CHAPTER 13

HEAT

1
 Subtopics

13.1 Thermal conductivity

13.2 Thermal expansion

2
 13.1 Thermal conductivity
Learning Outcome:

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

a) Define heat as energy transfer due to temperature difference

b) Explain the physical meaning of thermal conductivity

dQ  dT 
c) Use rate of heat transfer,   kA 
dt  x 
d) Use temperature-distance graphs to explain heat conduction
through insulated and non-insulated rods, and combination of rods
in series

3
 13.1 Thermal conductivity
Heat, Q
• is defined as the energy that is transferred from one body to
another because of a difference in temperature.
• Heat always transferred from a hot region (higher temperature)
to a cool region (lower temperature) until thermal equilibrium is
achieved.
• It is a scalar quantity and its unit is Joule (J).

Temperature, T
• is defined as a fundamental quantity that measures the degree
of hotness of a body.
• The units for temperature are degree celsius (centigrade) (C),
degree fahrenheit (F) and kelvin (K).
• It is scalar quantity and Its dimension is .

4
5
13.1.2 Thermal conduction

• is defined as a process whereby heat is transferred

through a solid from a region of high temperature to
a region of lower temperature.

• Heat can be transferred by three mechanisms,

– Conduction
– Convection
– Radiation

8
Thermal conduction in a insulator rod (non metal)
• Consider a non-metal rod is heated at its one end as shown in
Figure 13.1.

B
A
Figure 13.1

• At the hot end (A), molecules of the rod are receiving heat directly
from the fire. This causes the molecules to vibrate faster and
faster.
• Collision between these hot molecules with the neighbouring
colder molecules result in the transfer of energy to the colder
molecules.
• This transfer of energy will continue until the cold end (B) of the rod
become hot.

9
Thermal conduction in a metal rod

• A lot of free electrons are available in a metal.

• When one end (A) of the metal rod is heated, the free electrons will
gain additional thermal energy due to the heating.
• As a result, they move faster than before and some of them collide
with colder molecules at B.
• This collision cause the cold end (B) of the metal rod become hot.
• The transfer of energy by free electrons is found to be faster
compared to the transfer of energy by vibrating molecules in
the lattice. It is because electrons are lighter and move faster.

Conclusion : Metal much faster conducted the heat compare to the

insulator.

10
13.1.3 Rate of heat flow

Insulator
T1 A T2 T1  T2

x
Figure 13.2

• Consider heat conduction through a lagged rod which has cross

sectional area A and length dx as shown in Figure 13.2.
• By assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings, therefore heat
can only flow through the cross sectional area from higher
temperature region, T1 to lower temperature region, T2.
• When the rod in steady condition, the rate of heat flows is
constant along the rod.

11
• The rate of heat flow, dQ through the rod depends on three factors,
dt
dQ
a. A cross sectional area
dt
dQ dT
b.  temperature gradient through the cross
dt x sectional area

c.
dQ is dependent upon the type of material made the rod
dt i.e. copper or iron.
• Therefore a relationship between the rate of heat flow and the first two
factors is given by
dQ dT
 A
dt x
dQ dT dQ
 kA
T2  T1 
 kA OR
dt x dt x 12
 where
dQ
: rate of heat flow
dt
A : cross sectional area
dT
: temperature gradient
x
k : thermal conductivity

• The negative sign indicates that heat always in the direction of

decreasing temperature.
• The rate of heat flow is a scalar quantity.
• The dimension for the rate of heat flow equals to the dimension of
the power and its unit is J s1 or watt (W).

13
Thermal Conductivity, K
• is defined as a rate of heat flows perpendicularly through the
unit cross sectional area of a solid , per unit temperature
gradient along the direction of heat flow.
OR

 dQ 
 
k   dt 
 dT 
A 
 x 

• Thermal conductivity is a property of conducting material where

good conductors will have higher values of k compared to poor
conductors.
• It is a scalar quantity and its unit is W m1 K1 or W m1 C1.
Table 13.3 shows value of k for various substances.

Substance k ( W m1 K1)

Silver 406.0
Copper 385.0
Steel 50.2
Glass 0.8
Wood 0.08

Table 13.3
 16

Temperature gradient
• is defined as a temperature difference per unit length.
• The unit of temperature gradient is K m1 or C m1.
• Temperature gradient in the unlagged metal bar

X Y
T1 T2
T1  T2
Temperature, T
T1

T2
0 length, x
Figure 14.8
 – The metal bar XY is not covered with an insulator, thus
heat is lost to the surroundings from the sides of the bar.
The heat is transferred from X to Y.
– This cause the temperature gradient gradually decreases
along the bar and result a curve graph where the
temperature gradient at X higher than that at Y as shown
in Figure 14.8.
– Therefore
dQ dQ
at X  at Y
dt dt
where A and k are the same along the rod.

17
 18

Temperature Gradient In The Lagged Composite Metal Bar

X insulator Y
T1 T2
insulator
Temperature, T T1  T2 Figure 14.9

T1

T2
0 length, x
 If the metal bar XY was completely covered with a good
insulator, there will be no heat loss to the surroundings along the
bar.

This cause the temperature gradient will be constant along the

bar as shown in Figures 14.9 and

dQ
 constant along metal bar XY
dt
Temperature Gradient In The Lagged Composite Metal Bar

T3 insulator
T1  T3  T2
T1 Material C Material D T2 and
kC  k D
insulator
Temperature, T
T1
T3

T2
0 xC xC  xD  length, x
Figure 14.10
 – When steady state has been achieved , the rate of heat
flow through both materials is same.
– From the equation of thermal conductivity,
1 dQ
k where and A
 dT  dt
  are the same for both C and D.
 x 
– Because kC  k D therefore
 dT   dT 
   
 x C  x D
• Note :
– For the temperature change, dT  Tfinal  Tinitial
a temperature change of 1 K is exactly equal to a
temperature change of 1 C.
Example 13.1 :
Two properly insulated uniform rods D and E make thermal contact
at one end as shown in Figure 14.11.
80 C insulator

100 C D E T C
insulator
Figure 14.11
20 cm 40 cm
The cross sectional areas of both rods are the same. The rods are in
a steady condition.
a. Determine
i. the temperature gradient along the rod D,
ii. The temperature T at the free end of the rod E.
b. Sketch and label a graph to show the variation of the temperature
with distance x along D and E.
(Given kD = k W m1 C1; kE = ⅔ k W m1 C1) 22
Solution : TD  100  C; TDE  80  C; TE  T  C;
xD  0.20 m; xE  0.40 m
a. i. The temperature gradient along the rod D is

 dT  TDE  TD  dT  80  100
     
 x D xD  x D 0.20
 dT  1
   100 C m
 x D
ii. Since both rods are in the steady condition thus

 dQ   dQ 
   
 dt  D  dt  E
 dT   dT 
 k D A   k E A 
 x D  x E
23
Solution : TD  100  C; TDE  80  C; TE  T  C;
xD  0.20 m; xE  0.40 m
a. ii.
 dT   TE  TDE 
kD    kE  
 x D  x E
 T  80 
k  100    3 k 
2
 T  20  C
 0.40 
b. T C 
100
80

20
0 xm24
0.20 0.60
Example 13.2 :
A copper plate of thickness 1.0 cm is sealed to a steel plate of
thickness 10 cm as shown in Figure 13.8
insulator steel
copper

30 C 15 C

Figure 13.8
insulator
1.0 cm 10 cm

The temperature of the exposed surfaces of the copper and steel plates
are 30 C and 15 C respectively. Determine
a. the temperature of the interface between the copper and steel plates,
b. the amount of heat flowing from the copper plate to the steel plate
in one minute if the cross sectional area for both plates is 50 cm2
and no energy losses to the surroundings.
(Given k copper = 385 W m1 K1 and k steel = 50.2 W m1 K1)
25
 26

Solution : TC  30  C; TS  15  C; xC  0.01 m; xS  0.10 m;

kC  385 W m 1 K 1 ; kS  50.2 W m 1 K 1
a. When both rods are in the steady condition thus

 dQ   dQ 
   
 dt  C  dt S
 TCS  TC   TS  TCS 
 kC A   kS A 
 xC   xS 
 TCS  30   15  TCS 
385   50.2 
 0.01   0.10 
TCS  29.8 C
Solution :
TC  30  C; TS  15 C; xC  0.01 m; xS  0.10 m;
kC  385 W m 1 K 1; kS  50.2 W m 1 K 1
b. Given AC  AS  50 10 4 m 2 ; dt  60 s
Therefore the amount of heat flowing through the plates is given
by
dQ  TCS  TC 
 kC AC  
dt  xC 
 29.8  30 
dQ
 
  385 50 104
 
60  0.01 
dQ  2310 J

27
 28

Exercise 13.1 :
1. A metal plate 5.0 cm thick has a cross sectional area of
300 cm2. One of its face is maintained at 100C by placing it in
contact with steam and another face is maintained at 30C by
placing it in contact with water flow. Determine the thermal
conductivity of the metal plate if the rate of heat flow through the
plate is 9 kW.
(Assume the heat flow is steady and no energy is lost to the
surroundings).
ANS. : 214 W m1 K1
2. A rod 1.300 m long consists of a 0.800 m length of aluminium
joined end to end to a 0.500 m length of brass. The free end of
the aluminium section is maintained at 150.0C and the free end
of the brass piece is maintained at 20.0C. No heat is lost
through the sides of the rod. At steady state, Calculate the
temperature of the point where the two metal are joined.
(Given k of aluminium = 205 W m1C1 and k of brass =
109 W m1C1)
ANS. : 90.2 C
 13.2 Thermal Expansion

Learning Outcome:
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

a) Define and use the coefficient of linear, area and

volume thermal expansion
b) Deduce the relationship between the coefficients of
expansions,
  2 ;   3

29
13.2 Thermal expansion
• is defined as a change in dimensions of a body accompanying
a change in temperature.

• There are three types of thermal expansion :

– Linear expansion
– Area expansion
– Volume expansion

• In solid, all types of thermal expansion are occurred.

• In liquid and gas, only volume expansion is occurred.

• At the same temperature, the gas expands greater than liquid

and solid.

30
13.2.1 Linear expansion
Consider a thin rod of initial length, l0 at temperature,T0 is heated to a
new uniform temperature, T and acquires length, l as shown in
Figure 13.14.
l0
At T0
l
At T Figure 13.14

l  l0 and l  T
where l : change in length  l  l0
l  l0 T
T : temperature change  T  T0
 : coefficient of linear expansion
31
 32

• Coefficient of linear expansion,  is defined as a fractional

increase in length of a solid per unit rise in temperature.
OR
l

l0 T
• If l = ll0 then

l  l0 1  T 
where l0 : initial length
l : final length
– If T is negative, then l = l-l0 is also negative so the
length decreases and vice versa.
– The temperature change, T is the same in the kelvin and
celsius scales.
• The unit of  is C1 OR K1.
• l could be the length of a rod, the side of a square plate or the
diameter (radius) of a hole.
 33

13.2.2 Area expansion

• This type of expansion involves the expansion of a surface area
of an object.
• Consider a plate with initial area, A0 at temperature T0 is heated
to a new uniform temperature, T and expands by A, as shown
in Figure 13.15.

A  A0 and A  T
A  A0 T
where
A : change in area  A  A0
T : temperature change  T  T0
Figure 13.15  : coefficient of area expansion
• Coefficient of area expansion,  is defined as a fractional
increase in area of a solid surface per unit rise in temperature.
OR
A

A0 T
• If A = AA0 then

A  A0 1  T  where A0 : initial surface area

A : final surface area
• The unit of  is C1 or K 1.
• For isotropic material (solid) , the area expansion is uniform in all
direction, thus the relationship between  and  is given by

  2
 35

Proof of  = 2
• Consider a square plate with side length, l0 is heated and
expands uniformly as shown in Figure 13.16.
A0  l0 A  l2 l  l0  l
2
where
l0 l and

A  l0  l 
2
A0
A  l0  2l0 l  l 
l0 2 2

l  l  l 
2
  l 
2

A  l0 1  2    and    0
2

Figure 13.16  l0  l0    l0 

2 l  l
A  l0 1  2  where l0  A0 and  T
2

 l0  l0
A  A0 1  2T  compare with A  A0 1  T 
Therefore   2
 13.3.3 Volume expansion
• Consider a metal cube with side length, l0 is heated and
expands uniformly as shown in Figure 13.17.

l
l0
V  V0 and V  T
l0 V  V0 T
l0 where
l V : change in volume  V  V0
l
T : temperature change  T  T0
Figure 13.17  : coefficient of volume expansion
36
 37

Coefficient of volume expansion,  is defined as a fractional

increase in volume of a solid per unit rise in temperature.
OR

V
 
V0 T
If V = VV0 then

V  V0 1  T  where V0 : initial volume

V : final volume
The unit of  is C1 or K 1.
For isotropic material (solid), the volume expansion is uniform in
all direction, thus the relationship between  and  is given by

  3
 38

Proof of  =3
• Consider a metal cube with side length, l0 is heated and
expands uniformly as shown in Figure 13.17.

V0  l0 V  l 3 where l  l0  l
3
and

V  l0  l 
3

V  l0  3l0 l  3l0 l 2  l 

3 2 3

  l   l 
2
  l 
3
 2
 l   l 
3

V  l0 1  3  3      and 3      0

3

 l0  l0   l0    l0   l0 
3 l  l
V  l0 1  3  where l0  V0 and  T
3

 l0  l0
V  V0 1  3T  compare with V  V0 1  T 
Therefore   3
Example 13.2.1 :
A copper rod is 20.0 cm longer than an aluminum rod before heated.
How long should the copper rod be if the difference in their lengths is
to be independent of temperature?
(Given  copper = 1.70105 C1 and  aluminum = 2.20105 C1)

Solution : l0A  l0C  0.20

Since their difference in lengths not to change with
temperature, thus
l C  l A
 Cl0C T   A l0A T
1.70 10 l 5
0C  
 2.20 10 5 l0C  0.20 
l0C  0.88 m
 40

Example 13.2.2 :
A steel ball has a diameter of 1.700 cm at 27.0 C. Given that the
coefficient of volume expansion for the steel is 3.3  105 C1,
calculate the diameter of the steel ball at
a) 77.0 C
b) - 56.0 C

Solution :
d 0  1.700 cm; T0  27.0  C;   3.6 10 5  C 1

By using the relationship between  and , thus

  3 3.3 10 5  3
  1.110 5  C
a. Given T =77.0 C

d  d 0 1   T  T0 

d  1.700 1  1.110 5
77.0  27.0
d  1.701 cm

b. Given T = 56.0 C


d  1.700 1  1.110 5  56.0  27.0  
d  1.698 cm

41
Example 13.2.3 :
At 20 C a steel ball has a diameter of 0.9000 cm, while
the diameter of a hole in an aluminum plate is 0.8990 cm.
Calculate the temperature of the steel ball when its just
pass through the hole if both ball and plate are heated in
the same time.

(Given  steel = 1.10105 C1 and  aluminum = 2.20105 C1 )

 43

Solution :
d 0S  0.9000 cm; d 0A  0.8990 cm;
T0S  T0A  20.0  C; TS  TA  T  C

When the ball just pass through the hole, thus

dS  d A
d 0S 1   S TS  T0S   d 0A 1   A TA  T0A 
   
0.9000 1  1.10 10 5 T  20   0.8990 1  2.20 10 5 T  20 

T  121  C
Example 13.6:
A hole in an aluminum plate has a diameter of 1.178 cm at 23 C.
a. What is the diameter of the hole at 199 C?
b. Calculate the temperature of the plate when the diameter of the
hole is 1.176 cm
(Given  aluminum = 2.40 105 C1)
Solution : d 0  1.178 cm; T0  23 C


a. The change in temperature of the plate is

T  T  T0  199  23  

 176  C
Apply : d  d 0 1  T 
 
 1.178 1  2.40 10 5
176 


d  1.183 cm
Solution : d 0  1.178 cm; T0  23 C
b. Given d  1.176 cm
Therefore the final temperature of the plate is

d  d 0 1  T 
 d 0 1   T  T0 
 
1.176  1.178 1  2.40 10 5 T  23  
1.176
1.178

 1  2.40 10 5 T  23 
T  47.7  C
 Example 13.6:
A copper ball with a radius of 1.6 cm is heated to 353 C. The
diameter of the ball has increased by 0.18 mm. If the coefficient of
volume expansion for the copper is 51  106 C1, calculate the initial
temperature of the ball.
Solution : r0  1.6 10 m; T  353 C;   5110
2  6  1
C
d  0.18 103 m
By using the relationship between  and , thus
  3 5110 6  3
  1.7 10 5  C 1
The initial diameter of the ball is
 
d 0  2 1.6 10 2  3.2 10 2 m
Apply : d  d 0 T  T0 
  
0.18 10 3  3.2 10 2 1.7 10 5 353  T0 
T0  22.1  C
Example 13.58
A sheet of aluminum has a circular hole with a diameter of 10.0 cm. A
9.99 cm long steel is placed inside the hole which is along the
diameter of the hole as shown in the following figure,

Aluminum

Steel

Determine the change in temperature of the system when the steel

rod just touches both sides of the circle.
(Given  steel = 1.20105 C1 and  aluminum = 2.40105 C1 )
 Solution : d0Al  10.0 cm; l0S  9.99 cm; ΔTAL  ΔTS  ΔT
When the steel rod just touches both sides of the circle,
d AL  lS
d 0 AL 1   AL T   l0S 1   S T 
     
10.0 1  2.40 10 5 T  9.99 1  1.20 10 5 T  
T  83.3 C 

48
 •49

14.3.4 Thermal expansion of a liquid

• When the liquid in a vessel is heated both liquid and vessel
expand in volume.
• This expansion is called apparent expansion and always less
than the true expansion of the liquid.
• The coefficient of volume expansion of a liquid is defined in the
same way as the coefficient of volume of a solid where

V

V0 T
• The volume expansion of a liquid whether true or apparent
depend on the change in density of the liquid.
 50

Variation of Liquid Density

Consider V0 and V are the volumes of the liquid at T0 and T then

V  V0 1   T  T0 
The densities of the liquid at the two temperature are
m m
0  and  
V0 V
The mass of the liquid always constant when it is expand so that
m

m
1   T  T0  and T  T0   ΔT
 0
0
  : final density
1  T 
where
 0 : initial density
Example 13.2.7:

A glass flask whose volume is 1000.0 cm3 at 0.0C is completely filled

with mercury at this temperature. When the flask and mercury are
warmed to 100.0C, 15.5 cm3 of mercury overflow. If the coefficient of
volume expansion of mercury is 18.0  105 K1, determine the
coefficient of volume expansion of the glass.

Solution 13.2.7: V0g  V0m  1000.0 cm 3 ; Voverflow  15.5 cm 3 ;

 m  18.0 10 5 K 1 T0g  T0m  0.0  C; Tg  Tm  100.0  C;

V0m

Voverflow
0.0  C 100.0  C 51
 52

Solution :
The change in volume of the mercury after it is heated equals to
Vm   mV0 m T
Vm  18.0 10 5 1000 100.0  0.0 
Vm  18.0 cm 3
Thus the change in volume of the glass is
Vg  Vm  Voverflow Vg  18.0  15.5
Vg  2.5 cm 3
The coefficient of volume expansion for glass flask is
Vg   gV0 g T
2.5   g 1000 100.0  0.0 
 g  2.5 10 5 K 1
Example 13.9:
A hollow aluminum cylinder 20.0 cm deep has an internal capacity of
2.00 L at 20 C . It is completely filled with unknown liquid and then
warmed to 80 C .How much liquid overflow?
(Given  aluminum = 2.40105 C1 and  liquid = 9.0 104 C1 )
Solution : T0C  T0L  20  C; TC  TL  80  C;
V0C  V0L  2.00 103 m3

V0L

Voverflow
 
20 C 80 C
53
Solution : T0C  T0L  20  C;TC  TL  80  C;
V0C  V0L  2.00 103 m3
The change in volume of the liquid after it is heated equals to
VL   LV0 L T
 4
 9.0 10 2.00 10  3
80 
 20 

VL  1.08 10 4 m 3
Thus the change in volume of the cylinder is
VC   ALV0 C T
 
 3 2.40 10 5 2.00 10 3 80  20  
VC  8.64 10 6 m 3
The volume of the overflow liquid is given by
Voverflow  VL  VC
 1.08 10   8.64 10 
4 6

5
Voverflow  9.94 10 m 3 54
 Exercise 13.2 :
1. The length of a copper rod is 2.001 m and the length of a wolfram
rod is 2.003 m at the same temperature. Calculate the change in
temperature so that the two rods have the same length where the
final temperature for both rods is equal.
(Given the coefficient of linear expansion for copper is
1.7  105 C1 and the coefficient of linear expansion for wolfram is
0.43  105 C1)
ANS. : 78.72 C

2. A metal sphere with radius of 9.0 cm at 30.0C is heated until the

temperature of 100.0C . Determine the percentage of change in
density for that sphere.
(Given the coefficient of volume expansion for metal sphere is
5.1  105 C1)
ANS. : 0.36 %
55
 Exercise 13.2 :
3. a. An aluminum measuring rod which is correct at 5 C measures a
certain distance as 88.42 cm at 35 C. Determine the error in
measuring the distance due to the expansion of the rod.
b. If this aluminum rod measures a length of steel as 88.42 cm at
35 C, calculate the correct length of the steel.
(Given the coefficient of linear expansion for aluminum is 22  106 C1)

ANS. : 0.06 cm; 88.48 cm

4. A glass flask is filled “to the mark” with 50 cm3 of mercury at 18 C.
If the flask and its content are heated to 38 C, how much mercury
will be above the mark?
(Given glass= 9.0  106 C1 and mercury = 182  106 C1 )
ANS. : 0.15 cm3

56