. However, this
isn’t the only environmental problem that we should be concerned about. All across the
world, people are facing a wealth of new and challenging environmental problems every
day. Some of them are small and only affect a few ecosystems, but others are
drastically changing the landscape of what we already know.

Our planet is poised at the brink of a severe environmental crisis. Current

environmental problems make us vulnerable to disasters and tragedies, now and
in the future. We are in a state of planetary emergency, with environmental problems
piling up high around us. Unless we address the various issues prudently and seriously
we are surely doomed for disaster. Current environmental problems require urgent
attention.

15 Major Current Environmental Problems

1. Pollution: Pollution of air, water and soil require millions of years to recoup. Industry
and motor vehicle exhaust are the number one pollutants. Heavy metals, nitrates and
plastic are toxins responsible for pollution. While water pollution is caused by oil spill,
acid rain, urban runoff; air pollution is caused by various gases and toxins released by
industries and factories and combustion of fossil fuels; soil pollution is majorly caused
by industrial waste that deprives soil from essential nutrients.

2. Global Warming: Climate changes like global warming is the result of human

practices like emission of Greenhouse gases. Global warming leads to rising
temperatures of the oceans and the earth’ surface causing melting of polar ice caps,
rise in sea levels and also unnatural patterns of precipitation such as flash floods,
excessive snow or desertification.

3. Overpopulation: The population of the planet is reaching unsustainable levels as it

faces shortage of resources like water, fuel and food. Population explosion in less
developed and developing countries is straining the already scarce resources. Intensive
agriculture practiced to produce food damages the environment through use of chemical
fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides. Overpopulation is one of the crucial current
environmental problem.

4. Natural Resource Depletion: Natural resource depletion is another crucial current

environmental problems. Fossil fuel consumption results in emission of Greenhouse
gases, which is responsible for global warming and climate change. Globally, people
are taking efforts to shift to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, biogas and
geothermal energy. The cost of installing the infrastructure and maintaining these
sources has plummeted in the recent years.

5. Waste Disposal: The over consumption of resources and creation of plastics are

creating a global crisis of waste disposal. Developed countries are notorious for
producing an excessive amount of waste or garbage and dumping their waste in the
oceans and, less developed countries. Nuclear waste disposal has tremendous health
hazards associated with it. Plastic, fast food, packaging and cheap electronic wastes
threaten the well being of humans. Waste disposal is one of urgent current
environmental problem.

6. Climate Change: Climate change is yet another environmental problem that has

surfaced in last couple of decades. It occurs due to rise in global warming which occurs
due to increase in temperature of atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels and release of
harmful gases by industries. Climate change has various harmful effects but not limited
to melting of polar ice, change in seasons, occurrence of new diseases, frequent
occurrence of floods and change in overall weather scenario.

7. Loss of Biodiversity: Human activity is leading to the extinction of species and

habitats and and loss of bio-diversity. Eco systems, which took millions of years to
perfect, are in danger when any species population is decimating. Balance of natural
processes like pollination is crucial to the survival of the eco-system and human activity
threatens the same. Another example is the destruction of coral reefs in the various
oceans, which support the rich marine life.

8. Deforestation: Our forests are natural sinks of carbon dioxide and produce fresh
oxygen as well as helps in regulating temperature and rainfall. At present forests cover
30% of the land but every year tree cover is lost amounting to the country of Panama
due to growing population demand for more food, shelter and cloth. Deforestation
simply means clearing of green cover and make that land available for residential,
industrial or commercial purpose.

9. Ocean Acidification: It is a direct impact of excessive production of CO2. 25% of

CO2 produced by humans. The ocean acidity has increased by the last 250 years but
by 2100, it may shoot up by 150%. The main impact is on shellfish and plankton in the
same way as human osteoporosis.

10. Ozone Layer Depletion: The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around
the planet that protects us from the sun’s harmful rays. Depletion of the crucial Ozone
layer of the atmosphere is attributed to pollution caused by Chlorine and Bromide found
in Chloro-floro carbons (CFC’s). Once these toxic gases reach the upper atmosphere,
they cause a hole in the ozone layer, the biggest of which is above the Antarctic. The
CFC’s are banned in many industries and consumer products. Ozone layer is valuable
because it prevents harmful UV radiation from reaching the earth. This is one of the
most important current environmental problem.

11. Acid Rain: Acid rain occurs due to the presence of certain pollutants in the
atmosphere. Acid rain can be caused due to combustion of fossil fuels or erupting
volcanoes or rotting vegetation which release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the
atmosphere. Acid rain is a known environmental problem that can have serious effect
on human health, wildlife and aquatic species.

12. Water Pollution: Clean drinking water is becoming a rare commodity. Water is

becoming an economic and political issue as the human population fights for this
resource. One of the options suggested is using the process of desalinization. Industrial
development is filling our rivers seas and oceans with toxic pollutants which are a major
threat to human health.

13. Urban Sprawl: Urban sprawl refers to migration of population from high density
urban areas to low density rural areas which results in spreading of city over more and
more rural land. Urban sprawl results in land degradation, increased traffic,
environmental issues and health issues. The ever growing demand of land displaces
natural environment consisting of flora and fauna instead of being replaced.

14: Public Health Issues: The current environmental problems pose a lot of risk to
health of humans, and animals. Dirty water is the biggest health risk of the world and
poses threat to the quality of life and public health. Run-off to rivers carries along toxins,
chemicals and disease carrying organisms. Pollutants cause respiratory disease like
Asthma and cardiac-vascular problems. High temperatures encourage the spread of
infectious diseases like Dengue.

15. Genetic Engineering: Genetic modification of food using biotechnology is called

genetic engineering. Genetic modification of food results in increased toxins and
diseases as genes from an allergic plant can transfer to target plant. Genetically
modified crops can cause serious environmental problems as an engineered gene may
prove toxic to wildlife. Another drawback is that increased use of toxins to make insect
resistant plant can cause resultant organisms to become resistant to antibiotics.

The need for change in our daily lives and the movements of our government is
growing. Because so many different factors come into play; voting, governmental
issues, the desire to stick to routine, many people don’t consider that what they do will
affect future generations. If humans continue moving forward in such a harmful way
towards the future, then there will be no future to consider. Although it’s true that we
cannot physically stop our ozone layer from thinning (and scientists are still having
trouble figuring out what is causing it exactly,) there are still so many things we can do
to try and put a dent in what we already know. By raising awareness in your local
community and within your families about these issues, you can help contribute to a
more environmentally conscious and friendly place for you to live.