Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

12.DEFORMATION Matter is made up of many particles

OF SOLIDS called atoms or molecule

Matter can exist in one of the following

states i.e. solid, liquid and gas
12.1 Stress
and Strain
(1 Hour)

12.2 Young’s
Modulus
(1 Hour)
Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

12.1 STRESS & STRAIN

(a) Define stress and strain for a stretched wire

(b) Sketch and interpret the graph of stress-strain,
-e for a metal under tension
(c) Distinguish between elastic and plastic
deformation
(d) Sketch and distinguish graph of force-
elongation, F-e for elastic and ductile materials
 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

• Consider a rod that initially has uniform cross-sectional area,

A and length l0
• Stretch the rod by applying the forces of equal magnitude F
but opposite directions at the both ends and the rod will
extent by amount e as shown in Figure 12.1.

l0 A
F F

e
Figure 12.1

12.1: STRESS & STRAIN

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

• Stress,  • Strain, 
• Stress is defined as the • Strain () is defined as the
ratio of the ratio of extension
perpendicular force, F
to the cross-sectional (elongation), e to
area, A original length, l0
OR
OR Stress,   F e l  l0
Strain,   
where
A where l0 l0
F = the force act perpendicular to the e = extension/ elongation
cross section l = final length, l0 = original
A = cross-sectional area (initial) length
• This type of stress is called • This type of strain is called
tensile stress tensile strain
• Stress is a scalar quantity • Strain is a scalar quantity
• The unit for stress is kg m1 and dimensionless (no
s2 or N m2 or Pascal
(Pa) unit)

12.1: STRESS & STRAIN

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Example 1
A load of mass 2 kg is
attached to the end of a
vertical wire of length 2 m
and of diameter 0.80 mm.
The wire is extended by
0.60 mm. Calculate
(a) the tensile stress,
(b) the tensile strain.
3.90 10 7 Nm 2
3.0 10 4
12.1: STRESS & STRAIN
Example 2
A wire of length 4 m and of
radius 1 mm is extended by
1.5 mm when it is stretched
by a force of 100 N.
Calculate the stress and the
strain of the wire.
3.18 10 7 Nm 2
3.75 10 4
 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Force-extension and stress-strain graphs for
metal (ductile material)
Force, F Plastic
deformation Extension, e
Elastic D
E E
deformation
D
C Plastic
B
A deformation
C
B
A Elastic
T deformation
OT Extension, e O Force, F
Figure 12.2a Figure 12.2b

12.1: STRESS & STRAIN

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

12.1: STRESS & STRAIN

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Ductile materials
o undergo plastic deformation
Stress,  Plastic before breaking
deformation o such as steel, copper, aluminium
Elastic D
deformation E Brittle materials
o do not show plastic behaviour
(deformation)
B
C o such as glass
A
Description
A : proportionality limit
B : elastic limit
C : yield point
OT Strain,  D : point of maximum force (stress)
Figure 12.2c E : fracture (breaking) point

12.1: STRESS & STRAIN

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
OA
• The force (stress)
increases linearly with the
extension (strain) until
point A. Point A is the
proportionality limit
• The straight line graph
(OA) obeys Hooke’s law
which states “Below the
proportionality limit, the
Fs  ke
restoring force, Fs is
directly proportional to
the extension, e.”
• The negative sign indicates
that the restoring force is
the opposite direction to
increasing extension
12.1: STRESS & STRAIN
B
• This is the elastic limit of
the material
• Beyond this point, the
material is permanently
stretched and will never
regain its original shape
and length. If the force
(stress) is removed, the
material has a permanent
extension of OT
• The area between the two
parallel line (AO and CT)
k : force represents the work done
to produce the permanent
(Hooke)
extension OT
constant • OB region is known as
elastic deformation
 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

C CDE D E
- The yield point - This region is - The force
marked a known as (stress) on the
change in the plastic material is
This is the
internal deformation maximum and point where
structure of the the material
material - When the is known as
force (stress) the breaking breaks or
- The plane force (stress)
(layer) of the increases, the fractures
atoms slide extension - This is
across each (strain) sometimes
other resulting increases called the
in a sudden rapidly Ultimate
increase in Tensile
extension and
Strength (UTS)
the material
thins uniformly

12.1: STRESS & STRAIN

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Stress-strain graphs for various material
Stress, 

Steel

Schematic
Glass appearance of
Copper round metal bars
after tensile
Aluminium testing.
(a) Brittle fracture
(b) Ductile fracture
(c) Completely
ductile fracture

O Figure 12.3 Strain, ε

12.1: STRESS & STRAIN
 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Such materials are
called linear, and
are said to
obey Hooke's law.
Examples of linear
materials include
steel, carbon
fiber, and glass.
Rubber and soil
(except at very
low strains)
are non-
linear materials

Differences in the shape and limits of the stress-strain diagram determines whether a
material is considered ductile or brittle, elastic or plastic

12.1: STRESS & STRAIN

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Graph for rubber (elastic material)  Rubber undergoes elastic
Hysteresis is the dependence of a system not only on deformation
its current environment but also on its past
environment. This dependence arises because the
 It’s able to regain its
system can be in more than one internal state. original shape and
length when the stress is
Stress,  X removed but does not
obey Hooke’s law
 The strain produced when
1 decreasing the stress
increasing stress (XY) is greater than the
W strain produced when
increasing the stress
(WX) as shown in
decreasing stress Figure 12.4
Y  The shaded area is called
the hysteresis loop and it
represents the energy
loss per unit volume
 This energy lost in the
O ε1 ε 2 Strain, ε form of heat dissipation
Figure 12.4
12.1: STRESS & STRAIN
Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

12.2 YOUNG’S MODULUS

(a) Define and use Young’s modulus,


Y

(b) Derive and use strain energy,
1
U Fe
2

(c) Deduce strain energy from the graph of force-

elongation, F-e and stressstrain graph, -e
 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

• is defined as the ratio of the tensile stress to the tensile strain

if the proportionality limit has not been exceeded.

OR Young's modulus, also known as the tensile

Tensile stress
Y modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of
an elastic material and is a quantity used to
Tensile strain characterize materials

 F 
 
 A F l0 
Y
e
Y 
  Ae 
 l0 
• It is a scalar quantity
• Unit = kg m1 s2 or N m2 or Pa

12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
• Young’s modulus does not depend to the length of the wire but it
depend to the material made the wire
• Young’s modulus does not change if the length of the wire is
increase or decrease
• Table 12.2 shows the value of Young modulus for various material
Material Y (GPa)
Aluminium 69

Copper 110

Steel 200

Nylon 3.7

Glass 70
Table 12.2
12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS
 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Relationship between force constant, k and Young
modulus, Y for a wire
• From the statement of Hooke’s law and definition of Young
modulus, thus
YAe
F  ke and F 
l0
YAe
ke 
l0
YA
k
l0
12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS
 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

• When a wire is
stretched by a load Force
Proportionality
(force), work is done on limit
the wire and strain F
(elastic potential)
energy is stored within
• Consider the force-
Strain energy
extension graph of this
wire until the
proportionality limit (
Hooke’s law) as shown 0
e extension
in Figure 12.5 Figure 12.5

12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

• The total work done, W in stretching a wire from 0

to e is given by

e
W   Fde  Shaded Area
0

1
W  strain energy  Fe
2

12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

• From the definitions of tensile stress and tensile

strain, thus

F
stress  F  (stress) A
A
e
strain  e  (strain )l0
l0
1
strain energy  (stress)(strain ) Al0 Volume
2
strain energy 1
 (stress)(strain )
volume 2

12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

• This strain energy

per unit volume is Stress
Proportionality
the area under the limit
stress-strain graph 
until the
proportionality
limit (straight line
graph) as shown in
Strain energy per
Figure 12.6 unit volume

0
 Strain
Figure 12.6

12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

Example 3 SOLUTION
A force of 25 N is (a)   F  mg
applied to the end of a A r 2
wire that is 4 m long, 7.96 10 Nm
6 2

and causes an extension e

of 0.20 mm. If the (b)  
l
diameter of the wire is 2 5.0 10 4

mm, calculate
(a)the stress, (c) E   
(b)the strain, 
(c)the Young’s modulus 1.59 10 Nm 10 2

12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Example 4 SOLUTION
A thin steel wire initially 1.5 (a) The cross sectional area of
m long and of diameter 0.50 the wire is
mm is suspended from a d 2
rigid support. A mass of 3 kg A
is attached to the lower end 4
of the wire. Calculate A  1.96  10 m 7 2

(a) the extension of the wire,

(b) the energy stored in the The applied force to the
wire. wire is given by
(Young’s modulus for steel = F  W  mg
2.0 x 1011 N m-2)  39.81
 29.4 N

12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

a) By applying the Young’s modulus formulae, hence

Fl0
Y
Ae
2.0 10 
11 29.4 1.5
 
1.96 10 7 e
e  1.13 10 3 m
b) By applying the equation of the strain energy, thus
1
Energy stored  Fe
2

 29.4  1.13 10 3
1
2

Energy stored  0.0166 J
12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS
 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

Example 5
A copper wire LM is fused at one end, M to an iron wire MN as shown
in figure below.

L M N F
The copper wire has length 0.90 m and cross-section area 0.90  106
m2. The iron has length 1.40 m and cross-section area 1.30  106 m2.
The compound wire is stretched and the total length increases by 0.01
m. Determine
(a) the ratio of the extension of copper wire to the extension of iron
wire,
(b) the extension of each wire,
(c) the applied force to the compound wire.
(Given Y iron = 2.10  1011 Pa ,Y copper = 1.30  1011 Pa )

12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Solution : l0C  0.90 m; AC  0.90 10 6 m 2 ; l0I  1.40 m;
AI  1.30 10 6 m 2 ; e total  0.01 m;
YC  1.30 1011 Pa; YI  2.10 1011 Pa;
Fl0 Fl0
a. Apply : Y thus e 
Ae YA
Hence the ratio of extensions is given by
FC l0C
eC YC AC
 and FC  FI  F
eI FI l0 I
YI AI
eC YI AI l0C
 eC

  
2.10 1011 1.30 10 6 0.90 
 1.5
eI YC AC l0 I eI  11
 6

1.30 10 0.90 10 1.40 

12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS

 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
Solution :
b. The total extension of the compound wire is
etotal  eC  eI and eC  1.5eI
Hence the extension of the iron wire is
0.01  1.5eI  eI
eI  4.0 10 3 m
and the extension of the copper wire is

eC  1.5 4.0 10 3   6.0 10 3 m
c. The applied force is given by
F 0.90 
1.30 10  
Fl0C
YC  11

AC eC 
0.90 10 6 6.0 10 3 
F  780 N
12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS
 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
EXERCISE 12.2
1. A support cable on a bridge
has an area of cross-
section of 0.0085 m2 and a
length of 35 m. It is made
of high tensile steel whose
Young’s modulus is 2.8
1011 Pa. The tension in
the cable is 720 kN.
Calculate
(a) the extension of the cable.
(b) the strain energy stored in
the cable.
ANS: 0.0106 m; 3.81 kJ
12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS
2. A wire of length 0.50 m is
fixed horizontally between
two supports separated by
0.50 m. When a mass of
8.0 kg hangs from the
middle of the wire, the
mid-point sags by 1.00 cm.
The diameter of the wire is
2.8 mm. Calculate the
Young’s modulus of the
wire.
ANS. : 1.99  1011 Pa
 Chapter --- Deformation of Solids
3. Wire A has twice the 4. A rubber cord of a
radius of wire B . The catapult has a cross-
Young’s modulus for B is sectional area of 2.0
twice that of A . One end mm2 and a length of 10.0
of A is joined to one end cm. It is stretched to 12.0
of B. A mass of 3 kg is cm and then released to
suspended vertically from vertically launch a stone
the free end of B . If the of mass 30 g. Determine
length of wire B is the velocity of the stone if
increased by 1%, calculate the Young’s modulus of
the percentage increase rubber is 5.0×108N m-2 .
in the length of wire A. Answer: 16.33 m s-1
Answer: 0.125%

12.2: YOUNG’S MODULUS

Chapter --- Deformation of Solids

THE END…
Next Chapter…
CHAPTER 13 :
Heat